Chapter: Inheritance (PMDC-2025) 2 Summary Notes
Laws of Mendel
➢ Law of Dominance – When two contrasting alleles are present in a hybrid (F₁) generation,
only one allele (the dominant allele) is expressed while the other (the recessive allele) is
completely masked.
➢ Law of Segregation – Each organism possesses two factors (alleles) for a trait; these alleles
separate during gamete formation so that each gamete receives only one allele.
➢ Law of Independent Assortment – Alleles of different genes assort independently during
gamete formation, producing all possible combinations of traits.
The table visualizes the eight contrasting pea-plant characters, showing the dominant trait (top row) and
recessive trait (bottom row) for each characteristic.
➢ Mendel used Pisum sativum (garden pea) because it self-pollinates, has large flowers for manual
crossing, and displays clearly contrasting traits.
➢ Seven independent traits were studied (height, seed shape, seed color, seed coat, pod shape, pod
color, flower position).
Law of Segregation
➢ Monohybrid cross (single trait):
o Parental genotypes: RR × rr → F₁ genotype Rr (100 % dominant phenotype).
o F₁ self-pollination: Rr × Rr → phenotypic ratio (dominant : recessive).
o Genotypic ratio (RR : Rr : rr).
➢ Test cross – Cross a phenotypically dominant individual with a homozygous recessive partner
to determine its genotype:
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Chapter: Inheritance (PMDC-2025) 3 Summary Notes
Cross Expected offspring
TT × tt 100 % tall (all )
Tt × tt 50 % tall, 50 % dwarf ( : )
Law of Independent Assortment (Dihybrid Cross)
➢ Mendel’s dihybrid cross (two traits) produced the classic phenotypic ratio.
The diagram traces the cross between a tall, wrinkled-seed plant (TTRR) and a dwarf, round-seed plant
(ttrr), showing the F₁ genotype TtRr and the assorted gametes that generate the F₂ phenotypes.
• Parental (P) phenotypes: Tall-Round (T-R) and Dwarf-Wrinkled (t-r).
• F₂ phenotypic classes:
o 9 Tall-Round
o 3 Tall-Wrinkled
o 3 Dwarf-Round
o 1 Dwarf-Wrinkled
Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete (partial) dominance – In heterozygotes both alleles are expressed, producing an
intermediate phenotype rather than masking one another.
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Crossing a pure-red (R₁R₁) with a pure-white (R₂R₂) flower yields F₁ pink (R₁R₂). Self-pollination of the pink F₁
gives a ratio of red : pink : white.
➢ Genotypic notation: (red), (pink), (white).
Co-Dominance
Co-dominance – Both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote, producing a phenotype that
shows both parental traits simultaneously, without blending.
Trait Incomplete Dominance Co-Dominance
Phenotype New intermediate Both parental phenotypes appear
generation phenotype (e.g., pink flower) together (e.g., roan cattle, MN blood)
Quantitativ Alleles expressed partially Alleles expressed equally (distinct)
e expression (blended)
Example 4-o’clock flower colour Human AB blood type
Multiple Alleles – ABO Blood Group
Multiple alleles – More than two allelic forms exist for a single genetic locus in the population.
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The table lists the three ABO alleles (Iᴬ, Iᴮ, i) and their six possible genotype combinations.
Blood Group Genotype(s) Antigen(s) on RBC Phenotype
A IᴬIᴬ, Iᴬi A A
B IᴮIᴮ, Iᴮi B B
AB IᴬIᴮ A&B AB
O ii none O
➢ Co-dominance of Iᴬ and Iᴮ produces the AB phenotype; i is recessive to both.
Rh Blood System & Erythroblastosis Fetalis:
➢ Rh locus (D): allele D (Rh⁺) is dominant over d (Rh⁻).
➢ Genotypes: DD or Dd → Rh⁺ phenotype; dd → Rh⁻ phenotype.
➢ Erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn)
1. Rh⁻ mother carries an Rh⁺ fetus (e.g., father DD).
2. During first pregnancy, fetal Rh⁺ cells enter maternal circulation → mother produces anti-Rh
antibodies.
3. In a subsequent Rh⁺ pregnancy, maternal anti-Rh IgG crosses the placenta, destroys fetal RBCs →
anemia, jaundice, possible stillbirth.
Prevention – Administer Rh immune-globulin (Rh antiserum) to the mother during early pregnancy
and after delivery to neutralize fetal Rh⁺ cells before her immune system can respond.
Polygenic Inheritance & Epistasis
Polygenic Traits
➢ Definition – Many genes (each with small effect) act additively to produce a quantitative
phenotype..
