Syllables

1. In phonetics, a syllable is a group of sounds that are pronounced together. Every

English word consists of one or more complete syllables.

glad consists of one syllable: glæd

coming consists of two sylables: ˈkʌm and ɪŋ

So does valley: 'væl and i

tobacco consists of three syllables: tə, 'bæk, and əʊ or ou

Each syllable contains exactly one vowel. This vowel may be preceded or followed by
one or more consonants. The vowel itself may be a short vowel, a long vowel, or a
diphthong; or, if it is the weak vowel ə, it may be combined with a nasal or liquic to
give a SYLLABIC CONSONANT.

2 Phonetic (spoken) syllables must not be confused with orthographic (written)

syllables. An orthographic syllable is a group of letters in spelling. When a word is
split across two lines of writing, it should be broken at an orthographic syllable
boundary. (Word processors do this automatically with a hyphenation program.) In
some cases an orthographic boundary may not correspond exactly to a phonetic
syllable boundary. For example, in the word happen the spelling includes two ps, and
the orthographic syllabification is [Link]. But the pronunciation has only a single p,
and the syllables are ˈhæp and ᵊn

Wells, J.C., 2010

Syllabic consonants

1 Most syllables contain an obvious vowel sound. Sometimes, though, a syllable

consists phonetically only of a consonant or consonants if so. This consonant for one
of them) is a nasal (usually n) or a liquid (/l/ or. especially in AmE. /r/). For example,
in the usual pronunciation of suddenly /ˈsʌd ən li/ the second syllable consists of /n/
alone. Such a consonant is a syllabic consonant.

2 Instead of a syllabic consonant it is always possible to pronounce a vowel /ə/ plus

an ordinary (non-syllabic) consonant. Thus it is possible, though not usual, to say /
ˈsʌd ən li / rather than / ˈsʌd n li /

6 Syllabic consonants are also sometimes used where LPD shows italic ə plus a nasal
or liquid, thus distant /ˈdɪst ᵊnt/. Although there is a possible pronunciation ˈdɪstᵊnt,
LPD recommends /ˈdɪst ənt/. (In some varieties of English or styles of speech, a
syllabic consonant may in fact arise from almost any sequence of ə and a nasal or
liquid.)

7When followed by a weak vowel, a syllabic consonant may lose its syllabic quality,
becoming a plain non-syllabic consonant: see COMPRESSION. For example,
threatening /ˈθret ᵊn ɪŋ /may be pronounced with three syllables, including syllabic
/n/, thus /ˈθret.n.ɪŋ/; or compressed into two syllables, with plain /n/, thus /
ˈθret.nɪŋ /.

Wells, J.C., 2010

2.4. Structure of a syllable

A syllable can be a single vowel in isolation, in which case it is preceded and followed
by silence, it is known as minimum syllable. Some syllables may have an onset, i.e.
the vowel may be preceded by one or more consonants while other syllables may
have a coda, i.e. the vowel may be followed by one or more consonants. Sometimes,
the syllable may have both, an onset and a coda. Both the onset and the coda can
have more than one consonant and we call this set of consonants: consonant
clusters. In English there are a set of consonant clusters that can occur either in initial
or final position (Roach, 2016).

☝ For more information on the structure of a syllable read chapter 8 “The syllable”
by Peter Roach available on your Moodle virtual classroom.

☝ For more information on syllabification read page XXVII by J. C. Wells available

on your Moodle virtual classroom.

2.5. Phonotactic rules

In order to be able to divide words into syllables we are going to take into account
some phonotactic[1] constraints[2]:

1. “Consonants go with whichever of the two vowels is more strongly stressed

(or, if they are equally stressed, with the preceding vowel). Long vowels and
diphthongs can be in final position” (Brown, 2015, p. 93);
2. Stressed syllables cannot end with a short vowel (i.e., they must be closed with
a final consonant) (Brown, 2015, p. 93): /ʌ, æ, e, ɒ, ʊ, ɪ/;
3. The maximal onset principle states that intervocalic consonants go with the
following vowel, wherever possible, that is, consonants tend to be onsets
rather than codas;
4. Weak vowels: /ə, ɪ, u, i/ can be a syllable on their own;
5. “Syllable divisions cannot create clusters that are otherwise impermissible.
Thus, panda can be considered /pæn.də/ or /pænd.ə/, but not /pæ.ndə/, as
/nd/ is an impermissible initial cluster” (Brown, 2015, p. 93);
6. “Syllable boundaries occur at morpheme boundaries. For instance, loose‐
tongued, regardless of whether you think it should be written as one word,
hyphenated, or two words, analysts would always break it at the morpheme
division: /luːs.tʌŋd/” (Brown, 2015, p. 93);
7. “Two consonants are split between the two syllables” (Brown, 2015, p. 93);
 Brown claims that:

Allophonic detail may be a strong clue. A clear /l/ between two

vowels is perceived as initial in the second syllable, because clear
/l/s appear in the onset position. An aspirated plosive is perceived
as initial in the second syllable because aspirated plosives appear
in the onset position. Spelling has been claimed to have some
effect on syllabification judgments. In a word like yellow, the /l/ is
taken to belong to the first syllable because the spelling sequence
ll cannot start words in English (with the possible exception of
foreign words such as llama), but can end words such as
yell (2015, p. 93).

 Read the article on the types of orthographic syllables and rules to divide
multisyllabic words into syllables. Here is the web
link: [Link]

1. Divide the following words into syllables. Take into account the rules for
phonetic and orthographic syllables. There is one example for you.

