PART

ONE
INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY

1. INTRODUCTION
5. SocIAL RESEARCH: IrS METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
2. DeFINITION,ScOPE AND UsES OF SocOLOGY 6. SocioLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
3. SOME BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY 7. THE STUDY OF HUMAN SoaETY
4. METHODS OF SOcIOLOGY
 1
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTEROUTLINE
ScIENCE IS KNOWLEDGE DIFERENT SOCIAL SCIENCES: AGuMPSE
(LASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES: PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES THE BEGINNINGS OF SOCIOLOGY
SocIAL SCIENCES ARE LESS EKACT I CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY SOcIoLOGY
THE NECESSITY FOR SOCIAL SaENCES ESTABLISHMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AS AScIENCE
SocoLOGY AS ASoCIAL SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS OF AuGuSTE COMTE, HERBERT SPENCER, KARL MARX,
EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: ABRIEF HisTORICAL BACKGROUND EMILE DURKHIEM AND MAX WEBER
NEw INTELLECTUAL AND PHLOSOPHICAL TENDENCIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON SocioLOGY IN INDIA
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES THE ULTIMATE GOALS OF SOcIOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT SOCIAL SIENCES

Sociology is the youngest of the Social Sciences. Its major concern is society, and hence it is popularly known as the
"Science of Society". But, if we are to understand the entire scope ofthe subject, how it is to be studied, what sociologists
do, how they do, what methods they follow, what problems they face in their studies, it is necessary to know the meaning
of Science and the classification of sciences into physical and social.
SCIENCEIS KNOWLEDGE
Science is concerned with knowledge. It refers to the body of knowledge systematically arranged. Knowledge is its pur
pose and system refers to the method that has to be followed for the acquisition of knowledge. Exploring the different horizons
of knowledge is not only a challenge but also a matter of great intellectual delight to a scientist. Knowledge is as vast as an
ocean. The more a scientist acquires it, the more it remains to be acquired. Not only a scientist is more interested in acquiring
knowledge but also he is better equipped to do so.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES

It is humanly impossible for any individual to master the whole of knowledge with all its complexity and diversity.
One can only attempt to understand more about one or the other branch of knowledge. There are different sciences to deal
with different [Link]. These sciences are of two kinds: () Physical Sciences, and (i) Social Sciences.
Physical Sciences
The physical sciences deal mostly with the natural inanimate objects. They are regarded as more precise, exact and
less dubious. Ex: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Geography, Astronomy, etc.
The physical scientists make use of thescientific inethod in order to acquire knowledge in their respective fields. They can
conduct experiments to verify the facts. Theories and laws of universal validity are established more easily and accurately in
physical sciences. They provide less scope for doubt and uncertainty. Prediction is not only possible, but also easy and accurate.
The problem of objectivity can be overcome [Link] relationship between cause and effects is relatively more clear here.
 But
Sociology and
society.
with man
Social Sciences is
concerned
network of human
of study which complex
any kind intricate and and Mack say,
The term Social Science is often loosely applied to methodsofthestudy of As Young
deal with the
societies".

in the strict: sense, it refers to the application of: scientific together in

to live method which
peoples of'scientific etc.
relationships and the forms of organization desired to enable
P'sychology
throughthe
use AnthropologY,
compiled Sociology,
"By Social Science we mean those bodies of knowledge Science,
Economics,
interact with other people
Political People
forms and contents of man's interaction".Ex: History, beings are social. sanme human group
All human of the
in which we
member
To be social is to interact, to participate in group Iife. person is a
the universe,
beings live in society, that is to Say, every study social
in order to survive. All human the biologist
Similarly, the
astronomer and
or some social environment. The physicist, the chemist, the physical
environment.
people
understand our predict how
live and the elements of which it is composed, in an attempt tto human society and to
to understand
scientist studies the environment in which we live in, and attempts
will interact in a given set of circumstances.
social scientists
Social Sciences are Less Exact
social seiences are less exact and less precise. The
physical sciences. the procedures, cannot be strictly
Wuen compared with the Scientifc method with all its established
while making their studies in the soCial field.
lace many difficulties laboratory conditions are difficult to be arranged
because experiments of
su Social investigations, laboratory for the social scientist.
Controlled experiments are almost impossible
here. The whole society constitutes the
studies become less precise
with man whois more complex and everchanging, their
Since the social scientists have to deal
interdependence of cause and effect, problems of objectivity
though not completely dubious. Complexity of social data,
and prediction etc., have made social science comparatively less exact.
The Necessity for Social Sciences
The two global wars of the 20th century have created new anxieties and new fears for the mankind. These wars the
world had to bear with before it could properly maintain its baBance which was previously disturbed by the process of
Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The scientists, philosophers, administrators, politicians and many
other thoughtful observers have been warning human beings for many years of the dangers of the increasing imbalance in
their culture. The recent scientific advances in physical sciences culminating in the atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb, germ
warfare and even the tragedy of Hiroshima, have at last awakened even the innocent people all over the world to the need
for comparable competence in social sciences.
The science has shown that it is capable of organising the forces of the atom tocause
the destruction of the entire world
hy asingle explosion. It has posed a challenge whether it 1s possible to organise
i human societyto make such destruction imp0SSible. Hence the forces inherent in human beings and
the necessity of social science. This need, the humanity is
obliged to fulfil in mutual self-defense.
..bot the material resources like coal, iron,
oll, torest, soil and minerals are better organised than buman
resources like human energy, intelligence, inherent goodness of man etc.
Today governments are
race. Every country spends millions for inventing or possessing destructive busily engaged in
weapons on agencies. But armament
even a fraction of it to stop such dangerous and suicidal works no country spenas
Fortunately, realisation has dawned. It is now felt that the imbalance
be set right. Advancement in physical sciences alone cannot bring 1 man
between the physical and
happiness.
Social social
sciences is to
promoting human welfare. Social sciences help in understanding sciences
and controlling are
is the astronomer of the social sciences", as has been said by the UNESCO in social interactions.
equally important in
organisations which attempt for the solution of the modern world problems 1954. The U.N,O.,
"The anthropologist
In conclusion, it can be said that a medical doctor has a basic doctrine
on
sociological UNESCO, W.H.0. are
Similarly, the social scientist has a basic doctrine that he should prevent
that he should knowledge.
he should save lives and help in establishing
peaceful and
self-respectingfriction and violenceprevent disease and save
relations between in human relations life.
SCIENCE man and man. and that
SOcIOLOGY AS A SOCIAL

