SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED FOR EXPERIMENTS

Some apparatus commonly used in experiments and their possible uses include:

Mechanics and General Items

Apparatus Possible use(s)
Pendulum bob • To act as the weight of the pendulum experiment
2 sets of stand, boss and clamp with a rod length of • To hold the string (attached with the pendulum)
60cm
Pivot • To be used in moment experiments
Pulley • To be used in force/tension experiments
1-N newton-meter and/or 2.5-N newton-meter • To measure forces
1-m ruler, 0.5-m ruler and/or 300-mm ruler • To be used as the plank for moment experiments
• To measure lengths within their respective range
• Length measured can be used in calculating area or
volume
Vernier calipers ( 1 set shared among 4-6 candidates) • To measure lengths up to 15 cm
• Length measured can be used in calculating area or
volume
Micrometer screw gauge (1 set shared among 4-6 • To measure lengths up to 2.5 cm
candidates) • Length measured can be used in calculating area or
volume
Stopwatch with reading to 0.1 s or better • To measure time in experiments related to period
and rate of change
Balance to 0.01 g (1 set shared among 8-12 • To measure mass
candidates) • Mass measured can be used in calculating density
and force
Plasticine • To be used as a weight
• To add mass to an object to increase the density
• To balance a pivot
Blu-Tack • To hold objects together temporarily, such as the
pendulum to the string
Springs • To be used as a force in moment experiments
• To allow the string to oscillate when attached with
slotted mass
Optical pin • To hold the string onto the cock for pendulum
experiments
• To mark out the start point for pendulum
experiments
CHAPTER 1

-
Apparatus Possible use(s)
-
Slotted masses of 5 g, l Og, 20 g, 50 g and/or l 00 g • To be used as forces in moment experiments
with 50-g and/or l 00-g hanger • To generate tension in force experiments
• To act as a mass for an oscillating spring
experiments
Burette • To measure the amount of liquid added into the
flask/beaker
Rubber tubing • To transfer liquid from container/tap
Cork • To hold the optical pin supporting the pendulum
onto the retort stand
• To float dense objects
Dropper • To transfer a small amount of liquid
String/thread/twine • To hold the pendulum bob
• To secure the object when immersing the object
into a water displacement can
• To use as an indicator of line of action of centre of
gravity
Scissors • To cut string/thread/twine
Adhesive tape • To secure objects together temporarily
Card (assorted sizes) • To block light from interfering sources
Wood (assorted sizes, for various uses, e.g. support) • To act as a support to create a ramp, elevate objects
and/or hold down objects
• To be used as weights in moment experiments
Wooden board • To provide an even surface
• To act as a poor conductor of heat
Sand and tray • To measure the depth in the sand generated by
falling objects
Approx. 22 cm x 10 cm x 7 cm bricks • To act as support to create a ramp, elevate objects
and/or hold down objects

Electrical
C -
. App~ratus ... !'.. • ....... ,"j.'
Possible use(s) . . -
Ammeter (analogue) • To measure current
Voltmeter (analogue) • To measure potential difference
1.5 V cells with holder and/or 2 V cells • To act as a power supply in circuits
Lamp and holder of2.5 V and 0.3 A • To act as a load in circuits
Rheostat with a maximum resistance of • To act as a variable load in potentiometer
22 n and rating of at least 3.3 A experiments
Resistors • To act as a load in circuits
Switch • To open or close the circuit

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 SKILLS ANO kNOWlEDGE REQUIRED FOR EXPERIMENTS

Apparatus Possible use(s)

Jockey • To act as a connection point to a bare wire for
potentiometer experiments
Leads and crocodile clips • To connect wiring conductors to electrical
appliances
Constantan wire of 28 st1lndard wire gauge or metric • To act as a variable load for potentiometer
equivalents experiments
Nichrome wire of 28, 32 standard wire gauge or • To act as a variable load for potentiometer
metric equivalents experiments
Bar magnets • To investigate the effect of Faraday·s Law and
Lenz's Law
Small compass • To check the direction of the magnetic field
generated