[Link] /pləʊs.ɪv/ consonant …………………. syllable ………………….

contamination ..........…………… important .……….………… television ..….……………
middle ..........…………… complex .……….………… robot .……….…………

[1] Phonotactics: it is the study of the ways in which phonemes can be combined in a
particular language, it is also concerned with the freedoms and restrictions that
languages allow in terms of syllable structure.

[2] Phonotactic constraints are the rules that establish the constraints in the
construction of syllables.
 Stress Placement: tendencies
According to Celce-Murcia et al. (2010), stress placement within a word depends on
three main factors:

a. The word’s historical origin;

b. Affixation (i.e. the addition of prefixes or suffixes);
c. The word’s grammatical function within an utterance.

1. Read the following words and mark the stressed syllables using a vertical
superscript mark (ˈ). Then listen to the audio and check your choices.

Netherlands ancestor - secretary Maxima

2. Can you match each of the above words to the three factors constraining stress
placement?

Pay attention!
Every time you are asked to do a written activity, complete each of them in your
own workbook or notebook (the one that you take to our face-to-face classes).
Make sure you read the words or examples aloud to practise.
a. Historical origin of the word.
  Read the following words. Then identify their stressed syllables and transcribe
all the words into phonetic script.

1- Capillary (Latin & French origin)

2- Chimpanzee (French origin)

3- Laboratory (Latin origin)

4- Perfume (French origin)

5- Renaissance (French origin)

6- Ballet (Italian origin)

7- Restaurant (French origin)

8- Pizza (Italian origin)

9- Tango (Spanish origin)

10- Vicar (French origin)

11- Villain (French origin)

12- Brigade (French origin)

13- Avatar (Hindi origin)

14- Nirvana (Hindi origin)

15- Violin (Italian origin)

b. Affixation.
Before studying the suffixes and prefixes that a word may have, it is important to
know the meaning of the following concepts:

 A root is the smallest meaningful part of a word and it belongs to a lexical

category. As Cruttenden points out “English words may be divided into roots
which can stand alone as words and which have no affixes attached” (2014, p.
244).
 “Stems are the base to which an affix is attached, which can be a root as
in nation-al; or the stem can be one which cannot stand alone, as in ephemer-
al” (Cruttenden, 2014, p. 244).
 An affix is a morpheme that can be attached to a stem to form a new word or
word form. Prefixes are morphemes or affixes that are attached at the
beginning of a stem as in mis-understand and suffixes are morphemes that
occur at the end of a stem as in listen-s and listen-ed. There are two types of
suffixes: inflectional suffixes which do not change the word class, as in small-
smaller and choose- chooses; and derivational suffixes which do change the
word class, as in lead-leader.
 Read the following words and identify their parts (i.e. root, suffix, prefix
and/or stem) using the chart below.

Word Root Stem Prefix Suffix Type

Fool fool simple

Hospitable hospit able derivational

National

Misunderstand

Overcome

Disappearance

Reconstruction
b.i. Suffixes and prominence:
1) Stress-neutral suffixes: -able, -age, -al, -dom, -en, -er, -ess, -est (superlative), -fy,
-ful, -hood, -ing, -ish, -is/ze, -less, -like, -ly, -ment, -ness, -ous, plural, possessive and
third person singular -s, -ship, -wise, diminutive -y or -ie and adjectival -y. When a
suffix is added to the word to make a derived word (changing the category of the
word, e.g. from verb to noun) or to give an inflection (keeping the word category, e.g.
verb tenses, plural form) the stress does not change in most cases, and the suffix
takes a weak vowel.

Note: the suffix “–ish in the case of adjectives does not affect stress placement,
however, verbs with stems of more than one syllable always have the stress on the
syllable immediately preceding “ish”, for example: demolish /di/əˈmɒlɪʃ/”. (Roach,
2009, p. 84).

Exceptions: “in a number of disyllabic stems with accent on the final syllable the
accent may be shifted to the first syllable of the stem”: admirable /ˈæd.mər.əb.l/,
comparable /ˈkɒmp.ər.əb.l/, disputable /ˈdɪ[Link]ʊt.əb.l/ (2nd option), preferable
/ˈpref.rəb.l/, reputable /ˈrep.jʊt.əb.l/(Cruttenden, 2014, p. 247).

 Can you think of an example for each suffix? Write it down, transcribe it and
include the appropriate transcription conventions to mark stress. Identify the
syllables of each word.

ˈ[Link] /ˡkʌm.fət/- ˈcomfortable /ˡkʌmft.əb.l/ /ˡkʌm.fət.əb.l/

re.ˈfuse /ri/ə.ˈfjuːz/- re.ˈfusal /ri/ə.ˈfjuːz.l/ BUT ˈ[Link] /ˈhɒm.ɪ.saɪd/-

ˌhom.i.ˈ[Link] /ˌhɒm.ɪ.ˈsaɪd.l/
2) Stress-attracting suffixes: -aire, -ee, -eer, -ese, -esque, -ette. These suffixes take
the prominence themselves.

ˡmillion /ˡmɪl.jən/, /ˡmɪl.i.ən/– [Link].ˡnaire /ˌmɪl.jə.ˡneə/

 Can you add an example for the remaining suffixes?