Sociology is one of the members of the family of Social Sciences. As a

status for itself. Its
importance eand practical usefulnes are widely
recognisedyoung social
today. science, it has
acauired a distinct
 Introduction

It studies the nature and

concerned with the life and activities of man.
also is of man
social sciences,
sociology
development, structure and
functions. It analyses the group life
Like all other , and
society, and
also its origin,
character of human between the
the bonds of social
unity.
between different elements of social life:
and examines inter-dependence aesthetic,
Sociology tries to determine
the relationship and intellectual and the philosophical and the artistic and the
political, the
economic and
moraB andthe religious, the non-material and so on. influence of
scientific and the technological,
and
stability and social change. It analyses the
the fundamental conditions of
social endeavours to examine the
Sociology also discovers the forces and factors on man and his life. It
technological, cultural and
other poverty,
light on various social problems like
economic, political.
factors on man also. It throws more
geographic
influence of biological and
unemployment, etc.
over-population, crime,
beggary, BACKGROUND
HISTORICAL
SCIENCES: A BRIEF century. Social
EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL
has been one of the major developments of the 19th
The beginning of the tradition
of social sciences could get the recognition
and history though have a long story of their own, History"l:
sciences such as economics,
political science [known as the Father of
century. Thinkers and writers such as Herodotus authority on
19th Kautilya, an
as social sciences" only in the political science]; Manu, the great law giver;
"Father of years ago.
Aristotle (often known as the social sciences more than 2000
treatises on different areas of
"Arthashastra",and many others had written good favoured this kind of intellectual
exercises, Due
ofancient Greece, Rome and India also
The political and social atmosphere A.D. to 1550 A.D.]
could not maintain the same tempo during the Middle Age. [500
to historical reasons these countries Renaissance, and Enlightenment gave a big
impetus to the continuation
centuries the processes of
But during 17th and 18th development of sciences which came
reasoning. This change in the intellectual atmosphere favoured the
of the tradition of
to be called social sciences".
Revolution and the Industrial Revolution
Impact of Twin Revolutions: The French
understood as responses to the problem of order
It is often said that social sciences in the 19th century are mostly the
order under the twin blows of the French Revolution and
that was created in men's minds by the weakening of the old
Revolutions, The old social order that rested on
Industrial Revolution. The European society was hard hit by these twin
Thinkers were more concerned
kinship, land social class, religion, local community, and monarchy became very shaky.
century politics,
about finding ways and means of reconsolidating these elements of social order. Hence the history of 19th
industry, and trade is basically about the practical efforts of human beings to reconsolidate these elements. Thus, it is
obvious that the history of the 19th century social thought is about theoretical efforts to reconsolidate them - that is, to give
them new contents and meaning.
In terms ofthe immediacy and sheer massiveness ofthe impact on human thought and values, it would be difficult to find
revolutions of comparable magnitude in human history. The political, social and cultural changes that began in France and
England at the very end of the I8th century spread almost immediately through Europeand the Americain the 19th century
and then on to Asia, Africa, and Oceania in the 20th. The etfects of thewo revolutions, the one overwhelmingv democratic in
the thrust, the other industrial capitalist, haye been to wndermine, shake, or topple institutions that had endured for centuries.
even millennia, and with them systems of authority, status, belief and communiy»!
New Intellectual and Philosophical Tendencies and their Impact on the Development of Social
Sciences
mete voulotions. fthe French Revolution and the Industrial Kevolution of Britain]that took
place in the 18th cent1ry
wave. Intellectual currents in the
in Europe let loose a new intellectual and philosophical form of socio-political ideologies
sale witnessed. For exampBe, the ideologies o1 1haviaitis, soclats, mtartanism, utopianism etc,
took their bith
It became fashionable for intellectuals and thinkers to jioat new ideologies and spread novel idegs
influences,,the impact of positivism, humanitarianism and
Of the various types of intellectual evolutionism on
sciences was considerable. social

Encyclopedia Britannica,Vol. 27, p. 367.

