Multiple Choice. Read and understand the following statements.

Write the letter of the correct

answer on the line before each number.

___ 1. What does science, technology, and society (STS) primarily study?
a. Scientific laws only.
b. Pure science in laboratories.
c. Technological inventions only.
d. How science and technology impact society.

___ 2. What is one of the primary concerns about artificial intelligence (AI) in modern
society?
a. AI is only used in video games.
b. AI cannot process large amounts of data.
c. AI reduces energy consumption significantly.
d. AI might lead to job displacement and ethical dilemmas.

___ 3. Which of the following scenarios is an example of how society does NOT influence
science?
a. A public demand for clean energy increases research into solar power.
b. A computer runs faster after being upgraded.
c. A scientist develops a new element in a lab.
d. A comet is discovered through a telescope.

___ 4. What role does society play in the development of technology?

a. Society only consumes technology.
b. Society limits technology to avoid change.
c. Society has no influence over technological development.
d. Society provides ethical guidelines and influences technological needs.

___ 5. Which of the following BEST illustrates the interdependence of science,

technology, and society?
a. Students learning about the periodic table.
b. A government regulating school curriculum.
c. A scientific theory being published in a journal.
d. The invention of the microscope led to discoveries in biology and changes in
healthcare.

___ 6. What was a key concern that led to the establishment of STS programs in
universities?
a. The ethical, political, and social implications of scientific and technological
advances.
b. The need to promote technological industries.
c. The decline in interest in scientific careers.
d. The desire to isolate science from politics.

___ 7. Which university is widely recognized for establishing one of the first formal STS
programs in the 1970s?
a. Harvard University
 b. Stanford University
c. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
d. Cornell University

___ 8. Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the interdisciplinary nature of STS?
a. It focuses solely on engineering and applied sciences.
b. It combines the history, philosophy, sociology, and anthropology of science and
technology.
c. It excludes social science perspectives.
d. It studies only the economic aspects of technology.

___ 9. The idea that scientific knowledge is not just discovered but is socially constructed
is a key tenet of which STS approach?
a. Empiricism
b. Functionalism
c. Positivism
d. Social Constructivism

___ 10. What significant societal concern in the 1960s and 70s helped catalyze the
development of STS as a field?
a. Public unease over nuclear weapons and environmental degradation.
b. The rapid decline of the university’s science programs.
c. The desire to remove politics from science.
d. The popularity of consumer electronics.
1. D
2. D
3. D
4. D
5. D
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. D
10. A

General Concepts Related to Science, Technology, and Society

What is science?

Science and technology innovations are prevalent in our society. It permeates our
everyday activities, as well as the tools that we use, from the most simple to the most
complex. For you to completely grasp the impact of science and technology on our
society, it is necessary to study some concepts related to science and technology.
Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning ‘knowledge.’ It refers to a
systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the
universe behaves through observation, experimentation, or both.

Nature of Science
It is important to understand the nature of science because it is a critical component of
scientific literacy. It enhances your understanding of science concepts and enables you
to make informed decisions about scientifically based personal and societal issues. The
following sums up the nature of science:

The world is understandable. Science presumes that the things and events in the
universe occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful,
systematic study. Scientists believe that through the use of the intellect, and with the aid
of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of nature.

Science Explains and Predicts. Scientists strive to make sense of observations of

phenomena by constructing explanations that are consistent with currently accepted
scientific principles. Such explanations or theories may be either broad or restricted, but
they must be logically sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically valid
observations. The credibility of scientific theories often comes from their ability to show
relationships among phenomena that previously seemed unrelated. For example, the
theory of moving continents has grown in credibility as it has shown relationships among
diverse phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes, the match between types of fossils
on different continents, the shapes of continents, and the contours of the ocean floors.

Science Demands Evidence. The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to

observations of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data.
Such evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations that
range from natural settings (such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such as the
laboratory). To make their observations, scientists use their senses, and instruments
(such as microscopes) that enhance those senses and instruments that tap
characteristics quite different from what humans can sense (such as magnetic fields).
Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations), make collections (rocks,
shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the earth's crust or administering
experimental medicines).

Scientific Ideas are Open to Change. Science is more of a process than a set body of
knowledge. Scientists are always testing and revising their ideas, and as new
observations are made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced with
new ideas that better fit the facts, but more often, existing ideas are simply revised. For
example, when scientists discovered how genes control genetic traits, they didn't throw
out Mendel's laws of inheritance. The discoveries helped to explain why Mendel's laws
apply to certain traits but not others. They showed that Mendel's laws are part of a
bigger picture. Through many discoveries over time, scientists have gradually built an
increasingly accurate and detailed understanding of the natural world.