-ee / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ee / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ee / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-eer / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-eer / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-eer / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ese / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ese / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ese / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-esque / ………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-esque / ………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-esque / ………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ette / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ette / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

-ette / …………………………… /……./…………..……………………… /

But: em.ˈploy /ɪ/e/əmˈplɔɪ/ – em.ˈ[Link] /ɪ/e/əmˈplɔɪiː/

 3) Stress-shifting suffixes: in this case the suffixes cause the shift of stress on the
stem.

3.1.) The stress is shifted to the penultimate syllable (i.e. the next-to-the-last
syllable from the end of the word): -eous, -ial, -ian, -ic(s), -ious, -ion, -ual.

ˈ[Link] /ˡɪt.əl.i/– I.ˈ[Link] /ɪ.ˡtæl.jən/

ˈ[Link] /ˡnɒr.ɪʤ/ʧ/–Nor.ˈ[Link] /nɔː.ˈwiːdʒ.n/

ˈ[Link].y /ˡser.əm.ən.i/– ˌCer.e.ˈ[Link] /ˌcer.ə.ˈməʊn.jəl/ (compressed

version); BUT /ˌcer.ə.ˈməʊn.i.əl /

Note: ˈ[Link] (noun-adj.) but re.ˈflex (verb) - re.ˈ[Link]

 Mark stress, syllable division, and colour the suffix of the second word in the
following pairs. Then transcribe all the words.

Salivate - salivation science – scientific

…………….. ………………. ………………….. ……………………

Linguist – Linguistics prepare – preparation

…………….. ………………. ………………….. ……………………

 Can you add two examples for the remaining suffixes?

-eous / ……………………………… / /……….……………………………. /

-eous / ……………………………… / /……….……………………………. /

-ic(s) / ……………………………… / /…………..…………………………. /

-ic(s) / ……………………………… / /…………..…………………………. /

-ious / ……………………………… / /…………..……………………………/

-ious / ……………………………… / /…………..……………………………/

-ion / ………………………………. / /…………..……………………………/

-ion / ………………………………. / /…………..……………………………/

-ual /………………………………. / /…………..………….…………………/

-ual /……………………………… / /…………..………….…………………/

-ial / ……………………………… / /…………..……………………………./

Note: the suffix –ic has a few exceptions, namely: arithmetic /ə.ˈrɪθ.mə.tɪk/ (noun),
but /ˌær.ɪθ.ˈmet.ɪk/(adjective), heretic /ˈher.ə.tɪk/, lunatic /ˈluː.nə.tɪk/, politic
/ˈpɒl.ə.tɪk/, rhetoric /ˈret.ə.rɪk/, arsenic /ˈɑːs.n.ɪk/(noun), but /ɑː.ˈsen.ɪk/(adjective),
Catholic /ˈkæθ.lɪk/ (1st option) and /ˈkæθ.əl.ɪk/ (2nd option), choleric /ˈkɒl.ər.ɪk/
(1st option) and /kɒ.ˈler.ɪk/ (2nd option), and Arabic /ˈær.əb.ɪk/ (Celce-Murcia et al.,
2010, p. 191).

3.2.) The stress is shifted to the antepenultimate syllable (i.e. the third syllable from
the end of the word or the penultimate syllable of the stem): -ate, -ency, -graphy, -
grapher, -ian, -tive, -ity, -ology, -omy, -ular, -uous.

ˈ[Link] /ˈmʌs.l/-ˈ[Link] /ˈmʌsk.jʊ/əl.ə/

 Can you add more examples for the remaining suffixes?

-ate /…………………………… / /…………..………………………/

-ate /…………………………… / /…………..………………………/

-ency /…………………………… / /…………..………………………/

-ency /…………………………… / /…………..………………………/

-graphy /…………………………. / /…………..………………………/

-graphy /…………………………../ /…………..………………………/

-grapher /…………………………/ /…………..………………………./

-ian /…………………………….../ /…………..………………………./

-tive /……………………………../ /…………..………………………./

-ity /…………………………….../ /…………..………………………../

-ology /…………………………./ /…………..……………………….../

-ular /……………………………/ /…………..……………………….../

-uous /…………………………../ /…………..…………………………/

PAY ATTENTION: Remember that both categories of

stress-shift suffixes cause vowel sounds to change in
words with affixation.

 Word families. Mark stress, syllable division, and colour the suffix in the
following words. Then transcribe all the words.

academy academic academician

medic medical medication

realize reality realistic

 Now think of other families of words. Mark stress, syllable division, and colour
the suffix in the words. Then transcribe all the words.
  Listening. Listen to the following words and mark stress. Then classify the
suffix they contain according to whether they apply to the stress-neutral
suffixes, stress-attracting suffixes, or stress-shifting suffixes rule, as in the
example. Then transcribe the words. Two examples have been included
(AUDIO 1:44)

Word Transcription Rule

ˈ[Link] /'stræt.ədʒ.i/ Stem

Stra.ˈ[Link] /strə.'tiːdʒ.ɪk/ Stress-shifting suffix
Physicist
Physician
Physicality
Psychologist
Psychotic
Psychological
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenic
Technician
Technical
Technicality
Technology
Photography
Photographic
Photograph
Persona
Personality
Personal
Personify
Advertisement
Advertise
Economic
Economical
Intellect
Intellectual
Intelligence

[Link]. Prefixes and prominence:

Prefixes in English fall into two categories: those of Germanic origin and those
of Latin origin. “As a general rule, words that contain prefixes (regardless of origin)
receive stress on the first syllable of the root element rather than on the prefix. The
prefix is either unstressed or takes a secondary stress” (Celce-Murcia et al., 2010, p.
188).