 6
Sociology
Positivism
Positivism implied not merely positivist appeal of scienCe
was to be seen an appeal to science but almost reverence for science. The was
that of dealing everywhere. The 19th century saw the virtual institutionalisation of the ideal of science. The great aim
with moral values, institutions, and fundamentalmethods that could
be used so
successfully in such areas all social phenomenathrough the same
Prior to the 19th as physics or
biology.
century,
distinction between philosophy no very clear distinction had been made between philosophy and science. But now the
could be put to scientific and science became very clear. It was also felt that every area ofman's thought and behaviour
treatment of social investigation. More than anyone else, itwas Auguste Comte who heralded the idea of the scientific
behaviour.
published in six volumes His book Positive Philosophy [original French name: "Cours de philosophie Positive")
between 1830 and 1842, sought to demonstrate the necessity of the science of man in society. He
Social bts0ctotogy
social being" exactly to name such à science. He aroued thatthis science called sociology" would do tor "man the
what
think in this manner. He was biology had already done for man the biological animal". Comte was not alone to argue and to
supported by many thinkers of the
Humanitarianism day.
unantarianism, though a very distinguishable current of thought. it was
SoCiety. Humanitarianism is an ideology closely related to the idea of "science of
Or social science was also thought by commited to the cause ofhuman wel fare or societal welfare. The ultimate
almost evervone tobe the welfare society. purpose
consciouSness" and made the people to realise Humanitarianism
the need for doing something for the entered the sphere of"social
Due to the influence of
humanitarianism, several social service organisations,
improvement of the poor and needy.
laws came in. Great orphanages, poor houses, child protective
concern was
Hospitals and sanitaria sprang up in shown towards the poor the artistic, literary,
many cities. Making provisions for religious and political communities.
economic assistance etc. for the benefit drinking water facilities,
"social philosophising" was called for. of the needy, became a part of the local administrative educational bodies.
opportunities,
from the above, that A genuine application of the science of human The need for more
humanitarianism
cause of the one could be seen as and social science were reciprocally related in understanding was needed. It is clear
helpful to the other. their purposes. All that helped
the
Evolutionism
The third of the intellectual
was concerned with the idea influences is that of evolution," lt
ofdevelopment". It was believed that affected
the development in social structures the idea
everyone of the social sciences
of each of which
the biologists to evolution would help people to understand
or societies as it had helped
of animals.
understand the development in
The impact of Charles Darwin's the structure
"origin of Species", publishediin
appeal of the evolutionary view of things. It 1859, was of course
should be noted that great and further
Spencer and Marx had even before the publication
of Darwin's enhanced the
already given shape to the idea of
event, is that the idea or the philosophy of evolution evolution in their literary
the establishment of sociology as a systematic discipline
was in the air
throughout works. The important work, Comte,
the
Evolution was as permeative an idea as the Trinity had in the 1830s as to such fieldscentury, as profoundly point, in any
been in medieval Euro 3 as geology, contributory
astronomy, and [Link]
Development of Different Social Sciences
Among the disciplines that formed the social sciences, two
(i) The firstwas the drive towards unification, that towards a contrary, but powerful
better to have a single science of society [that would take its place single, master social tendencies at first
social sciences. In the 1820s itselfAuguste Comte wrote calling fora in the
hierarchy science. Some
of
dominated them,
thinkers felt
Comte, Spencer, Marx, Bentham and many others to join them, sáw new science, the sciences] than to have a that it was
one to study
the study of plurality of
is an indivisible thing, the study of society must be a unified one. This
was theirsociety
basic
asa unified man as a social
animal.
belief. enterprise. Since society
2 Evolution: Evolution means "to develop" or "to unfold" It
Social thinkers like Comte and others borrowed the term [Link]
from biological sciencechange that takes
"social evolution'" was used by them to explain the evolution ofFhuman society from oneand replaced it place
Encyclopedia Britannico, Vol. 27, p. 369. especially in some
stage to another,with "social
from evolution". structure.
simplicity to The
term
complexity.
 Introduction 7

(in The second tendency was towards specialisation of inadividual social sciences. It was this opposite tendency of
specialisation or differentiation that won out. In spite of the dreams of Comte, Spencer, Marx and others. there were to be
found at the end of the 19th century not one, but several distinct, competitive social sciences. Development of colleges and
universities throughout Europe and America very Strongly supported this process. These formal educational institutions in
fact, started the age of specialisation". This began hrst in Germany and later on spread to England, America, France and
the lure
other countries. The philosophy of specialisation became so fascinating that no major field of study could escape
of specialisation.
Different Social Sciences:A Glimpse
aspects of
As it has already been said earlier social sciences reter to a related group of disciplines that study various
psycholog.
human behaviour. The main social sciences aresociology, economics, political science, anthropology and
Históry is also included in this category. Human behaviour, of course, does not come in such neat compartments. In
one of these sciences has
reality the boundaries between, the socialsciences are very vague and constantly shifting. Each
specialisation found among
different historical origins and each science is trying to preserve its distinctness. In spite of the
of them. Because.
the social sciences, they are interrelated and interdependent. Nobody could possibly be an expert in all
responsible for the development of what is
social scientists are aware that their sciences overlap. This awareness has been
to, and
known as an "interdisciplinary approach". This approach stresses the idea that each science is necessarily related
whenever it
sometimes dependent on the other. This approach gives them a free hand to "invade" each other's territory
seems useful to do so.
Economics
Economics studies the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Weaith constitutes the central
problem of economics. It studies man as a weaith-getter and wealth-disposer. Economics is in many ways the most advanced
of the social sciences. Its subject-matter is often more easily measured than that of the other disciplines. But the economy
is also apart of society: goods and services do not produce, distribute and consume themselves. The economic processes
depend upon Society. The social aspects of economic life are the subject matter of "sociology of economics", one of the
major branches of sociology.
Political Science
Political science is the science of state and government. Traditionally it has focused on two main areas. Political
philosophy and actual forms of government. Political science has close links with sociology. In the recent years political
science has been very strongly influenced by one of the branches of sociology, known as "political sociology", Political
sociologyanalyses politicaB behaviour and studies the social interaction involved in the process of government. The interests
of political scientists and political sociologists have been gradually converging and in many instances they now overlap.
Anthropology
Anthropology is a science of man and his works. Sociology and anthropology are "twin sisters", Both are mutually
helnful and supportive. Anthropology has two main branches: () Physical anthropology and (i) cultural anthropology.
Physicalanthropology deals with human evolution and studies the physical characteristics of man, Cultural anthropology
deals with the cultural evolution. It stadies the ways of lite of ditierent communities, particularly, the primitive ones.
Anthropology differs from sociology in that it usually focuses on the simple, small-scale, primitive societies.
Anthronology studies the society as "whole". Sociology concentrates more on group processes within arger modern
complex societies.

