Chapter 2: Basic Physics of
Semiconductors - Detailed Notes
2.1 Semiconductor Materials and Their Properties
This section breaks down the fundamental concepts: what charge carriers are, how their
numbers can be controlled, and how they move to create current.
2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids
• Silicon Crystal Structure: Silicon (Si), a Group IV element, is the cornerstone of
microelectronics. In a pure crystal, each Si atom forms four covalent bonds with its
neighbors by sharing its four valence electrons. At absolute zero temperature (T → 0 K), all
valence electrons are locked in these bonds, and silicon behaves as an insulator.
• Electron-Hole Pairs: At higher temperatures, thermal energy can break a covalent bond,
liberating an electron. This free electron acts as a negative charge carrier, while the vacancy
(hole) behaves as a positive charge carrier. The process of creating a free electron and a
hole is electron-hole pair generation, while recombination is when an electron fills a hole.
• Bandgap Energy (Eg): A minimum amount of energy is required to free an electron from
its covalent bond. For silicon, Eg = 1.12 eV. Materials are classified by their bandgap:
Insulators (Eg > 2.5 eV), Conductors (very small Eg), Semiconductors (1–1.5 eV).
• Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (ni): In a pure semiconductor, the concentration of free
electrons (n) is equal to the concentration of holes (p), and this value is denoted by ni. At
room temperature (T = 300 K), ni ≈ 1.08 × 10^10 cm⁻³ for silicon, which is very small
compared to the ~5 × 10^22 silicon atoms per cm³.
2.1.2 Modification of Carrier Densities (Doping)
To make silicon useful, its resistivity is modified by doping—the controlled addition of
impurity atoms. A doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
• n-type Semiconductor: Doping with a Group V element like Phosphorus (P), called a donor,
adds atoms with five valence electrons. This creates an excess of free electrons (majority
carriers).
• p-type Semiconductor: Doping with a Group III element like Boron (B), called an acceptor,
adds atoms with three valence electrons. This creates excess holes (majority carriers).
• Mass Action Law: Even in doped semiconductors, the product of electron and hole
concentrations at equilibrium remains constant: np = ni². For n-type: n ≈ ND, p ≈ ni² / ND.
For p-type: p ≈ NA, n ≈ ni² / NA.