Fundamentals of

Electric Circuits
Chapter 15

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Overview
• This chapter introduces the Laplace
Transform.
• The properties of the transform will be
discussed.
• The inverse transform and convolution
integral will also be covered.
• Finally, the general approach to using the
Laplace transform in circuit analysis will be
introduced.

2
 Laplace Transform
• We have seen that a powerful technique for
circuit analysis is to perform a time domain
to frequency domain transformation.
• Now we will look at a more generalized
approach to this, called the Laplace
transformation.
• It has the advantage of making solutions
simpler.
• It also is capable of providing the total
response of the circuit with both the natural
and forced responses.
3
 Laplace Transform II
• Given a function f(t) its Laplace transform is:
∞

ℒ[𝑓 𝑡 ] = 𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0−
• Where s is a complex variable given by:
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
• This parameter has the dimensions of
frequency.
• The lower limit is denoted as 𝟎− to include
any discontinuities present at t=0

4
 Laplace Transform III
• The Laplace transform is considered a
transformation from t-domain to s-domain.
• s can be seen as the complex frequency
domain.
• In circuit analysis, the differential equations
that describe the circuit behavior are
converted to algebraic equations in the s-
domain
• The complementary function is the inverse
Laplace transform 𝜎 +𝑗∞ 1
1
ℒ −1 𝑓 𝑠 =𝑓 𝑡 = න 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗
𝜎1 −𝑗∞
5
 Properties of the Transform
• Linearity: If F1(s) and F2(s) are the transforms
of f1(t) and f2(t) respectively, then:
ℒ 𝑎1 𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝑎1 𝑓1 (𝑠) 𝑎2 𝑓2 (𝑠)
• Scaling: If F(s) is the transform of f(t)
1 𝑠
ℒ 𝑓 𝑎𝑡 = 𝐹
𝑎 𝑎

• Time shifting
ℒ[𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹 𝑠

6
Properties of the Transform II
• Frequency shift:
ℒ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎)
• Time differentiation:
ℒ 𝑓′ 𝑡 = 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓(0− )

• Or
ℒ 𝑓′′ 𝑡 = 𝑠 2 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑓 0− − 𝑓′(0− )

• Or for the n’th derivative:

𝑑𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ= 𝑛
= 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓 0− − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′ 0− − ⋯ − 𝑠 0 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0− )
𝑑𝑡

7
Properties of the Transform III
• Time integration:
𝑡
1
ℒ න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠
0

• Frequency differentiation:
𝑑𝐹(𝑠)
ℒ 𝑡𝑓(𝑡) = −
𝑑𝑠
• Time periodicity: The function can be
considered to be composed of a sum of time
shifted functions
𝐹1 (𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 =
1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑠

8
 Initial and Final Values
• It is possible to get the initial value 𝒇 𝟎 and
final value 𝒇 ∞ of a function directly from
the Laplace transform:

𝑓 0 = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) 𝑓 ∞ = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)

𝑠→∞ 𝑠→0

9
Summary of Properties
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display

TABLE 15.1
Properties of the Laplace transform.
Property 𝑓 𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)
Linearity 𝑎1 𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡2 (𝑡) 𝑎1 𝐹1 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝐹2 (𝑠)

Scaling 𝑓(𝑎𝑡) 1 𝑠
𝐹
𝑎 𝑎
Time shift 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)

Frequency shift 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎)

Time 𝑑𝑓 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓 0−
differentiation 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑓 𝑠 2 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑓 0− − 𝑓′(0− )
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑3 𝑓 𝑠 3 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠 2 𝑓 0− − 𝑠𝑓 ′ 0− − 𝑓′′(0− )
𝑑𝑡 3
𝑑𝑛 𝑓 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓 0− − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′ 0−
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 − ⋯ − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0− )
𝑡 1
Time integration
𝐹(𝑠)
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑠
0