Beat
Apparatus Possible use(s)
Long stem thennometer of range from -10°C to • To measure temperature of liquids
110°C at 1°C intervals
500 cm3 beaker and/or 2 x 250 cm3 beaker • To hold liquid for boiling
• To transfer liquid
150 mm x 25 mm boiling tube • To boil liquid
50 cm measuring cylinder and/or 100 cm3 measuring
3
• To measure and transfer liquid
cylinder
200 cm3 plastic or polystyrene cup • To hold liquid and reduce heat gain/loss by the
liquid
Means to heat water safely to boiling • To boil liquid for the measurement of latent heat of
vaporisation and/or heat capacity
Heating mat • To prevent the bench from getting burnt
Stirrer • To distribute heat supplied into the liquid evenly

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 CHAPTER 1

Light
- ·-· ,i::~ •
c,;;;•..,- • ;:--,,..

--
Apparatus Possible use(s)
120 mm x 60 mm x 20 mm glass block • To refract light rays
Microscope slides • To refract light rays
--
100 mm x SO mm plane mirror • To reflect light rays
-
A converging lens of 15-cm focal length • To measure the focal length of the lens
• To be used as the principal lens in lens experiments
Lens holder • To hold the lens in place for light ray alignment
10 cm wide, 15 cm high screen • To capture the image
• To allow the measurement of distance from the
screen to the lens
Torch • To act as the source of light
Protractor • To measure the angle of incidence, reflection and
refraction
23 cm x 30 cm pin board • To house the optical pins tracing reflected /
refracted light rays
Pins
• To mark out reflected / refracted light rays
Tracing paper
• To trace out markings on white paper

[ Recording observati~~s a.;t p~s~ti~ g da~)

(A) Taking readings
1. Repeated measurements are required to determine the average value of a variable.
2. Always take measurements to the precision of the instrument being used. For
example, to the nearest mm if a ruler is being used, to the nearest 0.1 V or 0.01 V if a
voltmeter is being used or to the nearest 0.1 s or 0.01 s if a stopwatch is being used.
3. Read to half the smallest division of the measuring instrument when required. For
example, when reading a thermometer reading of 22.3°C it might best be recorded as
22.5°C since 0.3 is nearer to 0.5 than 0.
4. Readings should be recorded with an appropriate precision. For example, a reading
of 12.0 cm should be recorded as 12.0 cm rather than a bald 12 cm.

Note:
A Ii I
J
1. An answer written as 12 cm/(2 s.f.) suggests that the actool reading is between 11.5 cm and 12.4 cm.
2. An answer written as 12.0 cm (3 s.f.) suggests that the actual reading is between 11.95 cm and 12.04 cm.
3. Hence, '12.0 cm' shows higher precision than '12 cm'.

5. Always record raw readings to the same precision.

6. Always include a unit with any measured or calculated quantity.

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 SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED FOR EXPERIMENTS

I. Values should be expressed in decimal form, avoid using ratio or fraction.

2. Prefixes and standard form can be used to express very large or very small numeric values.
3. The following table shows examples of value expressed with prefix and in standard fonn:

Value with prefix Decimal form Standard form

1mm 0.001 m l x lo-3 m
1 cm 0.01 m Ix 10-2 m
I km 1000m l x 103 m

l. Accuracy refers to how much a measured value agrees with the actual value. Precision
(also called repeatability or reproducibility) refers to how close repeated measurements
arc to one another.
An analogy to illustrate accuracy and precision:

Precision I Precision Precision Precision

1 Accurac) I ACCUffle) Accuracy Accuracy

2. Errors can be generally classified into two types, random error and systematic error.
3. The precision of the experiment is related to the number of random errors.
4. The accuracy of the experiment is related to the number of systematic errors.

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 SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED FOR EXPERIMENTS

5. The following table shows the summary of random and systematic errors:

Random errors Systematic errors

Unpredictable errors that can be An error that has a consistent pattern
Definition reduced by taking the average of the and cannot be reduced by taking the
measured values average of the measured values
• Affect the precision of • Affect the accuracy of
measurement measurement
Characteristics • Tend to be two-sided (repeated • Tend to be one-sided (repeated
measurements fluctuate above or measurements differ from the true
below the true value) value in the same direction and
magnitude)
• Inability to read an instrument • Zero error
• Not consistent human parallax • Scale error
Examples error • Consistent human parallax error
• Estimation of values that lies • Faulty calibration of measuring
between scale intervals instruments
• Human reaction time
By repeating measurements to obtain By using a different method
Solution the average of the measured values or apparatus to carry out the
investigation and comparing the
results

