Certificate Physical and Human Geography - Point

Notes
Based on GC Leong's Textbook

PART I: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Chapter 1: The Earth and the Universe

Structure of the Earth:

Earth consists of three main layers: crust, mantle, and core

Crust: Outermost layer, 0.5-1.0% of Earth's volume, less than 1% of Earth's mass
Mantle: 82.5% of Earth's volume, highly viscous solid
Core: Almost half of Earth's radius, only 16.1% of Earth's volume
Earth's Layered Structure (Mechanical Properties):

Lithosphere: Solid, rigid outer layer (crust + upper mantle), ~100 km thick
Asthenosphere: Hot, soft, semi-viscous layer, 180-220 km thick
Mesospheric Mantle: Part of mantle below asthenosphere
Outer Core: Liquid layer, 9.9-12.2 g/cm³ density
Inner Core: Dense solid, 12.8-13.1 g/cm³ density
Formation of Earth's Layers:

Iron Catastrophe: ~500 million years after Earth's formation, iron melted and sank to center
Planetary Differentiation: Heavy metals formed core, lighter materials formed mantle and
crust
Solidification: Outgassing of water vapor, gradual cooling and solidification

Chapter 2: The Earth's Crust

Continental Crust:

Thickness: 20-70 km (up to 100 km in Himalayan regions)

Composition: Mainly granite, gneiss, felsic rocks rich in silica and aluminum
Density: ~2.7 g/cm³ (lighter than oceanic crust)
Age: Up to 4.4 billion years old
Characteristics: Less dense, floats higher on mantle, indestructible
Oceanic Crust:
 Thickness: 5-10 km
Composition: Mainly basalt, mafic rocks rich in iron and magnesium
Density: ~3.5 g/cm³ (denser than continental crust)
Age: Less than 200 million years old
Characteristics: Constantly being created at mid-ocean ridges, subducted at plate
boundaries
Key Differences:

Continental crust is thicker, older, less dense, and composed of felsic rocks
Oceanic crust is thinner, younger, denser, and composed of mafic rocks
Continental crust floats higher due to lower density (isostatic equilibrium)

Chapter 3: Volcanism and Earthquakes

Types of Volcanoes:

Active Volcanoes: Erupt frequently with long eruption records

Dormant Volcanoes: Inactive but could erupt again
Extinct Volcanoes: No longer capable of eruption
Volcanic Processes:

Magma formation due to high temperature and pressure in mantle

Magma rises through cracks in Earth's crust
Eruption occurs when magma reaches surface as lava
Types of Earthquakes:

Tectonic Earthquakes: Caused by movement of tectonic plates (most common)

Volcanic Earthquakes: Associated with volcanic eruptions
Collapse Earthquakes: Occur in underground mines
Explosion Earthquakes: Caused by artificial explosions
Earthquake Characteristics:

Focus/Hypocenter: Point where energy is released (usually 60 km deep)

Epicenter: Point on surface directly above focus
Seismic Waves: Energy waves that travel in all directions
Earthquake Causes:

Movement and collision of tectonic plates

Stress accumulation in Earth's crust
Sudden release of elastic strain energy
Fault movements and crustal displacement
Chapter 4: Weathering, Mass Movement and Groundwater
Physical/Mechanical Weathering:

Frost Wedging: Water freezing in cracks, expanding and splitting rocks

Thermal Expansion: Temperature changes causing rock expansion/contraction
Salt Weathering: Salt crystal pressure breaking rocks
Exfoliation: Outer rock layers peeling off due to thermal stress
Abrasion: Mechanical wearing by wind, water, ice
Chemical Weathering:

Hydrolysis: Water replaces ions in minerals

Oxidation: Oxygen causes rusting, especially iron-rich minerals
Carbonation: Carbonic acid dissolves minerals, particularly limestone
Solution: Direct dissolution of minerals in water
Hydration: Minerals absorb water and expand
Biological Weathering:

Root Action: Plant roots widening cracks and applying pressure

Organic Acids: Plants and microorganisms producing acids that dissolve minerals
Lichen Action: Symbiotic fungi-algae breaking down rock surfaces
Burrowing Animals: Exposing rocks to more intense weathering
Factors Affecting Weathering:

Temperature variations
Moisture availability
Rock type and composition
Topography and relief
Time duration
Vegetation cover

Chapter 5: Landforms Made by Running Water

Fluvial Processes:

Erosion: Removal of rock and sediment by flowing water

Transportation: Movement of sediments downstream
Deposition: Settling of sediments when water velocity decreases
Types of Fluvial Erosion:

Hydraulic Action: Force of flowing water

Corrasion/Abrasion: Solid particles striking against rocks
 Corrosion: Chemical weathering by water
Attrition: Rock particles colliding and breaking down
Erosional Landforms:

V-shaped Valleys: Formed by vertical erosion in upper course

Gorges and Canyons: Deep, narrow valleys cut through resistant rocks
Waterfalls: Formed by differential erosion or geological faulting
Potholes: Circular depressions in river bed
Meanders: River bends formed by lateral erosion
Oxbow Lakes: Abandoned meander loops
Depositional Landforms:

Alluvial Fans: Cone-shaped deposits at mountain foothills

Natural Levées: Raised banks along river channels
Floodplains: Flat areas adjacent to rivers, formed by sediment deposition
Deltas: Sediment accumulations at river mouths
Point Bars: Sediment deposits on inner curves of meanders

Chapter 6: Landforms of Glaciation

Glacial Erosion Processes:

Plucking: Lifting and removal of rock blocks by glacier

Abrasion: Scraping and grinding by rock debris in ice
Quarrying: Large-scale rock removal
Erosional Glacial Landforms:

Cirques/Corries: Bowl-shaped depressions at glacier heads

Tarns: Lakes formed in cirque basins after ice melts
U-shaped Valleys: Glacially-modified stream valleys with steep sides and flat bottoms
Hanging Valleys: Tributary valleys left at higher elevations
Arêtes: Sharp ridges between two cirques
Horns: Sharp peaks formed by erosion from multiple cirques
Fjords: Deep, glacially-carved coastal inlets
Depositional Glacial Landforms:

Moraines: Ridge-like accumulations of glacial debris

Terminal moraines (at glacier front)
Lateral moraines (along glacier sides)
Ground moraines (beneath glacier)
Drumlins: Elongated hills of glacial sediment
 Eskers: Winding ridges formed by streams under glaciers
Kames: Cone-shaped hills of glacial sediment

Chapter 7: Arid or Desert Landforms

Desert Erosional Landforms:

Mushroom Rocks: Wind-carved rocks with narrow base and broad top
Inselbergs: Isolated hills rising from desert plains
Deflation Hollows: Depressions formed by wind removal of loose material
Ventifacts: Wind-polished and grooved rocks
Desert Depositional Landforms:

Sand Dunes: Wind-accumulated sand formations

Barchans: Crescent-shaped mobile dunes
Seif dunes: Long, linear dunes parallel to wind direction
Star dunes: Multi-directional pyramid-shaped dunes
Loess: Wind-deposited fine particles
Desert Processes:

Deflation: Wind removal of loose particles

Abrasion: Wind-driven particle erosion
Saltation: Bouncing movement of sand grains

Chapter 8: Limestone and Chalk Landforms

Karst Processes:

Carbonation: Limestone dissolution by carbonic acid

Chemical Weathering: Creating soluble calcium bicarbonate
Groundwater Action: Underground water flow and erosion
Surface Karst Landforms:

Limestone Pavements: Exposed, fissured limestone surfaces

Dolines/Sinkholes: Circular depressions from subsurface dissolution
Poljes: Large, flat-floored depressions
Karst Towers: Isolated limestone hills
Underground Karst Landforms:

Caves: Underground chambers formed by water erosion

Stalactites: Hanging formations from cave ceilings
Stalagmites: Upward-growing formations from cave floors
Underground Rivers: Water flow through limestone cave systems
Chapter 9: Lakes
Lake Formation:

Tectonic Lakes: Formed by crustal movements (e.g., Caspian Sea)

Glacial Lakes: Created by glacial erosion or moraine damming
Volcanic Lakes: Formed in volcanic craters or by lava damming
Landslide Lakes: Created by mass movement blocking valleys
Coastal Lakes: Formed by wave action and coastal processes
Lake Types by Origin:

Cirque Lakes/Tarns: In glacial cirques

Finger Lakes: Long, narrow glacial lakes
Oxbow Lakes: Abandoned river meanders
Crater Lakes: In volcanic calderas
Rift Valley Lakes: In tectonic depressions
Lake Evolution:

Oligotrophic: Young, deep, nutrient-poor lakes

Mesotrophic: Moderate nutrients and productivity
Eutrophic: Nutrient-rich, shallow, high biological productivity
Senescence: Final stage leading to terrestrial environment

Chapter 10: Coastal Landforms

Erosional Coastal Landforms:

Sea Cliffs: Steep rock faces formed by wave attack

Wave-cut Platforms: Flat surfaces at cliff bases
Sea Caves: Hollows eroded into cliff faces
Sea Arches: Bridge-like formations from cave roof collapse
Sea Stacks: Isolated rock pillars from arch collapse
Blowholes: Vertical openings in cliffs
Depositional Coastal Landforms:

Beaches: Accumulations of sand, pebbles, and shells

Spits: Elongated ridges extending from coastline
Tombolos: Ridges connecting islands to mainland
Barrier Islands: Long, narrow islands parallel to coast
Barrier Beaches: Sand ridges across bay mouths
Salt Marshes: Vegetated intertidal areas
 Lagoons: Shallow water bodies behind barriers
Coastal Processes:

Wave Erosion: Hydraulic action and abrasion

Longshore Drift: Sediment transport along coastline
Beach Drifting: Sediment movement up and down beaches
Tidal Action: Rise and fall of sea levels

Chapter 11: Islands and Coral Reefs

Types of Islands:

Continental Islands: Connected to continents during low sea levels

Oceanic Islands: Formed by volcanic activity in ocean basins
Coral Islands: Built by coral reef growth
Barrier Islands: Formed by coastal sediment accumulation
Coral Reef Types:

Fringing Reefs: Attached directly to coastlines

Barrier Reefs: Separated from coast by lagoons
Atolls: Ring-shaped reefs around submerged volcanoes
Patch Reefs: Small, isolated reefs
Coral Reef Formation:

Darwin's Theory: Fringing → Barrier → Atoll sequence

Volcanic Subsidence: Gradual sinking of volcanic foundations
Sea Level Changes: Rising sea levels allowing upward coral growth
Optimal Conditions: Warm, clear, shallow tropical waters

Chapter 12: The Oceans

Ocean Circulation:

Surface Currents: Driven by wind patterns (10% of ocean water)

Deep Water Currents: Driven by density differences (90% of ocean water)
Thermohaline Circulation: Density-driven by temperature and salinity differences
Types of Ocean Currents:
Warm Currents:

Flow from equatorial regions toward poles

Generally found on eastern shores in low latitudes
Examples: Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current, Brazilian Current
Carry heat poleward, moderating climate
Cold Currents:

Flow from polar regions toward equator

Generally found on western shores in low latitudes
Examples: California Current, Canary Current, Labrador Current
Bring cold water into warm regions
Current Characteristics:

Northern Hemisphere: Clockwise circulation

Southern Hemisphere: Anti-clockwise circulation
Influenced by Coriolis effect and continental barriers
Modify climate of coastal regions significantly

PART II: WEATHER, CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

Chapter 13: Weather

Weather Elements:

Temperature: Degree of hotness or coldness

Humidity: Amount of water vapor in air
Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet, hail
Air Pressure: Weight of atmosphere
Wind: Moving air masses
Cloud Cover: Sky coverage by clouds
Weather vs Climate:

Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions (daily/hourly)

Climate: Long-term weather patterns (30+ years average)
Meteorology: Study of weather phenomena
Climatology: Study of climate patterns and classifications

Chapter 14: Climate

Köppen Climate Classification:

Group A (Tropical): Average temperature >18°C all months

Group B (Arid): Dry climates with low precipitation
Group C (Temperate): Moderate temperatures, distinct seasons
Group D (Continental): Cold winters, warm summers
Group E (Polar): Very cold temperatures year-round
Climate Controls:
 Latitude: Distance from equator affects solar radiation
Altitude: Elevation influences temperature and precipitation
Continentality: Distance from oceans affects temperature range
Ocean Currents: Warm/cold currents modify coastal climates
Prevailing Winds: Air mass movement patterns
Topography: Mountain barriers and rain shadows