Psychology
Povchlogy is the science of human behaviour. This science, more than any other social science, focuses on the
field of interest with sociology, namely social psychology. Social Ipsychology is the
individual. Psychology shares one major
of she behaviour of the individual in sociely. 1t stuaies tnë way in wnteh personality and behaviour are infuanosd
by the social context.
History category of humanities than to the group of social sciences. But for
belongs more to the
History according to some social sciences, His
History is a
allpractical purposes it is also
treated as one among the systematic record of human past. It
mankind", History is a
storehouse of records, a treasury of
experience of knowledge. It supplies useful
is the story of the
 Sociology provides the social
history for it
information and facts to the social sciences includingsociology. Sociology is also useful to
background for the study of history.
Sociology it had no
independent

stage i.e. in the

19th century, for
Sociology joined the family of sociall sciences relatively at alater
existence before. century.
the middle of the 19th
In fact, sociology began to emerge as an independent 1separate discipline only around the middle of the
It took almost fifty and
character that it has today. Prior to
years before the subject began to assume scientific These philosophers
18th century, the study of society was domi- nated by social philosophers rather than by social scientists. relatively short
were less concerned about what I to be like. But in a
thought it ought
societyreversed.
period this emphasis was completely is like,study
actually Hence than ofwhat they became more scientific than philosophical.
society