iscussion and analysis

1. Avoid using rote phrases such as 'to make it more accurate' or 'to avoid parallax error'.
These comments need to be linked to the practical situation being considered.
2. State why the accuracy has improved or how parallax error was avoided.
3. Theoretical calculations may be used as a form of a check but not as the answer for
submission.
4. Draw a conclusion based on the interpretation of experimental data or observation. Avoid
drawing a conclusion based on concepts and prior knowledge solely.
5. The trend or relationship between the independent and dependent variables should be
explained based on the graph.
6. Identify significant sources of error and explain how they affect the results.
7. State and explain how significant errors may be overcome or reduced by improving the
experimental procedures.

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 Bas!c Knowledge and Experimental Techniques
Physical quantities
I. Length, time and mass are physical quantities that are commonly measured in experiments.
2. The following table shows the appropriate measurement tools used to measure various
types of length, time and mass:

~·
Ir.
- r.i
Basic physical quantity SI unit Measuring instrument(s)
Length Measuring tape, metre rule, Vernier calipers,
Metre, m
micrometer screw gauge
Time Second,s Analogue stopwatch, digital stopwatch
Mass Kilogram, kg Electronic balance

The range of measurement and precision of instruments (length)

I. The appropriate tool used for measurement can be determined by the range and precision
of the measurement instruments:

Instrument •:~
~y-
• Smallest ·Range of
'-: r Examples of
division Precision
-
'
r measurement ' , 11 measurement
Measuring tape 4.0 cm, 9.9 cm,
0.1 cm 0.0-5.0m 0.1 cm
15.6 cm
Metre rule 0.1 cm 4.7 cm, 18.3 cm,
0.0- [Link] 0.1 cm
20.0 cm
Vernier calipers 0.01 cm 0.00 - 15.00 cm 3.75 cm, 7.26 cm,
0.01 cm
11.00 cm
Micrometer screw 0.000 - 2.500 cm 1.89 mm, 12.27 mm,
0.01 mm 0.001 cm
gauge (0.00- 25.00 mm) 15.00 mm

2. The diameter of a pen (approximately 1 cm) can be measured using any of the tools stated
above. However, to obtain a measurement of high accuracy, the micrometer screw gauge
should be used instead. The precision of the micrometer screw gauge is the highest among
the instruments, hence, the value that it measures has the highest accuracy.
no Note: j
From the examples of measurement using the measuring tape, notice that 4.0 cm is recorded instead of 4 cm.
Observed values should be recorded to its highest precision value of the instrument used. As mentioned in
Chapter 1, 4.0 cm is significantly different from 4 cm when the approximation is considered.

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 CHAPTER 2

The precision of instruments (time)

The analogue and digital stopwatches are used to measure time.

start butto n----- '~

reset button stop button
minute hand--1,~w,.....i
;,tr--.....+ - second hand

case

Analogue stopwatch Digital stopwatch

Note :)
f &A
1. From the above analogue stopwatch, record the reading as 10 s.
s correct to 2 decimal
2. From the above digital stopwatch, record the reading as 3 h 29 min 26.88
places in seconds.

Smallest division Precision Examples of measurement

Instrument
Is 1s t5min 10s,43 min0s ,31 min59 s
Analogue stopwatch
0.01 s 0.01 s 5 min 59.40 s, 12 min 30.00 s, 30 min 52.34 s
Digital stopwatch

The precision of instruments (mass)

It also has a tare
The electronic balance is used to measure mass to a high precision of 0.01 g.
e between time
button to set the measurement to zero. This can be used to detect mass chang
intervals.

Precision Examples of measurement

Smallest division
I'

Instrument '
0.01 g 15.05 g, 32.00 g, 49 .81 g
Electronic balance 0.01 g

Parallax error, zero error and human reaction error

as it is viewed
1. A parallax error is caused by the perceived shift in an object's position
from the
from different angles. This occurs when the marker is at some distance away
object of measurement.
Correct
I
I
I

Incorrect rJ,,,, / .... Incorrect

lii:-k-?#''1/
placed as
T~e eye should be positioned perpendicular to the scale and the scale should be
be taken
near to the object as possible or in contact with the object so that readings can
without parallax error.