Chapter 15: The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate

Location: Between 10°N and 10°S latitude

Amazon Basin (South America)

Congo Basin (Africa)
Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia)
Parts of Central America
Characteristics:

Temperature: High and uniform (24-27°C), low annual range

Rainfall: Heavy (1500-2500mm), distributed throughout year
Humidity: Very high (80-90%)
Sunshine: Limited due to cloud cover
Vegetation: Tropical Rainforest

Structure: Multi-layered canopy (emergent, canopy, understory, ground)

Characteristics: High biodiversity, rapid nutrient cycling
Species: Hardwood trees (mahogany, ebony), lianas, epiphytes

Chapter 16: The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates

Tropical Monsoon Climate:

Location: 10-25°N and S latitudes

Characteristics: Seasonal rainfall reversal, wet and dry seasons
Temperature: High throughout year (24-30°C)
Rainfall: 1000-2000mm, concentrated in wet season
Tropical Marine Climate:

Location: Eastern sides of continents in tropics

Characteristics: Moderated by ocean influence
Temperature: Less extreme than continental areas
Rainfall: More evenly distributed than monsoon climate
Monsoon Mechanism:
 Summer: Low pressure over land draws moist air from ocean
Winter: High pressure over land pushes dry air toward ocean
Examples: India, Southeast Asia, Northern Australia

Chapter 17: The Savanna or Sudan Climate

Location: 5-20°N and S of equator

Examples: Sudan, parts of Brazil, Northern Australia

Characteristics:

Temperature: High throughout year (20-30°C)

Rainfall: 500-1200mm, distinct wet and dry seasons
Dry Season: 3-8 months, very little precipitation
Vegetation: Tropical Grassland

Characteristics: Tall grasses with scattered trees

Adaptations: Fire-resistant, drought-tolerant species
Examples: Baobab trees, acacia, elephant grass
Economic Activities:

Agriculture: Shifting cultivation, cattle ranching

Challenges: Seasonal water availability, fire management

Chapter 18: The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climates

Hot Desert Climate (BWh):

Location: 15-35°N and S latitudes

Examples: Sahara, Arabian, Australian deserts
Temperature: Very high daily range (>20°C difference)
Rainfall: Less than 250mm annually, irregular
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk):

Location: Interior continents, 35-50°N and S

Examples: Gobi Desert, Great Basin
Temperature: Cold winters, hot summers, large annual range
Rainfall: Low (200-400mm), winter maximum in some areas
Desert Characteristics:

Aridity: Very low precipitation

Temperature Extremes: Large diurnal and annual ranges
Clear Skies: High solar radiation, rapid heat loss at night
Sparse Vegetation: Drought-adapted plants (xerophytes)
Chapter 19: The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
Location: 30-45°N and S, western continental margins

Examples: Mediterranean Basin, California, Chile, South Australia

Characteristics:

Summer: Hot, dry (22-27°C), high pressure dominance

Winter: Mild, wet (8-15°C), frontal cyclone activity
Rainfall: 400-800mm, winter concentration
Vegetation: Mediterranean Scrub

Characteristics: Drought-resistant, fire-adapted

Examples: Chaparral (California), Maquis (Mediterranean), Fynbos (South Africa)
Agriculture: "Mediterranean Trinity"

Crops: Wheat, olives, grapes

Characteristics: Adapted to seasonal drought
Economic Importance: Wine production, olive oil, tourism

Chapter 20: The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate

Location: Interior continents, 35-55°N

Examples: Great Plains, Russian Steppes, Argentinian Pampas

Characteristics:

Temperature: Hot summers, cold winters, large annual range

Rainfall: 250-750mm, summer maximum
Continentality: Extreme temperature variations
Vegetation: Temperate Grassland

Characteristics: Continuous grass cover, few trees

Soil: Highly fertile chernozem (black earth)
Adaptations: Drought and fire tolerance
Agriculture:

Primary Activity: Extensive grain cultivation

Crops: Wheat, corn, barley
Livestock: Cattle and sheep ranching
Chapter 21: The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
Location: 25-40°N and S, eastern continental margins

Examples: Southeastern China, Southeastern USA, Eastern Argentina

Characteristics:

Temperature: Hot summers (25-30°C), mild winters (5-15°C)

Rainfall: 1000-1500mm, summer maximum
Humidity: High, especially in summer
Monsoon Influence:

Summer: Moist air from ocean

Winter: Dry air from continent
Typhoons/Hurricanes: Tropical cyclones in late summer
Vegetation: Mixed Forest

Characteristics: Deciduous and evergreen species

Examples: Oak, pine, bamboo forests
Agriculture:

Crops: Rice, tea, cotton, sugarcane

Intensive Cultivation: High population density areas

Chapter 22: The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate
Location: 40-65°N and S, western continental margins

Examples: Western Europe, Pacific Northwest, Southern Chile

Characteristics:

Temperature: Mild throughout year (5-20°C), low annual range

Rainfall: 500-2500mm, winter maximum or year-round
Ocean Influence: Maritime moderation
Westerly Wind Influence:

Cyclonic Activity: Frequent frontal passages

Cloud Cover: High, reducing temperature extremes
Storm Tracks: Depression paths from ocean
Vegetation: Temperate Rainforest/Mixed Forest

Characteristics: Coniferous and broadleaf species

Examples: Spruce, fir, oak, beech forests
Chapter 23: The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
Location: 50-70°N, interior continents

Examples: Central Siberia, Central Canada

Characteristics:

Temperature: Very cold winters (-20 to -40°C), warm summers (15-25°C)

Rainfall: Low (200-500mm), summer maximum
Extreme Continentality: Largest temperature range on Earth
Vegetation: Boreal Forest (Taiga)

Characteristics: Coniferous forest dominance

Species: Spruce, fir, pine, larch
Adaptations: Cold tolerance, needle leaves
Permafrost:

Definition: Permanently frozen ground

Depth: Several meters to hundreds of meters
Environmental Impact: Limited root penetration, poor drainage

Chapter 24: The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate

Location: 35-55°N, eastern continental margins

Examples: Northeastern North America, Northeastern Asia

Characteristics:

Temperature: Cold winters (-5 to -15°C), warm summers (20-25°C)

Rainfall: 750-1500mm, fairly even distribution
Continental-Maritime Transition: Interior to ocean influence
Seasonal Contrasts:

Winter: Cold continental air masses

Summer: Warm, humid conditions
Spring/Fall: Transitional, variable weather
Vegetation: Mixed Forest

Characteristics: Deciduous-coniferous transition

Examples: Maple, birch, pine, spruce forests
Chapter 25: The Arctic or Polar Climate
Location: Poleward of 66.5°N and S

Examples: Arctic Ocean, Antarctica, Greenland

Tundra Climate (ET):

Temperature: Warmest month <10°C, coldest <-34°C

Rainfall: Very low (100-250mm), mostly snow
Growing Season: 2-4 months
Ice Cap Climate (EF):

Temperature: All months below 0°C

Precipitation: Very low, all as snow
Permanent Ice Cover: No vegetation possible
Tundra Vegetation:

Characteristics: Low-growing, cold-adapted

Examples: Mosses, lichens, dwarf shrubs
Permafrost: Limits root development
Polar Day/Night:

Summer: 24-hour daylight

Winter: 24-hour darkness
Aurora: Northern/Southern lights phenomenon

SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS

Physical Geography Principles:

Earth's structure and composition determine surface processes

Endogenic forces (internal) create landforms through tectonism and volcanism
Exogenic forces (external) modify landforms through weathering, erosion, and deposition
Climate controls vegetation patterns and human activities
Climate Classification:

Temperature and precipitation are primary climate controls

Latitude, altitude, and continentality modify climate patterns
Ocean currents and wind patterns distribute heat and moisture globally
Vegetation adapts to climate conditions and reflects environmental limitations
Human-Environment Interaction:

Physical geography provides foundation for human activities

Climate determines agricultural possibilities and settlement patterns
 Natural resources and landforms influence economic development
Environmental challenges require understanding of physical processes
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