THE BEGINNINGS OF
SOCIOLOGY
Sociology before Auguste Comte
ocroro8 has a long past but only. a short history. Sociology which is known as the science of society, 1S One ot the
youngest as well as one of the oldest of the social sciences. It is one of the youngest sciences because only recentiy it came
tO be established as a distinct branch of knowledge with its own distinct set of concepts and its own methods oi inquiry.
Sociology is alsoone of the oldest of ihe sciences. Since the dawn of civilisation, society has been a subject for
Speculation and inquiry along with other phenomena which haye agitated the restless and inquisitive mind of man. Even
centuries ago men were thinking about'society and how it should beorganised, and held views on man and his destiny, the
rise and fall of peoples and civilisations. Though they were thinking in sociological terms they were called philosophers,
historians, thinkers, law-givers or seers. Thus, "Broadly it mnay be said that sociology has had afourfold origin: in political
philosophy, the philosophy of history, biological theories ofevolution and the movements for social andpolitical reforms... "
There was Social Thought during the Ancient Age
Though sociology came to be established as a separate discipline in the 19th
philosopher Auguste Comte, it is wrong to suppose that there existed no social century due to the efforts of the French
men have reflected üpon societies in which they lived. In the thought before him. For thousands of years
countries of various epochs we find ideas that are sociological. writings of philosophers, thinkers and law-givers of various
Kautilva. Confucius, Cicero and others we find major attempts For instance, in the writings of Plato. Aristotle. Manu.
to
nhilosophy etc. Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Kautilya 's deal methodically with the natüre of society, 1aw, religion.
Arthashastra,
Cicero's On Justice" are some of the ancient sources of social thought. the Smriti of Manu, Confucius? Analects
During the middle ages and carly modern times the teachings of the church
part of the human thinking remained as metaphysical speculation far away fromdominated the human mind and hence most
more active since the l6th century onwards. Their quest for an the scientific inquiry.
understanding
and its problems now received newimpetus. The literary works ofs'some human society, its nature, Intellectuals became
this urge to understand and interpret man's socio-political system. prominent intellectuals of this socio-political system
period clearly reveals
Machiavelli's The Prince", Thomas Hobbes' "Leviathan'",
Rosseau's Social Contract",
of Laws", AdamSmith's *Wealth of Nations", Condorcet's "Historical, Sketch of the Progress Montesquieu's The Spirit
examples of such literary works, Thinkers like Sir Thomas More in his of the Human
Sun", Sir Francis Bacon in his New, Atlantis",, James Harrington in his
"Utopia", Thomasso Campanella in hismin serve as
Modern Utopia" - had made attempts to project a picture of an ideal society
"Common Wealth of Oceana', City of the
free from all H.G. Wells in his A
However, it was only in the 19th century that systematic attempts were shortcomings.
study society and to establish ascience eof society made by Auguste
Weber and others to called sociology". Comte, Spencer,
Characteristics of Early Sociology Durkheim,
sociology was taking its shape to emerge as a distinct
The science of
the early part of the 20th century. According to T.B. Bottomore
early science in the
and sociology assumedsecond
the
half of the
19th
following century
4 TB. Bottomore in
Sociology: AGuide to Problems and Literature, 1971, p. 20.
characteristics:
 Introduction
() Early sciology was encyclopedic in character. It was "concerned withthe whole social life of man and with the bole
of human history".
(in Early sociology, which was under the influence of philosophy of history and the biological theory of evolution., was
largely evolutionary in nature.
(iii) It was generally regarded as a positive science similar in character to the natural sciences." Sociology in the l9th
century was modelled upon biology". This fact could be ascertained from the widely used conceptions of society
as an organisation and from the attempts to formulate general laws of social evolution
(iv) Sociology was virtually recognised aboye all, "a science of the new industrial society." Even though sociology
claimed itself to be a general science, it dealt particularly with social problems arising from the political and
economic revolutions of the 18th century.
(v) Sociology as an ideological as well as scientific character". Various conservative and radical idea entered into its
formation, gave rise to conflicting theories, and provoked controversies which continue to the present day.
Factors Contributing to the Emergence of Sociology
Sociology came to be established as an independent and a separate social science in the middle of the 19th century.
Various factors paved the way for its emergence. Ian Robertson in his book "Sociology"; [Pages: 11-12] has mentioned of
three factors that hastened the process of the establishment of sociology as aseparate science. They may be briefed here.
Industrial Revolution and Industrialisation
Industrial Revolution that took place first in England during the 18th century brought about sweeping changes throughout
[Link] before in history did social changes take place on such amassive scale. Sociology emerged in the context
of the sweeping changes.
Factory system of production and the consequent méchanisation and industrialisation brought turmoils in society. New
industries and technologies change the face of the social and physicalenvironment. The simple rural life and small-scale
home industries were replaced by complex urban life and mass production of goods. Industrialisation changed the direction
of civilisation. It destroyed, or radically altered, the medieval customs, beliefs and ideals.
Industrialisation led to urbanisation. Peasants left rural areas and flocked to the towns, where they worked as industrial
labourers under dangerous conditions. Cities grew at an unprecedented rate providing an anonymous environment for people.
Social problems became rampant in the fast, developing cities. Aristocraties and monarchies crumbled and fell. Religion
began to lose its force as a source of moral authority. For the first time in history, rapid social change became the normal
rather than an abnormal stateof affairs, and people could no longer expect that their children would live much the same
lives as they had done. The direction of socialchange was unclear, and the, stability ofthesocial ordér seemed threatened.
An understanding of whatwas happening was urgently needed [Robertson's "Sociology" Page: 11]
It is clear from the above that sociology was born out of the attempt to understand the transformations that seemed to
threaten the stability of European society. Social thinkers like Comte, Spencer and others argued that there was an urgent
need to establish a separate science of society. They believed that such a science would be of great help in understanding
solutions for the same.
the nature and problems of society and to find out
Natural Sciences
Inspiration fron the Growth of
Nineteenth century was a period in which natural sCiences had made much progress. The success attained by the natural
onientists inspired and even tempted good number of social thinkers tÍ emulate their example. If their methods could be
Successful inthe physicalworld to understand physicaB or natural phenomena, could they not be applied suceesefsll. s
Roial uorld to understand social phenomena? As an answer o tnis question Comte, Spencer, Durkehim WeberandAL
demonstrated that these methods could be used
tostudy the social world
Successfully
Cultures of the ColonialEmnins
Inspiration Provided by the Radically Divese Societtes and
ditterent types oTsoCieties and cultures in the colns
The colonialpowers of Europe were exposed to provided
societies and cultures an intellectual challenge for the social scientist
exposure to such diversities in of the day.
thesedistant tpeoples raised fresh questions about society: Why
contrasting social practices of
Information about the widely could the European countries
others? What lessons learn from comparisons of
more advanced than
Some societies were was not the same The
everywhere?7 new science of society called
Various societies? Why
the rate ofsocial
change
convincing answers to these
oo sociology"
attempt to find
independent science inan
had emerged as an
 10
Sociology
ESTABLISHMENT OF SoCIOLOGY AS A SCIENGE
a
Contributions of Comte and Spencer science and to obtain
tor sociologv

The credit for having established sociology and aseparate the cause of
championed
into an Both of them
Independent