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1. Handling numbers
There are mainly 2 types of numbers you will encounter when doing Physics
experiments, namely raw numbers and processed numbers.

Raw numbers are _numbers you get from measuring instruments, and when
recording these nu~bers, you must follow the precisions of the measuring
instrument.

Processed numbers arise from your calculation to obtain the result, you may have
to add, subtract, multiply or divide numbers. With a calculator, these
mathematcial operations can be easily carried out. however, the problem with
using calculators is that the value obatined, after doing all the operations, often
has too many decimal places and significant figures. You must be very careful
about expressing these processed numbers in the correct manner. The following
examples illustrate the correct ways of expressing your processed numbers.

Multiplying and dividing quantities

In multiplication and division, you must round off the product or quotient to the
same number of significant figures as the least precise quantity. This is known
as Least Significant Figure Rule (LSFR). For example,
(a) 16.42 X 0.211. = 3.46 (Calculator value: 3.46462)
(4 sig. fig.) (3 sig. fig.) •(3 sig. fig.)

(b) 5.6 X 0.530 = 3.0 (Calculator value: 2.968)

(2 sig. fig.) (3 sig. fig.} (2 sig. fig.)

(c) 6.5 14.50 = 0.45 (Calculator value: 0.44827586206)

(2 sig. fig.) (4 sig. fig.) (2 sig. fig.}

(d) 100.2 0.50 = 2.0 X 102 (Calculator value: 200.4)

(4 sig. fig.} (2 sig. fig.} (2 sig. fig.)

Adding and subtracting quantities

In addition and subtraction, you must round off the result to the same number
of decimal places as the least precise quantity. This is known as Least Decimal
Place Rule (LDPR). For example,

(a) 60.5 + 1.53 = 62.0 (Calculator value: 62.03)

(b) 2.432 + 1.7 = 4.1 ( Calculator value: 4.132)

(c) 2.921 + 3.0 + 0.7 = 6.6 (Calculator value: 6.621)

(d) 15.4 0.232 = 15.2 (Calculator value: 15.168)

(e) 120 18.3 = 102 ( Calculator value: 101. 7)

Notice that in all the above examples of addition and subtraction, the final
value is rounded off to the same decimal place, ones, [Link] hundreds, as
the least precise quantity.
lTest yourself

Carry out the following calculations and give the answer in the form that is
acceptable.

1. (a) 3.254 g 2.0 cm 3 =

(b) 5.120 kg 3.1 m3 =
(c) 10.2 cm + 3.42 cm + 6.5 cm =
(d) 7.270 kg 3.4 kg =
(e) 19.8 m X 0.32 m =
(f) 1.252 m X 0.612 m 2 =
(g) 700g + 40.2 g + 9.4 g =
(h) 18.5 m 0.22 m =

(I) 1.25 cm X 3.1 cm =

(J) 1.898 m 5.45 s =
(k) 42.00 cm 20.00 s =
(I) 100.0 cm 45.00 cm =

2. (a) 10.95 V + 3.1 V =

(b) 0.300 A + 1.75 A =
(c) 7.00 mA 0.15 mA =
2. Displaying data on graphs
Graphs are plotted to show the relationship between two quantities. The
d on
quantity that you choose to vary (independent variable) is usually plotte
ng
the x-axis. You should vary this quantity in nearly regular intervals coveri
that
the entire range of the quantity available in the experiment. The quantity
d on
is dependent on the quantity that you vary (dependent variable) is plotte
the y-axis.

The following points should be noted when drawing graphs:

(a) Both axes should be labelled in this manner: name of quant ity/un it,
e.g. time/s econd , time/s or t/s.
space
(b) Use a convenient scale to draw the graph as large as the available
allows.
y
(c) Avoid using awkward scales such as 2 cm : 3 units. Such scales usuall
lead to errors in plotting and deduction.
s (x).
(d) Points must be clearly and accurately marked with small, sharp crosse
(e) Do not attempt to join all the plotted points on the graph. It is not likely
that you will obtain a straight line or a smooth curve by joining all the
points, as there are bound to be errors in the experimental readings.
Instead, use a long (30 cm) transparent ruler to help you draw the best
straight line, or a flexible curve ruler to draw a smooth curve.
Remember to use a sharp pencil to draw the straight line or curve.