‼ Prefixes which change the meaning of the word usually take a secondary stress.

1. Prefixes of Germanic origin: a-, be-, for-, fore-, mis-, out-, over-, un-, under-,
up-, with-.

 The prefixes a-, be-, for-, and with- are always unstressed. All the other
prefixes take a secondary stress.
 But the stress changes when there are noun compounds. If the prefix is
modifying a verb then the suffix takes a secondary stress but if it is modifying a
noun, then it takes primary stress.

Prefix + verb prefix + noun

Could anyone ˌforeˈsee it happening? His political ˈforesight was

extraordinary.

Don’t ˌ[Link].ˈload the pack animals. The truck carried an ˈ[Link].ˌload.

2. Prefixes of Latin origin: a(d)-, com-, de-, dis-, en-, ex-, in-, ob-, per-, pre-, pro-,
re-, sub-, sur-.

 Prefixes of Latin origin are usually unstressed when combined with verbs.
 But if the prefix pre- gives the idea of something ‘performed previously’, then,
it takes secondary stress and is pronounced with a strong vowel.
 ˌpre.'pay /ˌpriːˈpeɪ/ ˌ[Link].'range /ˌpriː.ə.'reɪndʒ/ ˌpre.'[Link]
/(ˌ)priː.ˈmær.ɪt.l/

But it is not prominent – and carries a weak vowel in:

pre.'pare /pri/ǝ.'peə/ pre.'[Link]

/pri/ǝ.'dɪkt.əb.l/ pre.'[Link] /pri/ǝ.'kəʊ.ʃəs/

pre.'sent /pri/ǝ.'zent/ pre.'serve /pri/ǝ.'zɜːv/

 The prefix re- takes secondary stress and carries a strong vowel when it gives
the idea of “again”:

ˌre.'done /ˌriː'dʌn/ ˌ[Link]'force /ˌriː.ɪn.'fɔːs/

But it is not prominent – and carries a weak vowel in:

re.'mote /ri/ə.'məʊt/ re.'move /ri/ə.'muːv/ re.'late /ri/ə.'leɪt/

re.ˈ[Link] /ri/ə.'miː.di.ǝl/

 In some cases, the prefix un- takes secondary stress and is pronounced with
a strong vowel when it negates the main part of the word:

ˌun.'paid
/ˌʌn.'peɪd/ ˌ[Link] /ˌʌn.ɪ/e/ǝk.'spekt.ɪd/ ˌun.'known /ˌʌn.ˈnəʊn/
 Listen to the conversation between Jean & Dave (trip to Toronto) and find
words with prefixes. Identify their stressed syllable/s using the apropriate
diacritic. Then identify their syllables. Use the chart below. (AUDIO 0:57)

Word Transcription Rule

[Link] /səb.'mɪt/ Prefix of Latin origin
[Link] /ˌsʌb.'kɒnʃ.əs/ Prefix of Latin origin
D3
J3
J3
J3
D5
D5
D8
D8
D9
D9

 Find 10 words which have the prefix ex- in their spelling and after identifying
their stressed syllables and general features, explain their stress pattern.
c. Grammatical function within the utterance
c.i. Two-syllable simple words: verbs, nouns and adjectives.
 Verbs tend to be stressed nearer the end of the word:
1. If the final syllable is strong, then that syllable is stressed.

Apply /ə.ˈplaɪ/ - Attract /ə.ˈtrækt/ - Rotate /rəʊ.ˈteɪt/

Arrive /ə.ˈraɪv/ - Assist /ə.ˈsɪst/ - Maintain /meɪn.ˈteɪn/

2. If the final syllable is weak, then the first syllable is stressed.

enter /ˈent.ǝ/ - open /ˈəʊp.ǝn/ - envy /ˈ[Link]/ - equal /ˈiːk.wǝl/

3. If the final syllable contains the diphthong /ǝʊ/, then it is unstressed and the
1st syllable is stressed.

[Link] /ˈfɒl.ǝʊ/ - borrow /ˈbɒr.ǝʊ/ -

 Now provide an example for each stress pattern of verbs.

Verb Stress pattern

 ADJECTIVES are stressed following the stress patterns of verbs.

 Read the following words, transcribe them and identify the stressed syllables
taking into account the rules provided above. Divide the words into syllables.
  ADVERBS tend to behave like verbs and adjectives.
 Think of two-syllable adverbs, write five examples and transcribe them. Then
identify their stressed syllable and divide them into syllables.

1. …………………………………………………………………………………

2. …………………………………………………………………………………

3. …………………………………………………………………………………

4. …………………………………………………………………………………

5. …………………………………………………………………………………

 NOUNS follow a different rule: stress will fall on the 1st syllable, unless the
1st syllable is weak and the 2nd syllable is strong.

☛ money /ˈmʌn.i/ -

☛ divan /dɪ/ə.ˈvæn/ BUT /ˌdaɪ.ˈvæn/; /ˈdaɪv. æn/

 Read the following words, transcribe them and identify the stressed syllable/s.
Divide the words into syllables.

Product ………………………………….. Balloon……………………………….

Larynx……………………………………. Design…………………………………

Dentist……………………………………. Dragon………………………………..

Forest……………………………………... Costume………………………………

 What is the common feature among most of the unstressed syllables?