10
Summary of Properties II
Frequency 𝑡𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑
− 𝐹(𝑠)
differentiation 𝑑𝑠
𝑓(𝑡) ∞
Frequency
integration 𝑡 න 𝐹 𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑠

Time periodicity 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇) 𝐹1 (𝑠)

1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑇
Initial value 𝑓(0) lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠→∞

Final value 𝑓(∞) lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)

𝑠→0

Convolution 𝑓1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑓2 (𝑡) 𝐹1 (𝑠)𝐹2 (𝑠)

11
 Transform Pairs
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display

TABLE 15.2
Laplace transform pairs.*
f(t) F(s)

𝛿(𝑡) 1 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜔
𝑠2 + 𝜔2
𝑢(𝑡) 1
𝑠 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑠
𝑠2 +𝜔 2
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠+𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑠 sin 𝜃 + 𝜔 cos 𝜃
t 1 𝑠2 + 𝜔2
𝑠2
cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑠 cos 𝜃 + 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝑡𝑛 𝑛! 𝑠2 + 𝜔2
𝑠 𝑛+1
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜔
𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1 𝑠 + 𝑎 2𝜔2
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 (𝑠 + 𝑎)
𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑛!
𝑠 + 𝑎 2𝜔2
(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑛+1
*Defined for 𝑡 ≥ 0; 𝑓 𝑡 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0.

12
 Inverse Laplace Transform
• Although it is always possible to use the
formula for the inverse Laplace transform, it
is preferable to use the table of transform
pairs.
• Suppose that F(s) has the form:
𝑁(𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠)

• Where N(s) and D(s) are both polynomials.

13
 Inverse Transform
• The steps to finding the inverse transform
are:
1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using
partial fraction expansion.
2. Find the inverse from the transform pairs.
• Next we will consider three possible forms
F(s) may take and apply these two steps to
them.

14
 Simple Poles
• If F(s) has only simple poles, then it can be
expressed as:
𝑁(𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 … 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛

• Where 𝒔 = −𝒑𝟏 , −𝒑𝟐 , … , −𝒑𝒏 are the simple poles.

• This can be expanded as:
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑛
𝐹 𝑠 = + + + ⋯+
𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 𝑠 + 𝑝3 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛

15
 Simple Poles II
• With
𝑘𝑖 = 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 𝐹 𝑠 |𝑠=−𝑝𝑖

• Yielding:
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑝1𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 −𝑝2𝑡 + 𝑘3 𝑒 −𝑝3𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝑒 −𝑝𝑛𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

16
 Repeated Poles
• If F(s) has n repeated poles at s=-p, then:
𝑘𝑛 𝑘𝑛−1 𝑘2 𝑘1
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑛
+ + ⋯ + + + 𝐹1 (𝑠)
𝑠+𝑝 𝑠 + 𝑝 𝑛−1 𝑠+𝑝 2 𝑠+𝑝

• Where 𝑭𝟏 (𝒔) is the remaining part of F(s) that

does not have a pole at s=-p.
• The transform will be:

−𝑝𝑡 −𝑝𝑡
𝑘3 2 −𝑝𝑡 𝑘𝑛
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑘1 𝑒 + 𝑘1 𝑒 + 𝑡 𝑒 + ⋯+ 𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑝𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑓1 (𝑡)
2! 𝑛−1 !

17
 Complex Poles
• Handling complex poles can be done by
using the same techniques for simple poles.
• But it gets cumbersome to do.
• An alternative is to use a technique called
“completing the square”
• N(s) and D(s) always have real coefficients
• Complex roots of polynomials with real
coefficients must occur in conjugate pairs.

