Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 2 Summary Notes
Evolution Overview
Evolution (from Latin evolûtion – “unfolding”) is the gradual change of entities over time, from
simple to complex forms. In biology it denotes the development of organisms through a sequence of
modifications.
Definition – Evolution is a process of development of an entity in the course of time through a
gradual sequence of changes from simple to complex form.
Key ideas:
➢ Requires integration of physics, chemistry, and mathematics to uncover biological truth.
➢ Involves both gradual change and historical development of life.
Theories of Origin:
Theory of Special Creation
➢ Proposes that all living entities were created by a divine being (e.g., God) in their present form.
➢ Species are fixed and immutable; no inter-relationship among origins.
➢ Notable advocates: Father Suarez (1548-1613) and early Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778).
Theory of Evolution:
➢ Argues that organisms arise gradually from simple to complex via natural laws.
➢ First major proponent: George Buffon (1749-1788) – introduced geological time scale and
continuous change.
Aspect Special Creation Evolution
Origin of species Created fully formed Developed over time
Changeability Fixed Dynamic
Mechanism Divine act Natural processes (e.g., natural selection)
Suarez, Linnaeus
Key supporters Buffon, later Darwin, Wallace
(initially)
Evidence for Evolution
Evidence from Biogeography:
➢ Distribution of marsupials (kangaroos, koalas) across America, Australia, New Guinea suggests past
continental connectivity (Pangaea).
Evidence from Paleontology:
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Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 3 Summary Notes
➢ Fossil Archaeopteryx (≈150 Myr) shows a mix of avian (feathers, beak) and reptilian (teeth, clawed
forelimbs) traits, indicating a transitional stage.
Evidence from Comparative Anatomy
Homologous Organs (Divergent Evolution)
➢ Human arm, dolphin flipper, horse fore-limb, bat wing share the same pentadactyl skeletal plan.
Analogous Organs (Convergent Evolution)
➢ Wings of birds, bats, and insects perform flight but arise from different anatomical structures.
Evidence from Molecular Biology
➢ The genetic code is universal; e.g., inserting mammalian hemoglobin mRNA into E. coli yields
functional hemoglobin, showing shared translational machinery.
➢ Antibiotic resistance in bacteria demonstrates natural selection at the molecular level: mutations
confer survival advantage under drug pressure.
Evolution of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes
➢ Early Earth was covered by water; life likely originated in hydrothermal vents.
➢ Archaebacteria thrived in extreme conditions, later gave rise to diverse metabolic pathways
(heterotrophy → autotrophy).
Two Main Hypotheses
Hypothesis Core Idea Supporting Features
Membrane Prokaryotic plasma membrane Presence of internal membranes,
Invagination folded inward, enclosing DNA → nuclear envelope.
nucleus; other vesicles became
organelles.
Endosymbiotic Larger anaerobic prokaryote Mitochondria & chloroplasts
Theory engulfed aerobic bacteria → possess their own circular DNA,
(Lynn Margulis) mitochondria; later engulfed ribosomes, reproduce by binary fission,
photosynthetic bacteria → and have similar metabolism to bacteria.
chloroplasts.
Lamarckism
➢ Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) proposed Inheritance of Acquired Characters.
➢ Two postulates:
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Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 4 Summary Notes
1. Use & Disuse – Organs repeatedly used become stronger; unused organs weaken.
2. Inheritance – Traits acquired during an individual’s life are passed to offspring.
➢ Classic example: giraffe neck elongation due to continual stretching to reach high foliage.
Drawbacks: No experimental support; acquired traits affect somatic cells, not germ line; fails to
explain genetic variation.
Darwinism
Darwin’s Voyage & Observations
➢ HMS Beagle (1831-1836) collected finches on the Galápagos Islands; each species possessed beaks
adapted to specific food sources.
Theory of Natural Selection
Natural Selection – Heritable traits that increase survival and reproductive success become more
common in a population over time.
Four essential steps (often listed numerically):
1. Overproduction – Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support.
2. Struggle for Existence – Competition for resources, predation, disease, etc. (intra- and
inter-specific).
3. Genetic Variation – Individuals differ genetically; some possess adaptive traits.
4. Survival of the Fittest – Those with advantageous traits reproduce more, passing alleles to the next
generation.
• Descent with Modification – All species trace back to common ancestors; the “tree of life”
visualizes branching lineages.
Influential Pre-Darwinian Thinkers
Thinker Contribution to Darwin
Charles Lyell Uniformitarianism → gradual geological change parallels biological
change.
James Hutton Same processes shaping Earth now have always operated; concept of
deep time.
Thomas Malthus Highlighted competition for limited resources, inspiring “survival of the
fittest”.
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Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 5 Summary Notes
Alfred Russell Wallace
• Independently formulated natural selection; his joint 1858 presentation with Darwin prompted the
latter’s 1859 Origin of Species publication.
Neo-Darwinism & Population Genetics
Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium:
➢ Equation: , where = frequency of dominant allele, = frequency of recessive allele.
➢ Predicts genotype frequencies remain constant if: large population, random mating, no mutation,
migration, or selection.
Example Calculation (given , ):
➢ Heterozygotes: → 31 %.
➢ Homozygous recessives: → 66 %.
Factors Disrupting Equilibrium:
Factor Effect
Mutations Introduce new alleles.
Selection Favours certain genotypes.
Non-random mating Alters genotype proportions.
Gene flow Exchanges alleles between populations.
Genetic Drift (Neutral Selection)
➢ Random fluctuation of allele frequencies, most pronounced in small populations.
Types of Drift
Type Description
Bottlene Sudden reduction in population size (e.g., volcanic eruption) leading to loss of
ck Effect genetic variation.
Founder A few individuals colonize a new area; their gene pool shapes the new
Effect population.
Neo-Darwinism (Modern Synthesis)
➢ Integrates Darwinian selection with Mendelian genetics and population genetics.
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Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 6 Summary Notes
➢ Main driving force: genetic variation within a gene pool, shaped by mutation, drift, gene flow, and
selection.
Speciation Mechanisms
Main Isolation Typical
Mode Geographic Context
Mechanism Example
Populations separated by
Lack of gene flow →
Allopatric physical barriers (mountains, Island species.
divergence.
oceans).
Small peripheral isolate Strong drift & selection Island
Peripatric
splits from main population. in small group. dwarfism.
Plant
Adjacent but distinct Behavioral or ecological
Parapatric populations on climate
habitats; limited overlap. differences.
borders.
Same geographic area; Polyploidy, habitat Cichlid fish
Sympatric reproductive isolation arises differentiation, sexual radiations in African
internally. selection. lakes.
📚 Summary
• Evolution = gradual change from simple to complex; supported by biogeography, fossils, anatomy,
and molecular data.
• Homologous organs → divergent evolution (common ancestry).
• Analogous organs → convergent evolution (independent origins).
• Eukaryotes likely arose via membrane invagination or endosymbiosis; mitochondria & chloroplasts
retain bacterial traits.
• Lamarckism introduced use-disuse & inheritance of acquired traits, later disproved but
foreshadowed epigenetics.
• Darwin’s natural selection explains adaptation through overproduction, competition, variation, and
differential survival.
• Neo-Darwinism merges selection with genetics; Hardy–Weinberg provides a null model, while drift,
bottleneck, and founder effects illustrate stochastic forces.
• Speciation can occur via allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, or sympatric routes, each with distinct
geographic and reproductive contexts.
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Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 7 Summary Notes
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Chapter: Evolution (PMDC-2025) 8 Summary Notes
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