[Link]. Three-syllable simple words with two strong vowels: verbs,
nouns and adjectives.
Some of these three-syllable words may have two strong syllables, one bearing a
primary stress and the other a secondary stress.

 Verbs tend to be stressed nearer the end of the word:

1. If the final syllable in simple verbs is strong, then that syllable receives primary
stress.

Entertain /ˌent.ə.ˈteɪn/ - Resurrect /ˌrez.ə.ˈrekt/

2. If the final syllable is weak, then the stress is placed in the penultimate syllable
(the preceding syllable) if that syllable is strong.

encounter /ɪ/e/ǝn/ŋ.ˈkaʊnt.ə/ - determine /di/ǝ.ˈtɜːm.ɪ/ən/

3. If both the 2nd and 3rd syllables are weak, then the stress falls on the initial
syllable.

parody /ˈpær.ǝ.di/ - monitor /ˈmɒn.ɪ/ǝt.ǝ/

 Nouns tend to be stressed on the 1st syllable:

1. Nouns tend to be stressed on the 1st syllable unless it is weak.

quantity /ˈkwɒnt.ǝ/ɪt.i/ - emperor /ˈemp.ǝr.ǝ/ /ˈemp.rǝ/

2. If the 1st syllable is weak, then the stress falls on the next syllable.

mimosa /mɪ.ˈmǝʊz.ə/ - disaster /dɪ/ǝ.ˈzɑːst.ǝ/

3. If the word has a strong final syllable, that syllable will not usually receive the
main stress.

intellect /ˈɪnt.ǝ/ɪ.lekt/; /ˈɪ[Link]/ - marigold /ˈmær.i.gǝʊld/

 Adjectives follow the same stress pattern of nouns.

opportune /ˈɒp.ə.tj/ʧuːn/ - especial /ɪ/e/ǝˈspeʃ.l/
  Read the following simple words aloud. Then classify them using the chart
below.

Transcription + Syllable div. (in normal

Word Word class Type of stress
stress spelling & phon. script)
custody Three-syll. simple
noun /ˈkʌstədi/ word, noun stressed [Link] /kʌst.əd.i/
on the 1st syll.
[Link]. Noun/verb pairs.
There are some “two-syllable words with identical spelling which differ from each
other in stress placement, apparently according to word class (noun, verb or
adjective). All appear to consist of prefix + stem” (Roach, 2009, p. 87).

Rule: if a pair of prefix + stem word exists, both members of which are
spelt identically, one of which is a verb and the other of which is either a
noun or an adjective, then the stress is placed on the second syllable of the
verb but on the first syllable of the noun or adjective (Roach, 2009, p. 87).

NOUN VERB .

abstract /ˈæ[Link] abstract ‘summarize’ /ˈæ[Link]ækt/

abstract /ˈæ[Link]ækt/ abstract ‘remove’ /(ˌ)æ/ǝb.ˈstrækt/

accent /ˈæ[Link]//ˈæ[Link]/ accent /æ/ǝ/ɪk.ˈsent/

conduct /ˈkɒn.dʌ/ǝkt/ conduct /kən.ˈdʌkt/

 Transcribe the following words and mark their stressed syllables as in the
examples above. Divide the words into syllables.

contract /………….………./ contract /…………………../

contrast /………….………./ contrast /…………………../

desert /………….………./ desert /…………………../

escort /……………………./ escort /…………………../

export /……………………./ export /……………………./

extract /……………………./ extract /……………………./

import /……………………./ import /……………………./

insult /……………………./ insult /……………………./

object /……………………./ object /……………………./

 perfect /……………………./ perfect /……………………./

permit /……………………./ permit /……………………./

present /……………………/ present /…………….………/

produce /……………………./ produce /……………………./

progress /………………..…./ progress /…………………./

protest /………………..…./ protest /……………..……./

rebel /………………..…./ rebel /…………..………./

record /………………..…./ record /…………….……./

subject /………………..…./ subject /…………………./

survey /……….…………/ survey /………….………/

 Read the following sentences and predict the appropriate pronunciation

(transcribe the word and mark stress) for the words in bold. Then establish
their grammatical category inside the brackets, as in the example:

/prəʊˈɡrest/

The student progressed rapidly in his career as he passed all his first-year subjects.
(verb)

1) Argentina has decided to import Bio-Diesel from Brazil. ( )

2) The young athlete broke a new world record. ( )

3) The police considered his wife the prime suspect in the murder. ( )

4) The married man used to frequent nightclubs during his business trips.
( )

5) Strongly-accented speech can be difficult to follow. ( )

 Now read the sentences aloud.

 [Link]. Phrasal and prepositional verbs
Most of these verbs consist of a main verb and a particle. The particle may be a
preposition or an adverb.

 Prepositional verbs. In prepositional verbs, the particle is a preposition, which

represents an extension of the meaning of the main verb and is non-
prominent.

Example: ˈLook at (at indicates the direction of the action of the verb: to perceive
with the sense of vision): She is ˈlooking at it.

But if the prepositional phrase is followed by some other content word that carries
new information and receives strong stress, then the verb head is not the tonic
syllable within the utterance:

Example: ˈLook at the ˈbaby! /ˈbeɪb.i/

They ˈtalked about the ˈmerger. /ˈmɜːʤ.ə/

 Phrasal verbs. On the contrary, if the particle is an adverb, then both the
particle and the verb are prominent and together make up a meaning which is
different from the semantic properties of each individual element. Some
phrasal verbs may have the head verb followed by an adverb and a
preposition: ˈrun aˈway with, ˈget aˈhead of.