18
 Complex Poles II
• F(s) may have the general form
𝐴1 𝑠 + 𝐴2
𝐹 𝑠 = 2 + 𝐹1 (𝑠)
𝑠 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏

• Where 𝑭𝟏 (𝒔) is the remaining part that does

not have this pair.
• If we complete the square by letting:
𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 + 𝑎2 + 𝛽2 = 𝑠 + 𝑎 2 + 𝛽2

• And we let
𝐴1 𝑠 + 𝐴2 = 𝐴1 𝑠 + 𝑎 + 𝐵1 𝛽

19
 Complex Poles III
• Then F(s) becomes:
𝐴1 (𝑠 + 𝑎) 𝐵1 𝛽
𝐹 𝑠 = + + 𝐹1 (𝑠)
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 +𝛽2 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2 +𝛽2

• The inverse transform of this is:

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin 𝛽𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)𝑓1 (𝑡)

• An alternate general solution is to substitute

convenient values of s to obtain as many
simultaneous equations as the number of
unknown coefficients and solve for them.

20
 The Convolution Integral
• Convolution means folding.
• It is a valuable tool as it provides a means of
viewing and characterizing physical systems.
• For example it is used in finding the
response y(t) of a system to an excitation
x(t), knowing the impulse response h(t).
• This is done using the convolution integral:
∞
𝑦 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜆 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 or 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ(𝑡)

21
 The Convolution Integral II
• In the integral, 𝛌 is a dummy variable.
• The asterisk denotes convolution.
• The convolution process is commutative,
meaning the order in which the two functions
are convolved does not matter.
• The convolution of two signals consists of
time-reversing one of the signals, shifting it,
and multiplying it point by point with the
second signal and integrating the product.

22
 Simplified Integral
• If x(t)=0 for 𝐭 < 𝟎, and if the system’s impulse
response is causal (h(t)=0 for 𝐭 < 𝟎), then:
𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜆 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
0
• Here are some properties:
1. 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ℎ 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡 ∗𝑥 𝑡
2. 𝑓(𝑡)∗ 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)∗ 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑓(𝑡)∗ 𝑦 𝑡
3. 𝑓(𝑡)∗ 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 ∗𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝑦(𝑡)

23
 Integral Properties
• Here are some more properties:
∞

𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝛿 𝑡 = න 𝑓 𝜆 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑓(𝑡)
−∞
𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑡0
∞

𝑓(𝑡)∗ 𝛿 ′ 𝑡 = න 𝑓 𝜆 𝛿 ′ 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑓′(𝑡)
−∞
∞ 𝑡

𝑓 𝑡 ∗ 𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝑓 𝜆 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = න 𝑓 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
−∞ −∞

24
 Relationship to Laplace
• The convolution integral and the Laplace
transformation can be related to each other:
• Given two functions f1(t) and f2(t) with
Laplace transforms F1(s) and F2(s).
𝑡

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑓2 𝑡 = න 𝑓1 𝜆 𝑓2 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
0

• Taking the Laplace transform gives:

𝐹 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑓1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝐹1 (𝑠)𝐹2 (𝑠)

25
 t-domain vs. s-domain
• From this we can see that many cases of
convolution are simply multiplication in the
s-domain.
• But sometimes the product is too
complicated to do the inverse transform of.
• Or there may only be numerical data for the
input and no Laplace transform exists. In
these cases, the convolution is better to be
done in the time domain.

26
 Steps to Evaluate
1. Folding: Take the mirror image of 𝒉(𝝀) about
the ordinate axis to obtain 𝒉(−𝝀).
2. Displacement: Shift or delay 𝒉(−𝝀) by t to
obtain 𝒉(𝒕 − 𝝀).
3. Multiplication: Find the product of 𝒉(𝒕 − 𝝀)
and 𝒙(𝝀).
4. Integration: For a given time t, calculate the
area under the product 𝒉(𝒕 − 𝝀) 𝒙(𝝀) for 𝟎 <
𝝀 < 𝒕 to get 𝒚(𝝀) at t.

27
 Application to
Integrodifferential Equations
• The Laplace transform is useful in solving
linear integrodifferential equations.
• Using the differential and integral properties
of Laplace transforms, each term in the
equation is transformed.
• Initial conditions are automatically taken into
account.
• The resulting algebraic equation is solved in
the s-domain.