respectable position in the family of social sciences, goes to Comte and Spencer. leading role in
and Weber also took a
sociology. In addition to Comte and Spencer, other thinkers such as Durkheim, Marx "founding fathers of'sociology".
making sociology a science. Hence these five thinkers are often called the "pioneers" or
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)-The Founding Father of Sociolo9Y Comte who invented
the
Auguste Comte, the French Philosopher,,is traditionally considered the FatherofSociology". sciences. He worked out
term
"Sociology" was the first man to distinguish the subjeçtt-matter of sociology from allthe other
in a series of Sociology not because
books, a general to the study of society. Comte is regarded as the Father of
of any significant contributionsapproach
to the science as such, but because of the great influence he had
upon it. It would be more
appropriate to regard him as a philosopher of sciencerather than. as a sociologS.
omte introduced the word sociolo' for the fret time in bie famous work "Positive Philosophy at about t639.
Ine erm"Sociology" is derived from the Latin word Socius meaning companion or associate, and the Greek word logoS,
eaning study or science. Thus, the etymological meaning ofsociologv is the science ofsociety. He defined sociology as the
sClence of social phenomena "'ssbject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery ofwhich is the object of investigation":
onie devoted his main efforts to an inquiry into the nature of human knowledge and tried to classif all knowledge
and to analyse the methods of achieving it. He concentrated his efforts to detemine the nature of human soCiety and the
laws and principles underlying its growth and development. He also laboured to establish the methods to be
studying social phenomena. employed in
Comte believed that the sciences follow one another in a definite
and logical order and that all inquiry goes through
certain stages (namely, the theological,the metaphysical and the 'positive or
at the last or scientific stage or as he called the positive scientific or empirical). Finally, they arrive
stage. In the positive stage, objective observation is substituted
speculation. Social phenomena like physical phenomena, he for
positive method. He thought that it was time for maintained, can be studied objectively by making use of the
stage. So, he recommended that the study of society inquiries into social problems and social phenomena to
be called the science of society, i.e., enter into this last
Comte proposed sociology to be 'sociology'.
concepts represent a basic division in studied in two main parts: (1) the social statics
the subject-matter of s0C1ology. The and (i) the social dynamics. These two
society such as family, economy or polity. social statics deals with the major
In the words of Comte, "the Sociology 1S Conceived of as the study of institutions of
Statical study of inter-relations
sOC10l0gy consists in the investigations of between such institutions.
diferent parts of the social system". He laws of action
argued that thà paris of a s0CIety cannot be and reaction of
independent existence." studied separately. "as if they had an
If Statics examines how the parts of societies are
interrelated,, social dynaimics
analysis and reveals how they developed and changed through focuses on whole
time.
most recognisable when they relateto the largest societies", he said. "We must rememberthat the laws societies of
as the unit of
certain fixed stages of development and that progressed Comte was convinced that social dynamics are
study of societies as "wholes was a major subject for towards ever increasing perfection. all societies moved through
sociological analysis He felt that the
Contributions of Comte to the development of 'sociologyas a science comparative
1. Comte gave to'sociology' its name and laid its foundation: so
that it could
science.
develop into an
2 Comte's insistence on positive aPproach, objectivity and
scientific
independent and a separate
sciences in general. attitude contributed to the
3 Comte, through his "Law of Three. Stages" clearly established the
and social progress. close progress of social
Comte's classification of'sciences drives home thè fact that t
association between
4
sciences. The 'interdisciplinary approach' ofthe modern sociology
depends
intellectual evolution
importance to the
times is in tune heavily on the
5. Comte gave maximum scientific method. He with the
philosophers and stressed the need to follow the method
of Comtean achievements of other
science. criticised the attitude view.
of the
armchair social
 Introduction 11

statics" and social dynamics", Present

dav
Comte divided the study of sociology into two br0ad areas: "social and progress'
6. 'social change
sociologists have retained them in the form
of social structure and function' and
also. He believed that
sociology was not just a "pure" science, but an "applied' science
7. Comte had argued that sociology led to
problems of sOCiety. This insistence on the practical aspect of
sociology should help to solve the "social welfare"
various applied fields of sociology such as "social work',
the development of sociology.
Comte also contributed to the development of theoretical morality highly impressed the
8. The importance which he attached to
moral order' in the society.
9. Comte upheld the
Toynbee and PitirimA. Sorokin.
later writers such as Arnold "Positive polity" [in 4 volumes] are a
Philosophy' in 6 volumes] and, (ii)
10. Comte's famous books (i) Positive
development of sociological
literature.
memorable contribution to the
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) times,contributed a great
known as one ofthe most brilliant intellects of modern
An English scholar, Herbert Spencer, "Principles of Sociology",published
establishment of sociology as a systematicdiscipline. His three volumes of precise then Comte
deal to the mainly to the sociological analysis. He was much more
systematic study devoted
in 1877 were the first
sociology.
in specifying the topics or special fields of politics, religion, social control and
industry or work.
fields of sociology are: the family,
According to Spencer, the labour, social differentiation and
the sociological study of associations, communities, the division of
He also mentioned
science, and the study of arts and aesthetics.
stratification, the sociology of knowledge and of different elements of society,
stressed the obligation of sociology to deal with the inter-relations between the
Spencer insisted that sociology should take
togive an account of how the parts influence
the whole and are in turn reacted upon. He
unsystematically. The
society as its unit for analysis. He maintained that the parts of society were not arranged
the whole scientific inqurity.
society as such a meaningful 'entity', a fit subject for
parts bore some constant relation and this made
Spencers another contribution is his famous organic analogy,
in which society is compared with the human organism.
Sumner
his contemporary, Charles Darwin. Even L.F. Ward,
Spencer was influenced by the theory of organic evolution of
society advocated by Spencer.
and Giddings were highly influenced by the orgarismic theory of
Contributions of Spencerto the development of sociology:
insisted on the need to establish a separate science of
1. Spencer very strongly supported the views of Comte who
society.
various parts of society,
2. Spencer stressed upon the interdependence of differentparts of 'society. Spencer argued, the survival of the entire
the stability and
such as the state and the economy, are also interdependent and work to ensure
system.
3 Spencer through his theory of Organic Analogy" contributed to the development of the tradition of comparative
Giddings and other
studies in sociology. Though this theory has its own limitations it influenced Ward, Sumner,
later writers.