Science is a complex social activity. Scientific work involves many individuals doing
many different kinds of work and goes on to some degree in all nations of the world. Men
and women of all ethnic and national backgrounds participate in science and its
applications. These people - scientists and engineers, mathematicians, physicians,
technicians, computer programmers, librarians, and others - may focus on scientific
knowledge either for its own sake or for a particular practical purpose, and they may be
concerned with data gathering, theory building, instrument building, or communication.
Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions. There are beliefs that
- by their very nature - cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of
supernatural powers and beings or the true purposes of life).

In other cases, a scientific approach that may be valid is likely to be rejected as

irrelevant by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-telling,
astrology, and superstition). Nor do scientists have the means to settle issues concerning
good and evil, although they can sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues
by identifying the likely consequences of particular actions, which may help weigh
alternatives.

What is technology?

Technology is not static; it is dynamic. It is transferred from the producer to the receptor,
and different tools can be used in the transfer of technology.

Black and Harrison (1985) defined technology as a disciplined process that uses the
resources of matter, energy, and natural phenomena to achieve human purpose. It is the
practical application of scientific results for the development of tools, equipment, and
techniques. Thus, the inventions of the telescope, of techniques of cooking, canning,
bottling, or preservation, or of medicaments to reduce body pains are seen as
technologies. Technology employs knowledge, skills, and tools to improve human
potential, to solve practical problems, and to modify our environment. It is therefore
concerned with the application of science to obtain practical solutions to the myriad
human problems.

Philosophy of Technology. The philosophy of technology seeks to classify the

objectives of technology and the methods used by technology and hands–on activities. It
also emphasizes that the training environment should be a replica of the actual
environment where the knowledge acquired can be utilized (NTI 2011).

History of Technology. The history of technology is as old as mankind. Tools were

made and used by archaeologists for more than a million years. The discovery and
utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many uses, was a turning point in the
technological revolution.

Technological Products in the Environment. Tendencies of technology abound

around us in the environment. Technology is not only the modern machines like cars,
generators, aeroplanes, and ships, but also things we do and use in our environment to
make work easier. For instance, women use the grinding stone in the kitchen. Pot
moulding is a common technology in Africa.

Technology Transfer. Technology Transfer (also referred to as Transfer of Technology)

is the process of transferring skills, knowledge, technologies, methods of manufacturing,
samples of manicuring, and facilities among governments or universities and other
institutions to ensure that scientific and technological developments are accessible to a
wider range of users who can then further develop and exploit the technology into new
products, processes, applications, materials, or services. In Technology Transfer, there is
a producer and a receptor system. TOTs are needed to move the technology from the
produces to the receptors: example of TOTs are Marketing tools, which may include fact
sheets and special publications, magazine articles, workshops, exhibits, demonstrations
of newly developed products, videotapes, and market surveys. Other technology transfer
tools are aimed at providing incentives to potential users and commercializes of the
technology.

Concept of Society

Society can be defined as a group of humans living together for self-maintenance and
self-perpetuation and sharing their institution and culture (Yager 1992). It could also be
defined as a long–standing group of people sharing cultural aspects such as languages,
dress, norms of behavior and artistic forms. A formal association of people with similar
interest e.g., Medical Society or Science Teachers Society, are all examples of societies.

Social Institution

A social institution is a social arrangement that directs or channels behaviors in

prescribed ways in important areas of social life (Eitzeu & Zinn, 2001). Social institution
are interrelated sets of normative elements consisting of norms, values, and role
expectations. They are devised by the people making up the society, and they pass them
on to succeeding generations to provide permanent solutions to society’s perpetually
unfinished business. They provide procedures through which human conduct is
patterned and propelled.

Examples of Social Institutions

1. Medicine which takes care of the provision of physical and emotional health
care.

2. Polity as a social institution takes care of the maintenance of order and the
distribution of power.

3. Economic systems are the social that cares for the production of goods and
services and ownership of property.

Science as a social institution makes for the understanding of the universe.

Impact of Society on Science

Despite the internationality of science and technology, society affects science positively
and negatively.

a. Negative Effects of Society on Science

1. Effects of Cultural/Religious Beliefs and Values: For nearly two centuries,
scientists all over the world faced the threat of the church. For example, findings
particularly in genetics which contradicted the Holybooks were considered
abomination.
2. Scientist such as Maxwell and Charles Darwin faced a lot of societal
condemnation based on Darwin’s publication “The Origin of Species”.
 3. The taboos and superstitions held by the society have negatively affected the
growth of science in Nigeria.
4. The belief that science is done by only those with above-average intelligence
and the fear that science is abstract and mathematical have stereotyped potential
young men and women against science.

b. Positive Impact of Society on Science

1. Supporting Science Research: With increasing awareness of the role of science
in moulding the world’s progress, researchers are intensifying in both pure and
applied science.
2. Money needed for researches is provided principally by the governments of
several countries. In developed nations, like United States of America, Germany,
and England, the private sector’s contribution to scientific research is tremendous.
In this way the society affects science positively with the support for research.
3. Award of Prizes: Universities and other related institutions all over the world
recognize the performance of their students in the various pure and applied
scientific disciplines. Individuals and corporate bodies provide prizes to the best
graduates in various disciplines or courses in science. This has tremendously
motivated college students to have an interest in science and by implication of the
growth of scientific knowledge.