28
 Application to
Integrodifferential Equations
II
• The solution is then converted back to time
domain by using the inverse transform.

29
 King Abdulaziz University
EE 301 – Electrical Circuits and Systems

Ch 15: The Convolution

Integral

Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

Chapter 15 Learning Outcomes

• By using the information and exercises in this chapter you will be

able to:
1) Understand the convolution integral and how to use it in the
time domain and its equivalence in the s-domain.

2
 Properties of The Laplace Transform
Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

3
 Laplace Transform Pairs
Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

• Table 15.2 summarizes the Laplace transforms of some common functions.

4
 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

The Convolution Integral

5
 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

The Convolution Integral

• Convolution, represented as "folding," is an essential tool in engineering for characterizing physical systems.

• It helps in determining the output response 𝒚𝒚(𝒕𝒕) of a system when it is subjected to an excitation (input) 𝒙𝒙(𝒕𝒕),
given that the system impulse response 𝒉𝒉(𝒕𝒕) is known (The Impulse response describes how a system reacts to
a brief, instantaneous input, known as an impulse. The impulse response is the inverse of LaPlace transform
of the S-domain output of the circuit.)

• This is achieved through the convolution integral, defined as:

∞
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑥𝑥(𝜆𝜆)ℎ(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞

• This can also be represented more simply as:

𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡𝑡)

• Here, 𝜆𝜆 is a placeholder variable (“dummy" variable of integration) and the asterisk denotes convolution. These
equations imply that the output is equivalent to the input convolved with the unit impulse response.

6
 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

The Convolution Integral

• The convolution operation is commutative, which means the order of the two functions being convolved
does not matter. This is expressed as:
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
• Or, in the form of a convolution integral:
∞ ∞
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑥𝑥(𝜆𝜆)ℎ(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � ℎ(𝜆𝜆)𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞ −∞

• The process of convolution involves time-reversing one of the signals, shifting it, multiplying it point by
point with the second signal, and integrating the product.
• If the system is such that 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡𝑡 < 0, then the convolution integral simplifies to:
∞ ∞
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑥𝑥(𝜆𝜆)ℎ(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑥𝑥(𝜆𝜆)ℎ(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞ 0

• Further, if the system's impulse response is causal (i.e., ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡𝑡 < 0 ), then the convolution
integral further simplifies to:
𝑡𝑡
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑥𝑥(𝜆𝜆)ℎ(𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
7
 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

The Convolution Integral

• The convolution integral has several key properties:
o It is commutative: 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
o It is distributive: 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ [𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)] = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)
o It is associative: 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ [𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)] = [𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)] ∗ 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)
• Several important results concerning convolution integral include:
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝛿𝛿 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝛿𝛿 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝑡𝑡
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) = ∫−∞ 𝑓𝑓(𝜆𝜆)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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The Convolution Integral

- This property implies that convolution in the time domain is equivalent to multiplication in the frequency
domain.

- Evaluating the convolution integral involves four steps: folding (take the mirror image of the function about the
ordinate axis), displacement (shift the function by a certain value), multiplication (find the product of the shifted
function and another function), and integration (calculate the area under the product for a given time).

- Convolution is also known as the superposition integral due to the superposition or overlay of two functions during the
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The Convolution Integral

• The procedure to evaluate convolution integral is often better understood graphically.
• The key equation is: 𝐹𝐹1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐹𝐹2 (𝑠𝑠) = ℒ 𝑓𝑓1 (𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑓𝑓2 (𝑡𝑡) . This indicates the relationship between the
Laplace transform and the convolution integral, and shows that the convolution of two functions
in the time domain translates to multiplication of their Laplace transforms in the frequency
domain.
• In some cases, especially when the product 𝐹𝐹1 (𝑠𝑠)𝐹𝐹2 (𝑠𝑠) is complicated or when the functions are
available as experimental data without explicit Laplace transforms, convolution must be done in
the time domain.