Example: ˈLook ˈfor (they make up a new meaning: search for) (Celce-
Murcia,1996)[1]. ˈWhat are you ˈlooking ˈfor?

But if the phrasal verb is followed by some other content word that carries new
information, then that word is strongly stressed, i.e. becomes the tonic syllable of the
tone unit while the head verb of the phrasal verb is made prominent but does not
become the tonic syllable:

Example: He ˈtried on a ˈcoat.

He ˈran aˈway with the ˈmoney.

  Listen to the following sentences and complete the gaps with the appropriate
phrasal/prepositional verbs. Then underline the verbs and particles and mark
prominence to differentiate them between phrasal and prepositional verbs.

(AUDIO 2:52)

1) I dream I’m on a dessert island, I’ve just been ………………………………on the shore
and I start ……………….………………….the beach.

2) I sit by the fire and ……………….……………….to see but I can’t see anything.

3) Because it’s so easy to use the Internet these days, virtually anyone can think to
themselves “let’s …………………………………..a website”.

4) May be you want a homepage for friends to …………………..………………., or how

about advertising your local club?

5) Now, we will be ……………………………………at 9 o’clock in the morning, so you need

to make sure you get here an hour before we leave.

6) And I used to have the habit of, um, ………………….…, …………..my alarm …………and
…………………into bed and not actually ………………………………

7) An Australian woman, travelling home from Melbourne was

…………………………………………. a narrow road one dark evening when she entered a
tunnel.

8) But after half an hour of twisting and turning she ……………………………..………petrol.

Shadowing. Listen to the sentences and repeat after the audio paying
attention to stress placement for each case.

c.v. Reflexives: this grammatical category bears complete predictability of

stress. All reflexive pronouns take primary stress on the second syllable self/selves.

my.ˈself them.ˈselves yourˈself

 [Link]. Numbers
Although the stress patterns of English numbers are rule-governed, prominence
patterns depend on use and are discourse sensitive. They include telephone
numbers, dates, address, years, and so on.

a) Cardinal and ordinal numbers that represent multiples of 10 (20, 30, 40, 50, etc.)
have predictable primary stress on the first syllable (Celce-Murcia, 2009, p. 193).

Cardinal numbers: /ˈtwent.i/, /ˈsɪkst.i/, /ˈnaɪnt.i/

Ordinal numbers: /ˈtwent.i.əθ/, /ˈsɪkst.i.əθ/, /ˈnaɪnt.i.əθ/

/ˈtwent.ɪθ/, /ˈsɪkst.ɪθ/, /ˈnaɪnt.ɪθ/

b) Some numbers are prominent on both parts in isolation, but, like other
compounds, in context they lose the prominence which is nearest to another
prominent syllable in the utterance. When they are preceded and followed by non-
prominent syllables, they are prominent on both elements:

ˈTwenty ˈfour: …in ˈless than ˈtwenty-four hours.

ˌSixˈteen: ˈWhen she was sixˈteen / she beˈcame a ˈnun.

ˌFiftyˈfive: ˈThat’s ˈnearly ˈfifty-ˈfive years ago. (Both syllables are prominent
because the following words (years and ago) are inferred from the context, and so,
they are non-prominent).

ˌFifˡteenth: I was born on the ˈfifˈteenth of ˈJune.

c) Years are usually stressed on the first syllable of the first element and on the
corresponding syllable of the last element:

ˌNineteen forty-ˈeight: She beˈcame a ˈnun in ˈnineteen forty-ˈeight.

She beˈcame a ˈnun in ˈnineteen ˈtwenty.

d) The time from digital watches or clocks is usually read stressing both hour and
minutes:

ˌfive ˈthirty: I ˈusually leave ˈhome at about ˈfive ˈthirty in the ˈmorning.
 ✍ On your own. Listen to the following text and note down all numbers and
quantities that are said by the speaker. Then mark stress.

(AUDIO 0:59)

1. …………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………………
5. …………………………………………………………………
6. …………………………………………………………………
7. …………………………………………………………………

Now listen to the audio and check your predictions.

Phonetic dictation. ✍ Now listen to the text again and write it down in phonetic
script. (AUDIO 13:22)

⏳⌛ After listening to the text you will have two minutes to check if what you have
written makes sense.

Read the text from your phonetic transcription.

✔Peer correction. Choose a partner to give you feedback on your reading

performance.

‼ The aim of this activity is to help both the reader and the student, who has to
comment on his/her partner’s performance, become aware and notice weak and
strong points of students’ speech regarding both segmental and suprasegmental
features of the language. Some useful questions you may want to answer are:

 Was my partner’s speech intelligible for the listener?