Cnoer emphasised the "laws ofevolution" and tried to universalise them. According to L.A. Coser, the laws of
thay to
rather
evolution popularised by Spencer could be taken as his contribution to the philosophy ofsociology
the science of sociology.
s Snencer's theories had a special appeal tor two reasons: () they Satisned the desire for unifying knowledge: and(i)
eodtheneed for the "principle offree enterprise" |or"laisseztaire principle"]. Spencer was asupporter of
honrincinle of"individualism". The policy of/ree thinking dvocated by him supported the cause ofthe develonmont
of'sociology.
of the new science
ts such as- "Social Statics", "First Principle'","The Shy of Sociology", "Principles of Ethics",
Man Versus The State" have been a great contribution to the enrichment of
"Principles of Sociology", "The
sociological literature.
Durkheim and Weber
Contributions of Marx,
mention of the
contributions of other founding fathers such as Marx, Durkheim and
relevant here to make a brief
It is
sociology.
Weber to the development of
 12 Sociology asphilosophy

subjects such
Karl Marx (1818-1883) brilliantly on in sociological
century. He wrote
work is very rich t r e m e n d o u s
Karl Marx was one of the most important thinkers of the 19th sOciologist, but
his been
influence has
political science, economics and history. He never called himselfa thinkers. His
sociological
insights. Hence he is regarded 'ass one of most profound andIoriginal
religious fervour. change it.
Whereas
Millions of f people throughout the world accept his theories with almost world, it was to
describethe
merelyto
of revolution.
inevitability
Marx believed that the task of the social scientist was not andthe between
social conflict or
Spencer saw social harmony and the inevitability of progress, Marx saw the capitalists and the
labourers
struggle would
The key to history, he believed is class conflictthe bitter struggle betweenalso believed that the historic
society. Marr
those who own the means of producing wealth andthose who do not. Marx free. harmonious, classless
a
end only withthe overthrow of the ruling exploiters, and the establishment of
influences
economic base of society
the
placed too much emphasis on the economic base of society. Marx believed that religion, education, government etc.
law,
the general character of all other aspects of culture and social structure, such as fundamental influence
of
recognise the
Modern sociologists though reject many of the ideas of Marx, do generally still
society. The 'confict annrogch' to the study of social phenomena developed by Marx 1s
coonomy on other areas of of Marxian ideas and theories. Good
curency. Later sociologists and social thinkers could hardly escane the influence
number of writers and thinkers still subscribe to his views and theories.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
important units of socIological
Prof. Durkheim, the French thinker, like Spencer., considered societies as such to be
analysis. He stressed the importance of studying different types of society comparatively. "Comparative Sociology is not
a particular branch of sociology; it is sociology itself" he maintained.
In Durkheim's theory the ultimate social reality is the group, not the individual. Social life has to be analysed in terms
of 'social facts,according to him. Social facts are nothing but collective ways of thinking, feeling and acting which though
coming from the individual, "are external" to him and exert an external constraint" or pressure on him. These social facts
are the proper study of sociology and to them all social phenomena should be reduçed, he opined. Further, each social fact,
he felt, must be related "to a particular social milieu, to a definite type of society".
Durkheim also mentioned various fields of sociological inquiry such as-General Sociology, Sociology of Religion,
Sociology of Lawand Morals, including sub-sections on political organisations, social organisation, marriage and family:
The sociology of Crime, Economie Sociology inciuding sub-sections on measurement of value and occupational
Domoganhy. including studies on urban and rural communities; and Sociology of Aesthetics. His maior worte ara groups:
Diision ofLabour inSociety, The Rules of SociologICal Meinod, uicide, The Tho
Elementary Forms of the Republic Life
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Max Weber's approach is almost contrary to that of Durkheim. For Weber,
the individual is the
He opines that the finding of sociological laws is but a means to understand man, In his basic unit of society.
"empirically established probabilities or statistical generalisations of the course of social system, sociological laws are
in terms of typical motives and intentions: Sociological
method is a behaviour of which an
can be given
generalisation with verstchen (understanding) interpretation by thee aid of an combination of inductive or interpretation
ideal type of statistical
rationally or purposefully
determined". behaviour, that is, assumed to be
Weber devoted much of his efforts to expound aspecial method called the
phenomena. He stressed the importançe of f method of
the study of social wrote much on such maintaining
topics as religion; various objectivity and understanding (verstchen) for
in social sciences,
He
aspects of economic neutrality of
division of labour, political
parties and i other forms of political
organisation
organisation; class and caste; the city; and music. His
and authority;
life, includingvalue-judgements
money and the
of large-scale influence on bureaucracy and
of analytic school is
rapidly increasing. His major works are: Economics
Bureaueracy and various other books and
contemporary
and Society, sociologists other varieties
Ethicespecilly
Ciy, essays. The Protestant
of Capitalism, The
of'sociology did in common? These "four and the those
Spirit
upon the proper subject-nmatter of [Link] fathers"
four pioneers
What these
agreed
Weber - it seems,
urgedthe sociologists to study a wide range of Comte, Spencer, Durkheim and
Firstly, all of them
1.
institutions fromn the
family to the
state.
 Introduction 13