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Example 15.12

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Example 15.12

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Example 15.12
• To find the convolution of two functions, 𝑥𝑥1 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑥𝑥2 (𝑡𝑡), the following
steps are performed. The goal is to get 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥1 (𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑥𝑥2 (𝑡𝑡).
• Step 1: The function 𝑥𝑥1 (𝑡𝑡) is folded and shifted by a time period 𝑡𝑡 (t=0.5).

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Example 15.12
• For different values of 𝑡𝑡 , the two
functions are multiplied and
integrated to determine the area of
the overlapping region. The results
vary based on the value of 𝑡𝑡:

• At each time period, t is shifted to the

right by 1 in this example.

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Example 15.12

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Example 15.12

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Example 15.12

• Straight line
equations.

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Practice Problem 15.12

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Practice Problem 15.12

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Practice Problem 15.12

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Practice Problem 15.12

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Practice Problem 15.12

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Practice Problem 15.12

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Example 15.13

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Example 15.13
(1,1)

(0,0)

• Put t=0 since the function hasn’t been shifted.

(-1,1)

(0,0)

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Example 15.13
• Shifting the function to the right by t.

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Example 15.13

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Example 15.13

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Example 15.13

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Example 15.13

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Example 15.13

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Example 15.14

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Example 15.14
• The impulse response of a circuit is the output that results
when you apply an impulse signal as an input.

Convert the circuit

to the S-Domain.

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Example 15.14

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Example 15.14
1. Definition and Presentation: The given problem is to compute the response 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) to 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡)
as shown in Fig. 15.21(b), using the convolution integral.
2. Alternative Solutions: The convolution integral and graphical representation are both valid
methods for solving the problem. We will first use the convolution integral and then verify
the result graphically.
3. Approach and Attempt: To start the problem, the unit impulse response ℎ(𝑡𝑡) of the circuit
is needed. In the s-domain, using the current division principle, the equation becomes

1
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 𝐼𝐼
𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 1
• This leads to 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = = , which after inverse Laplace transform gives 𝒉𝒉(𝒕𝒕) = 𝒆𝒆−𝒕𝒕 𝒖𝒖(𝒕𝒕). The
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠+1
impulse response 𝒉𝒉(𝒕𝒕) can be visualized as shown in Fig. 15.22(b).

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Example 15.14

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Example 15.14
contributions for 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 2 and 𝑡𝑡 > 2, recognizing
that after 𝑡𝑡 > 2, both parts of the excitation play
roles in shaping the response:

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Example 15.14
1. Graphical Technique Setup: To evaluate the problem using the
graphical technique,
we start by folding 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) in Fig. 15.21(b) and shifting it by 𝑡𝑡. This
modified 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) is shown in Fig. 15.23(a).

2. Overlap Evaluation for 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 2: For the time interval 0 < 𝑡𝑡 <
2, the overlap between 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡 − 𝜆𝜆)
and ℎ(𝜆𝜆) is from 0 to 𝑡𝑡. This allows us to set up the integral:

𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
Evaluating this integral from 0 to 𝑡𝑡 yields:

𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = −𝜆𝜆
− 𝑒𝑒 � = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2
0

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Example 15.14
3. Overlap Evaluation for 𝑡𝑡 > 2: For 𝑡𝑡 > 2, the two functions
overlap between (𝑡𝑡 − 2) and 𝑡𝑡,
as shown in Fig. 15.23(b). Consequently, we set up a new integral:

𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡−2
Evaluating this integral from (𝑡𝑡 − 2) to 𝑡𝑡 gives us:

𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = −𝜆𝜆
− 𝑒𝑒 � = −𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑡𝑡−2) = (𝑒𝑒 2 − 1)𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 > 2
𝑡𝑡−2

3. Combining the Results: From the two equations derived above,

we can express the response 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) as:

1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) = � 2
(𝑒𝑒 − 1)𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 > 2

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Example 15.14

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Questions

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