 What sounds were pronounced following the expected voice, point or manner
of articulation?
 Did I get the meaning of my partner’s speech?
[Link]. Compound Words.
They are words made up of two roots or free morphemes giving birth to new
words whose meaning is not always related to the two original elements, e.g.,
butterfly. Compounds can be written as single words (chairman, blackboard),
hyphenated words (African-American, bad-tempered) or separately as two words
(acid rain, living room). Cruttenden points out that “there is no systematic practice in
the choice among these three ways” (2014, p. 249). Nonetheless, the tendency that
can be noticed is that compounds may be written as single words or joined with a
hyphen when their first element bears a primary stress. On the contrary, if the stress
is placed on the second element, the compound tends to be written as two words
(Cruttenden, 2014). Another important aspect of compounds is that there are
differences in their stress patterns between BrE and GAE. Some examples are:

BrE GAE

/ˌaɪs.ˈkriːm/ /ˈaɪ[Link]ːm/

/ˌwiːk.ˈend/ /ˈwiː[Link]/

/ˈsiːzn ˌtɪk.ɪt/ /ˌsiːzn ˈtɪk.ɪt/

/ˌsteɪʤ ˈmæn.ɪʤ.ə/ /ˈsteɪʤ mæn.ɪʤ.ə/

☛ Some common compound patterns include:

NOUN + NOUN: sunglasses, ceiling fan

NOUN + VERB: babysit, earmark

ADJECTIVE + NOUN: greenhouse, second-hand.

We can group them according to different criteria. Our taxonomy is based on

Cruttenden’s classification (2014, p. 249), so we are going to distinguish between
compounds functioning as nouns and those functioning as adjectives and verbs.
 ˈN(oun) + (ˌ)N(oun)

Also known as front-stressed or early-stressed, some

of them may take a secondary stress on the
2nd element. These compounds keep their prominence
on the first syllable no matter whether they are in
attributive or in predicative position, or followed by a
prominent syllable in context. Examples:

Single stressed: ˈalcohol abuse; ˈbedroom; ˈbedtime;

ˈbirthday; ˈbirthplace; ˈboyfriend; ˈchild care;
comˈputer virus; ˈcrime rate; ˈdeckchair; ˈdream world;
ˈdressing room; ˈgirlfriend; ˈguidebook; ˈheartache;
ˈheartbeat; ˈhomework; ˈhorsetail; ˈhousemaid;
ˈhousemate; ˈkeyboard; ˈlaptop; ˈlifeguard; ˈlyfestyle;
ˈmountain bike; poˈlice force; ˈrunning shoes; ˈschool
bag; ˈteacup; ˈvideo game; ˈweekend.

Double stressed: ˈbank aˌccount; ˈchild aˌbuse;

comˈputer ˌlanguage; ˈdrug ˌaddict; ˈhouseˌkeeper;
ˈlife ˌjacket; ˈmountain ˌrange; ˈozone ˌlayer; poˈlice
ˌofficer; ˈshopping ˌcenter.
ˈE1 +
(ˌ)E2 →the Read exceptions to this pattern below.
st
1 element is ˈN+ˌN (formed from Verb+er/or)
stressed
Compounds, whose second element refers to
a human/non-human agent, also take the stress on
the first element, which indicates the “direct object” of
the action expressed in the verb. The 2nd element takes
Compounds a secondary stress. Examples:
functioning as
nouns ˈtaxi ˌdriver; ˈballet ˌdancer; ˈbrickˌlayer; ˈlie deˌtector;
ˈgoalˌkeeper; ˈblood ˌdonor; ˈtape reˌcorder; ˈword
ˌprocessor; ˈnewsˌreader; ˈscrewˌdriver; ˈtypeˌwriter.
ˈA(djective) + N
“This is by far the
most frequent These compounds take an early stress (on the
type of compound 1st element) when the meaning of the compound is
(and accounts for different from the meaning of the individual elements.
approximately 90 Examples:
per cent)”
(Cruttenden, ˈcommonplace, ˈwildcat; ˈgreenhouse; ˈdeadline; ˈhigh
2014, p. 249). school; ˈsoftware; ˈsweetheart; ˈholiday; ˈanything;
ˈsomebody.
ˈN +ˌVerb (-ing)

These compounds take the stress on the first element,

generally indicating that it is the object of the verb
expressed in the 2nd element. The 2nd element takes a
secondary stress. Examples:

ˈchildˌbearing; ˈhorseˌracing; ˈweightˌlifting;

ˈtroubleˌmaking; ˈthought-proˌvoking; ˈbreathˌtaking;
ˈtime-conˌsuming.
ˈVerb (-ing) + ˌN

These compounds take the stress on the first element.

The 2nd element takes a secondary stress. Examples:

ˈdrinking ˌwater; ˈbuilding soˌciety.

Exceptions to the accentual pattern of ˈN + N:

(i) A small group of N+N compounds also take the stress on both elements in
isolation, when the 1st element means the “material or ingredient” of the product in
the 2nd element or “where the 2nd item is made of the first item” (Cruttenden; 2014,
p. 250). The 2nd element takes the primary stress: ˌN + ˈN

ˌacid ˈrain; aˌroma ˈtherapy; baˌnana ˈsplit; ˌbrick ˈwall; ˌfruit ˈsalad; ˌgold ˈmedal; ˌice
ˈcream; ˌham ˈsandwich; ˌstoneˈwall; ˌpaper ˈbag.

BUT when the second element includes the words cake, juice or water, the
compound takes an early stress: ˈChristmas cake; ˈorange juice; ˈsparkling water.

ˌpaper ˈbag (=bag made of paper), BUT ˈpaper bag (=bag for newspapers).-

(ii) “Where N1 is a name” (Cruttenden, 2014, p. 250) (proper names of roads and
public places as well as names of institutions such as hotels and schools): ˌN + ˈN
 ˌLancashire ˈhotpot; ˌManchester Uˈnited; Vicˌtoria ˈRoad; ˌOxford ˈAvenue; ˌJury’s
ˈInn; ˌMalborough /ˈmɔː/ɑːlbərə/ hoˈtel; ˌGoldsmith’s ˈCollege; ˌBailey’s ˈRestaurant;
the ˌFestival ˈHall.