➢ Wheat grain colour: Controlled by three loci (A/a, B/b, C/c).
o Genotype → Phenotype (example):
▪ AABBCC → dark red
▪ aabbcc → white
▪ Intermediate genotypes produce progressively lighter shades (seven phenotypic
classes).
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Chapter: Inheritance (PMDC-2025) 6 Summary Notes
Epistasis:
Epistasis – Interaction where one gene (the epistatic gene) masks or modifies the expression of
another gene (the hypostatic gene) located at a different locus.
Dominant Epistasis (Foxglove)
The diagram demonstrates a phenotypic ratio: the W gene (white-spot) is epistatic to the D gene (purple
intensity), producing white-spotted flowers when WW is present.
Gene Effect
M (or D) – promotes anthocyanin synthesis (purple)
W blocks pigment deposition except in spots (epistatic)
Labrador Retriever Coat Colour (Recessive Epistasis):
Genotypes & phenotypes:
o B_ E_ → black
o b_ E_ → chocolate
o __ ee → yellow (epistatic mask)
Human Skin Colour:
➢ Human skin colour is a polygenic trait (controlled by 3–6 genes).
➢ Colour depends on melanin pigment:
• More melanin → darker skin.
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• Less melanin → lighter skin.
➢ Genes act in an additive manner: more dominant (dark-skin) alleles → more melanin.
Gene A: controls survival, proliferation, migration of melanocytes.
Gene B: controls synthesis of tyrosinase enzyme → converts tyrosine into melanin.
Gene C: decides the type of melanin (black/brown eumelanin or red/yellow
pheomelanin).
➢ Dark-skin alleles = ABC; light-skin alleles = abc.
➢ In heterozygous condition → incomplete dominance → intermediate shades.
➢ There are 7 shades of skin colour: very light → medium → very dark.
➢ Cross between heterozygotes (AaBbCc × AaBbCc) can produce 64 combinations,
giving 7 possible skin colour variations.
Gene Linkage & Crossing Over
Linkage
Linkage – Genes residing on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together because they
segregate as a unit.
The diagram shows linked genes V (wing) and B (body colour) in Drosophila. A test cross of the heterozygote
(VvBb) with a double mutant (vvbb) yields mainly parental phenotypes, indicating linkage.
➢ Complete linkage → only parental gametes (ratio ).
➢ Partial linkage → parental types predominate, recombinant types appear at lower frequency.
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Chapter: Inheritance (PMDC-2025) 8 Summary Notes
Crossing Over
➢ Crossing over – During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes exchange non-sister chromatid
segments, producing recombinant chromosomes and increasing genetic variation.
➢ Without crossover → only parental gametes (TB, tb).
➢ With crossover → recombinant gametes (Tb, tB) appear, altering phenotypic ratios.
Sex Determination:
XO System (Grasshopper)
Females have 22 + XX, males 22 + X (XO). The missing second sex chromosome makes males heterogametic.
➢ Mechanism – Egg (22 + XX) fertilized by X-bearing sperm → female (XX). Egg fertilized by
nullo-sperm (no sex chromosome) → male (XO).
ZZ/ZW System (Birds, some insects):
Females are heterogametic (ZW), males homogametic (ZZ). The female determines sex of the offspring.
• Z + Z → male; Z + W → female.
XY System (Humans & many mammals)
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Both sexes have 44 autosomes; sex chromosomes differ: XX (female) vs XY (male).
• X-linked genes: present in two copies in females, one in males.
• Y-linked (holandric) genes: passed only from father to son.
Sex-Linked Inheritance
X-Linked Recessive (Drosophila eye colour)
Crossing a white-eyed male (XᴡY) with a red-eyed female (XᴿXᴿ) yields all red-eyed offspring. Reversing the
cross (white-eyed female × red-eyed male) produces red-eyed females and white-eyed males,
demonstrating X-linked inheritance.
➢ Key points:
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o Males express the trait if their single X carries the recessive allele.
o Carrier females are heterozygous (XᴿXᴡ) and usually phenotypically normal.
Pedigree of X-Linked Recessive Trait:
➢ Interpretation – Affected males receive the mutant allele from their carrier mothers; daughters of
an affected father are obligate carriers.
X-Linked Dominant Inheritance
• Pattern – Affected heterozygous females transmit the trait to 50 % of sons and 50 % of daughters;
an affected male transmits the trait to all daughters but no sons.
Sex-Limited & Sex-Influenced Traits
➢ Sex-limited – Genes present in both sexes but expressed in only one (e.g., beard growth in men,
horns in male sheep).
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➢ Sex-influenced – Autosomal genes whose phenotypic expression differs between sexes (e.g.,
baldness: dominant in males, recessive in females).
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Chapter: Inheritance (PMDC-2025) 12 Summary Notes
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Chapter: Inheritance (PMDC-2025) 13 Summary Notes
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