anmong different
for sociology is found in the inter-relations
that a unique subject-matter
2. Secondly, they agreed
a distinctive
a whole can be taken as
the opinion that society as
institutions.
consensus on societies are alike
explaining wherein and why
the common
3. Thirdlv. they came to sociologY the task of
They assigned
unit of sociological analysis.
relationships' regardless of their
on "social acts' or 'social
or different.
sociology should focus
4. Finally, they insisted that by Weber.
setting. This view was
most clearly expressed
institutional
CENTURY
OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE 20TH sociologists and social
DEVELOPMENT
of the 20th centuries a large number of
19th and in the beginning 1841-1913, George
In the second half of the sociology. Karl Marx 1818-1883, Lester F. Ward
the development of Giddings 1855-1931. C.H.
thinkers contributed a great deal to 1867-1953, Gabrial Tarde 1843-1904, Small 1854-1926,
Westermarck
Simmel 1858-1918, Alfred Vierkandt 1852--1932, L.T. Hobhouse 1864-1929, E.A.
1843-1925, Lloyd Morgan
Cooley l864-1929, James Ward Benjamin Kidd 1858-1916, E.B.
Tylor 1832-1917. J.G.
Charles A. Elwood 1873-1946,
1862-1939. Pareto 1848-1923. of them.
Malinowski 1884-1942 and others are some
Frazer 1854-1941, B, Germany, the United States
development in the 20th century, most notably in France,
Sociology experienced a rapid Maclver, M. Ginsberg.
like P.A. Sorokin, Talcott Parsons, R.K. Merton, R.M.
and England. Recently famous
sociologists Moore, Karl
Kimball Young, P.G. Murdock, W.I.H. Sprott, E.A. Ross, Wilbert
Kingsley Davis, WF. Ogburn, A.W.
Green, by their social investigations
G.S. Ghurye and a host of others have further enriched the subject
Manheim, M.N. Srinivas,
established as a discipline. The developments of
the 20th century provided a great
and writings. Today, sociology is firmly the world, now offer
of social sciences in general, and sociology in particular. AIl major universities in
stimulus for the study respects, a
instruction in the subject. Even in the U.S.S.R. sociology
is a legitimate discipline now. "It is not yet in many
systematic agreenment
more divergent points of view and rather less
mature science and the student will find in it therefore,
biology". (Robert Bierstedt)
than in such other sciences as physics, astronomy and
SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA

Sociology was introduced to India as an academic discipline only

after World War I. Since then, being closely allied
movement has gained some momentum in Bombay with its
with anthropology, it is forging ahead in India. The sociological
mouthpiece Sociological Bulletin" and in Agra with its organ Journal of Social Sciences."
Some prominent sociologists of
Kapadia, [Link], Mrs. Iravati
our country like G.S. Ghurye, R.K. Mukherjee, D.P. Mukherjee, Humayun Kabir, K.M.
P.N. Prabhu, A.R. Desai and
Karve. Benoy K. Sarkar, A. Aiyappan, D.N, Majumdar, M.N. Srinivas, M.S. Gore, S.C. Dube,
others have contributed their mite to the enrichment of the discipline. India with its diverse cultural peculiarities provides
wonderful opportuníties for sociological researches and studies. Sociology is now taught in many universities as one of the
maior disciplines. It is becoming more and more popular at the level of students also. Compared with the English-speaking
rnot much flourished India to the extent which it should have been.
countries, the sociological movement has
SOCIOLOGY
THE ULTIMATE GOALS OF
The immediate goal of sociology is to acquire knowledge about society like allthe sciences. However, sociology
k ot eontent with descriptions, exhibitions and analysIs. It has a more remote and ultimate purpose. Robert Bierstedt 's
e meanineful inthis regard. He says: "The final questions to which sociology addresses itself are those that bave
siththe nature of human experience and this earth and the succession of societies over the long centuries of human
existence.. What are the factors responsible for thesocieties
disintegration of one social structure, like that of the medieval
of another? Do human like the individuals who comprise
world, and the coming into being earth? Is
them,
there an ebb and a flow in the affairs grow old after a
disappear from the face of the of men, a systole
while, and wery and finally
These too are problems of'sociology .: But some day, if sociology,
and diastole of human
history? through its intimate
of' society, can achieve some understanding of problems of this kind, and contribute
analysis of the dynamics to their
its initial promise and its ultimate destiny. In brief, as Samuel Koenig has pointed out the
resolution, it willfulfil ultimate
sociology is "to improve man 's adjustment to life by developing objective knowledge concerning social phenomena
aim of
effectively with social problems."
which can be used to deal
14 Sociology

(?)REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Write an essay on the emergence of social sciences.
2. Sociology is populaly known as the "Science of Society" Discuss.
3. Is Sociology a social science? Critically analyse.
4. Social sciences are less exact. Discuss.
Sociology as a science.
contributions of different sociologists to the development of
nosSs tne
did the French and IndustrialRevolutions nlay
an important role in the emergence olD
O. How
I. Write a detailed note on the development of Sociology in the twentieth century.
8. Discuss the factors which affect the development of Sociology.
9. Define Sociology. Can Sociology be called a sçience?
Sociology.
10. Analyse the impact of Industrial and French Revolutions on the emergence of
11. Discuss the contributions of Spencer, Weber and Marx to the development of SociolOgy.
tendencies on the development of social sciences.
T2. Assess the impact of new intellectual andphilosophical
13. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Goal of Sociology
(b) Development of different social sciences
(c) Characteristics of early Sociology
(d) Positivism
(e) Humanitarianism
() Evolutionism