Relationship between Science, Technology and Society

At the time of Industrial Revolution entrepreneurs used scientific and technological

results for the development and improvement of production for profit. New scientific and
technological results led to the creation of new industries, new science, and
technologies. Competition between nations became intense and focused on the
importance of science and technology and the source of national power in the economy
and security. After World War II, science and technology became an integral part of
national policy.

Qualitative Changes in Society

Scientific and technological progress has several effects on society. Some of the changes
are as follows:

i. Materials Prosperity. Since the industrial revolution, science and technology have
shown accelerated progress in energy, physical materials, information and
communications, and medicine, resulting in improvement in people’s health, economic
prosperity, and living conveniences.
ii. Transport Mode. Progress in energy and material technology has given rise to new
transport modes, such as railways, automobiles, airplanes, and ships.
iii. Communication. The development of the telephone, radio, and GSM cellular phone
broaden the range of human activities and scope of human exchange.
iv. Machine Tools. This refers to the large-volume production of goods and production
of diverse types of material.
v. Medical Technology. This resulted in the extension of people’s average life span,
and the infant and child mortality rate was reduced leading to a rise in the world
population.
vi. Globalization. Advocacy that political policies should take worldwide issues into
account before focusing on national or state.
vii. Information Technology (IT). The internet revolution combined with computer
technology led to an information revolution which reduced cost and time required for
information distribution.

Factors Threatening Societal Safety and Security

Despite the advances of science and technology making life more prosperous, there are
issues arising from science and technology progress. Some of the issues include:

i. Global warming
ii. Destruction of the ozone layer
iii. Destruction of tropical forest
iv. Desertification of Nuclear Radiation
v. Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases such as Ebola and HIV

Historical Roots of STS as an Academic Field

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more

observable, the need to pay attention to their interactions with various aspects of
human life, e.g., social, political, and economic, becomes ever more necessary. How
the different aspects of society shape and influence the progression and further
development of science and technology is the area of concern of a relatively new
academic discipline called science, technology, and society.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that combines
previously independent and older disciplines, such as the history of science,
philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As an academic field, STS,
according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots to the
interwar period and the start of the Cold War. It was during this period that
historians and scientists found interest in the interconnectedness of scientific
knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of STS as an academic field
resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not really prepare
students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed
by science and technology in the modern world.

The Importance of the Study of STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures-humanities
(interpretive) and natural sciences (rational)-so that humans to confront better the
moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought by the continued developments in
science and technology.
 STS also calls for educating the students so that they will apply science and
technology (tools, knowledge, processes and products) to solve problems in an
environment. STS is an important academic discipline to help teachers do science to
be functional and not just graduates who are alien to society. For example,
graduates should be able to apply science and technology while at school, say to be
productive, to grow and carry out disease prevention measures, and to become self-
reliant or employed.

STS aims to help students develop adaptability, equipped with not only academic
skills but also with a range of practical skills that will make them a functional citizen.

Ethical Dilemmas that Reinforce the Study of STS

Human beings are by no means perfect–we struggle with ethical dilemmas daily and
fail in doing what we think or believe to be the right thing more often than we would
like to admit. Unfortunately, these failings are also articulated in our technology.

To warn us of these failings, the John J. Relly Center for Science and Technology, and
Values at the University of Notre Dame compiles an annual list of what it determines
to be that year’s top 10 ethical dilemmas in science and technology. The list points
to the challenges, questions, and issues that need to be addressed and resolved
when science and technology and humanity intertwine.

Activity 1: Tech Timeline Challenge

Objective: Trace the development of key technologies and their societal impact.
How to do it:

1. Assign each group a major invention (e.g., electricity, the internet, vaccines)
2. Create a visual timeline: when it was developed, key milestones, and how it changed
society.

Skills Developed: Historical perspective, critical thinking, creativity

Activity 2: Media Analysis – “Science in the News”

Objective: Analyze how media presents science and tech topics.
How to do it:
1. Each group finds a recent news article about science or technology.
2. Present a summary and discuss:
 Is the reporting accurate?
 What is the societal relevance?
 Any ethical concerns?
Skills Developed: Media literacy, evaluation, communication
Activity 3: Global STS Impact Map
Objective: Understand how different societies use or are impacted by science/tech.
How to do it:
1. Assign each group a country or region.
2. Research a scientific/technological advancement and its impact on society there.
3. Plot on a world map with brief descriptions or images.