BUT compounds ending in street take an early stress: ˈOxford street.

BUT ˈhigh school; ˈprimary school; ˈPizza Hut (=trademark).-

Proper names of people are stressed on both elements (the second element
bears the primary stress): ˌJames Mc ˈGregor; Deˌnise ˈHarris.

(iii) Where the 2nd element has a specific reference and the 1st is usually a place,
location, organization or time: ˌN + ˈN

ˌbedroom ˈslippers; ˌChristmas ˈeve; ˌfamily ˈdoctor; ˌfamily ˈtree; ˌkitchen ˈsink;
ˌlawn ˈtennis; ˌmorning ˈpaper; ˌmother ˈtongue; ˌschool ˈuniform; ˌschool ˈyear;
(ˌ)trade ˈunion.

ˌfamily ˈname (=family reputation), BUT ˈfamily name (=surname).

(iv) “Where N1 is a value” (Cruttenden, 2014, p. 250): ˌN + ˈN

ˌdollar ˈbill; ˌfifty p. ˈchange.

 WITH INITIAL STRESS: “Those compound
adjectives where the N is a special application
of A generally take this pattern, as do those
involving N + past participle” (Cruttenden,
2014, p. 251):

ˈbloodˌthirsty; ˈcarefree; ˈheadstrong; ˈladylike;

ˈlovesick; ˈseasick; ˈtime-ˌhonoured;
Adjectives ˈtrustˌworthy; ˈwaterproof; ˈweather-ˌbeaten.
Compounds functioning as
adjectives and verbs

“These are much more limited

WITH FINAL STRESS: “Those compound
in number… They divide fairly
adjectives where the N modifies an A generally
evenly between those with
take this pattern, as do sequences of A + V + ing
initial accent and those with
and A (or ADV) + A” (Cruttenden, 2014, p. 251):
final accent” (Cruttenden, 2014,
p. 251). ˌabsent-ˈminded; ˌhomeˈmade; ˌeasyˈgoing;
ˌgood-ˈnatured; ˌmiddle-ˈaged; ˌself-ˈcentered;
ˌoutˈgoing (adj.) but ˈoutgoing (as a noun);
ˌblue-ˈeyed; ˌhandˈwritten; ˌforthˈcoming.

“The number of compounds functioning as

verbs is very small” (Cruttenden, 2014, p. 251).
They tend to take the stress on the first
element: ˈbabysit; ˈsidestep. “The sequence
Verbs
ADV or PREP + generally takes final accent”
(Cruttenden, 2014, p. 251): ˌbackˈfire;
ˌoutˈnumber; ˌoverˈsleep; ˌunderˈgo;
ˌunderˈstand; ˌunderˈtake.
 Note the different stress patterns used in “adj+noun compounds and word
sequences that resemble compounds but are actually adjectives serving to modify
nouns” (Celce-Murcia et al., 2010, p. 195).

The President lives in the ˈWhite House. (The presidential mansion)

John lives in a ˌwhite ˈhouse. (A house that is painted white)

 Predict the stress of the following underlined words. How are they
pronounced?

 Mark the prominent syllables for each word. Justify your choice.

i. I went out during the lunch hour and bought a newspaper.

……………………………………………………………………

ii. When I have tea with my grandparents, they always give me jam sandwiches.

……………………………………………………………………

iii. I’m meeting my girlfriend at the bus station in an hour.

……………………………………………………………………

iv. I’ve only got a tape recorder, so I can’t play CDs.

……………………………………………………………………

v. I never do any housework on weekdays.

……………………………………………………………………

vi. It gets so hot in the sitting room that we’ve had to buy an air-conditioner.

……………………………………………………………………

vii. He works as a shop assistant in the city centre.

……………………………………………………………………
vii. My housemate is terrified of fireworks.

……………………………………………………………………

 Listen to the following audio. Note down foreign words, words with affixation,
two or three-syllable words, phrasal verbs and compounds.

(AUDIO 0:48)

---------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------

✍Then mark stress and syllable division.

✍Phonetic dictation. Now listen to the text again and write it down in phonetic
script. (AUDIO 11:38)

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
 ✍ Go back to Dictation 1 and Kate Winslet's motivational speech and
underline all the compounds you find in the texts. Then identify the stress patterns
they have. Be ready to read the texts aloud!

(AUDIO 2:48)

✔Peer correction. Choose a partner to give you feedback on your reading

performance.

✔ Speaking and peer correction. Now make up your own motivational speech or
any other type of speech and perform it. You can read information about different
speeches in the following link : [Link]
development/types-of-speeches

‼ The aim of this activity is to put stress patterns into practice and to help both
the reader and the student, who has to comment on his/her partner’s performance,
become aware and notice weak and strong points of students’ speech regarding both
segmental and suprasegmental features of the language. Some useful questions you
may want to answer are:

 Was my partner’s speech intelligible for the listener?

 What sounds were pronounced following the expected voice, point or manner
of articulation?
 Did I get the meaning of my partner’s speech?

[1] Note that if transitive verbs are followed by a common noun or a proper noun as
objects, the latter will generally be prominent, and not the particle (e.g. she turned
down the ˈjob). In contrast, if a pronoun is the direct object of the transitive phrasal
verb, it may be placed between the verb and the particle, and both elements are
prominent, as in ‘she ˈturned it ˈdown’.