(f} The best straight line (Figure 31) or the best smooth curve {Figure 32)
(I) passes through the middle of the spaces between the points;
(II) has about the same number of points on either side of the line over
its entire length;
(Ill) does not necessarily pass through any plotted points or the origin.

(g) For an irregular point that is far from the best straight line or curve,
either
(I) repeat the measurement and/o r calculations for the point and
correct it
or
(II) circle the point and indicate that the point has been rejected and
ignored.
(h) The gradient of a straight line should be calculated from
a right-angled
triangle drawn with dotted lines. The
hypotenuse should be as long as
possible, and no sho rter than half of
the straight-line graph. The end s of
the hypotenuse mus t not be any of
the plotted points.
{I) Draw dotted lines to find a poin t on
the x-axis corresponding to a poin t
the y-axis, and vice versa. on

Figures 31 to 40 show examples of

graphs.
desirable 0 and undesirable ®
(a) //A
(b) V/V

0.8
2.0
0.6

0.4 0
Desirable
1.5

1.0 0
0.2 Desirable
0.5
0.0
0.00 0 0.10 0 0.20 0 x/m 0.0
0.30 0 0.40 0 0.50 0 1/A
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
"'Figure 31
"'Figure 32
(c) 1/m
(d) T/°C
25
10
20
8
15
6
10
4
Undesirable:
5 Undesirable:
points are joined up
2 scale for x-axis not
appropriate

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 1 2 3 4 5

"'Figure 33
.a. Figure 34
(e) V
(f) V/V
1.0

0.8
®
Undesirable:
1.0

Undesirable:
(i) too few point s for a curve 0.8 points are joined up without
0.6 (ii) axes have no units
drawing a smooth curve
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
. 0.2
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 60
50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
"'Figure 35
.a. Figure 36

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Build Your Practical Skills •
(g)
(h) p/cm
y/cm 60

20

18

16
50

40 /
14
®
Undesirable:
30

20
®
Undesirable:
awkward scale for x-axis and points are crowded at one
12 unequal number of points on 10 corner of the graph paper
either side of the line

10 x/cm 0 q/m
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

a Agure 37 a Agure 38

{l) (J) 6/°C

p/cm 60

65 50

60 40

55

50
®
Undesirable:
30

20 Undesirable:
not a straight line not a smooth curve
45 10

40 q/m 0 V/cm 3
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 0 2 4 6 8 10
a Agure 39 a Agure40
 S. Interpreting graphs
After you have gathered your data in an expe
riment, you may wish to know
how two variables are related to each other.
One simple way of examining the
mathematical relationship between two varia
bles is to plot a graph. The graph
will indicate the general trend of the mathema
tical relationship between the
two variables.

At the level of this course, there are two comm

on mathematical relationships
that you may encounter. If x and y are the varia
bles that you are investigating,
the two mathematical relationships are:

(a) y = kx (y is directly proportional to x;

k = constant);
(b) y = .!5_ (y is inversely proportional to x;
X k = constant).
y/cm

12 fu€
10

6
.!. .
4

0
x/m
01234 5 6
.t. Figure 41.

Rgure 41 shows a y = kx relationship.

Notice that in this relationship,

• when x increases to 2x,

y increases by the same factor of 2.

• when x decreases to 1 x,
2
y decreases by the same factor of 1 .
2
In this relationship, we say that y is (directly)
proportional to x.

You may encounter some cases in which y is

inversely proportional to x,
. k
1.e. Y=- ;·
In such cases, the graph of y against xis a
curve, w~ich ~ake s it [Link]
us to determine the cons tant k. We will obta
in a stra,ght-hne graph when we
plot y against .! instead of x.
X
Experiment Sources of Error Precaution

Balancing ruler / moments 1. The retort stands are old and rusty, it is 1. Ensure the ruler is horizontal by
difficult to make small changes to height of measuring the distance from the
the metre rule. Thus the metre rule may not ruler to the table at both ends. These
be exactly horizontal. distances should be the same.
2. The reference point where it is used to 2. Read the ruler (to obtain length of
measure the length of spring may not be spring) at eye level to avoid parallax
consistent. Hence, affecting length l. error, so as to have accurate reading
3. To measure l, the 30 cm rule has to be held of length l.
vertically by hand. However, error is
incurred in this measurement as the rule
could not be held steadily.
4. The spring does not stretch linearly (or has
too small an extension) for smaller values of
x near the pivot.
5. The mass may have shifted and the distance
between the weight and pivot will be
different. Therefore affecting the force that
is needed.

Period of oscillation 1. The thread may be slightly elastic, therefore Improvement: Take the length before every
affecting length of pendulum. reading.
2. The thread may have slip through the split
cork, therefore affecting the length l of Precaution: Allow the pendulum to swing a
pendulum. few times before starting to record the time.

Centre of gravity 1. The plumbline and the card will

move/oscillate if the ruler touches it. This
makes it difficult to measure x accurately as
ruler cannot be placed against the card.
2. The mass of each paper clip may not be the
same, thus the relationship between x and n
may not be correct.

Refraction through two 1. Due to the size of the paper, the pins could not
glass blocks be placed far apart. This may cause
inaccuracy in the location and measurement
of ray P1P2.
2. The holes made by the pins provided are
rather large thus affecting the accurate
construction of the paths of incident and
emergent rays.
3. The bevel edge of the glass block do not allow
the tracing of the glass block to be accurate.
Therefore, the glass block may not be placed
back to the original place, thus affecting
incident angle.

Total internal reflection 1. The holes made by the pins provided are
rather large thus affecting the accurate
construction of the paths of incident and
emergent rays.
2. The bevel edge of the glass block do not
allow the tracing of the glass block to be
 accurate. Therefore, the glass block may not
be placed back to the original place, thus
affecting incident angle.

Reflection 1. The mirror is very light and shifts during the

experiment. This causes error in the angle of
incidence and hence the emergent ray.
2. The holes made by the pins provided are
rather large thus affecting the accurate
construction of the paths of incident and
emergent rays.

Focal length of a convex 1. The edge of the object is uneven which makes
lens it difficult to locate the position of the sharp
image. Thus v may not be accurate.
2. The entire illuminated object may not be
exactly parallel to the lens due to the texture
of the cardboard. Thus v may not be accurate.

Magnification of an object 1. In order to measure x, the ruler must be

placed against the lens and thus lens may be
slightly shifted during the experiment.
2. The middle of lens holder may not coincide
with the centre of the lens and thus incurring
an error in the measurement of x.
3. Though eye is placed close to the card ‘C’ the
position of observer may not be exactly the
same throughout the experiment.

Cooling of liquid 1. Heat gain from the surrounding may Improvement: Lagging to reduce heat loss to
cause the temperature to be higher. the surrounding
2. Mass of solid may not be the same as Provide a cover to reduce heat loss through
the mass that is measured as some may rising hot air.
be stuck onto the filter paper. Place a Styrofoam cup around the beaker to
3. The amount of stirring in the two provide insulation to reduce heat conducted
experiments is different due to the to/from the surrounding.
different exposed areas of the cups (one
with hole in lid and the other without Precaution: Ensure the bulb of the
lid). thermometer is at the centre of the
4. It is difficult to read the thermometer fluid/immersed.
and stopwatch at the same time. The
temperature read at each interval may
not be correct
5. Temperature throughout water may not
be uniform because stirring is difficult.

Mixing of liquids at 1. Initial temperature of water may not be that of

different temperatures boiling water due to loss of heat to
surrounding when transferring it to water.
Thus, tx and tw may be inaccurate.
2. Final temperature (TF) measured may not be
that of the mixture because heat is also lost to
the surrounding.

Electricity 1 The wire becomes hot after some time and Improvement: Open the switch after every
thus value of I may be different (heat reading.
dissipated at wire will affect resistance of
wire and hence values of I).
2 There are kinks in the wire and thus wire
 cannot be straightened on ruler.
3 The wires are not of uniform thickness thus
the readings taken at each point may not
reflect the actual values.
4 The reference point in which the wire is
measured is not consistent, thus affecting
length l.
5 Contact of jockey is not consistent thus
causing some variations in the reading of I.
6 The batteries may be old and not able to
supply as a consistent emf, thus affecting the
current.
7 There are fluctuations of the pointer making it
difficult to obtain the accurate value of V. (in
some instances).