Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate- Lowlands + Altitudes

Generally
• Amazon Lowlands
• Congo
• Malaysia
Altitudes
• Cameron Highlands in Malaysia
• Kenyan Highlands in East Africa
Rainfall – Convectional + Orographic + Cyclonic Disturbances
Equinox + Solstice – Max and Min Rainfall

• Equinox
• March 21
• Sep 22
• Max Rainfall – April and Oct
• Solstice
• Dec 22
• June 21
Min Rainfall - June and December
Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate - Equatorial Vegetation - Stratification + Epiphytes
Temperature
• The most outstanding feature is its great uniformity throughout the year.
• Mean monthly temperatures are always around 27° C with very little variation
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation help to moderate the daily temperature so that even at the
equator , climate is not unbearable .
• There is no winter.
• Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable climate.
• The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.
Precipitation
• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm. In some regions the annual average may be as high as 250 –
300 cm.
• There is no month without rain and a distinct dry season is absent.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October short after equinoxes and solstices .
But this pattern may be upset by local conditions .
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are a characteristic feature of equatorial
climates not found in any other type of climate.
• Due to great heat in the equatorial belt , There is much evaporation and convectional air currents are
set up, followed by heavy downpours of convectional rain from cumulonimbus clouds.
• Thunder and lightening are also recorded .
• Besides convectional rainfall , it also experiences orographic rainfall.
 • In addition there are some intermittent showers from cyclonic disturbances caused by convergence
of air currents in the doldrums.
Distribution
• The equatorial, hot, wet climate is found between 5° and 10° north and south of the equator.
• Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies.
• Further away from the equator, the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds, gives rise to a modified
type of equatorial climate with monsoonal influences.
• Within the tropics, the equatorial highlands have a distinctively cooler climate, modified by
altitude, such as the Cameron Highlands in Malaysia, the Northern Andes, and the Kenyan
Highlands in East Africa.

Equatorial Vegetation
• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
• In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense and so complete in its vegetational extravagance that
special term for it is ‘selvas’.
• Unlike the temperate regions, the growing season here is all the year round-seeding, flowering, fruiting
and decaying do not take place in a seasonal pattern.
A great variety of vegetation
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood, eg.
mahogany, ebony, greenheart, cabinet woods and dyewoods.
• There are smaller palm trees, climbing plants like the lianas or rattan which may be hundreds of feet
long and epiphytic and parasitic plants that live on other plants.
• Under the trees grow a wide variety of ferns, orchids and lalang.
A distinct layer arrangement
• From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it is
crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
• All plants struggle up- wards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement.
Forest Clearings
• Many parts of the virgin tropical rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering or shifting
cultivation.
• When these clear ings are abandoned, less luxuriant secondary forest called belukar in Malaysia,
spring up.
• These are characterized by short trees and very dense under growth.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps mangrove forests thrive.
Life and Development
• The equatorial regions are generally sparsely populated.
• In the forests most primitive people live as hunters and collectors and the more advanced ones
practise shifting cultivation.
• There are numerous animals, birds and reptiles that can be hunted to serve the needs of the
community.
• The ever- flowing rivers and streams provide an inexhaustible supply of fish that the people spear or
trap.
• In the Amazon basin the tribes collect wild rubber, in the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather nuts and
in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products and sell them to people in
villages and towns.
• When the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is abandoned and they move on to a new plot.
• With the coming of the Europeans, many large plantations have been established, especially in Java,
Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and Central America.
• The climate has proved to be very favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly
valued in the industrial West.
• The most outstanding is natural rubber, called hevea brasiliensis.
• Though it was first discovered in its wild state as Para rubber in the Amazon basin, it has since been
transplanted to other parts of the equatorial lands and is grown very profitably on large estates.
Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers, each accounting for more than a third of the
world production.
 • The home country, Brazil exports practically no natural rubber. The problems of tree diseases and
the lack of commercial organization of the Indians in the Amazon lowlands have brought about this
unexpected 'shift' of rubber cultivation.
• Another tropical crop that has achieved an amazing success is cocoa.
• It is most extensively cultivated in West Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea. The two most
important producers are Ghana and Nigeria.
• There is a keen demand for the crop and acreages are rapidly on the increase.
• Most of the crop leaves West Africa for Europe or North America for the cocoa and chocolate
industry.
• From the same area another crop, oil palm, has done equally well and many countries outside
Africa have now taken to its cultivation.
• Other crops that have been found suitable for the hot, wet equatorial climate and are extensively
cultivated are coconuts, sugar, coffee, tea, tobacco, spices, cinchona, bananas, pineapples and sago.
UPSC PYQ
With reference to ‘palm oil’ consider the following statements:
1. The palm oil tree is native to Southeast Asia.
2. The palm oil is a raw material for some industries producing lipstick and perfumes.
3. The palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
[A] 1 and 2 only
[B] 2 and 3 only
[C] 1 and 3 only
[D] 1, 2 and 3
Factors - Development of Equatorial Regions
• Equatorial climate and health
o Under conditions of excessive heat and high humidity, Man is subject to serious physical and
mental handicaps.
o He exposes him- self to such dangers as sun-stroke and to such diseases as malaria and yellow-
fever. Nowadays malaria eradication schemes are in progress in most tropical areas and vaccines
have been developed to counteract other diseases
• Prevalence of bacteria and insect pests
o The hot, wet climate which stimulates rapid plant growth, also encourages the spread of insects
and pests.
o As germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted through moist air, equatorial conditions are
ideal for the survival of such organisms.
o Insects and pests not only spread diseases but are injurious to crops.
• Jungle hinders development and maintenance
o The jungle is so luxuriant that it is quite a problem to clear a small patch of it and even more
difficult to maintain it.
o Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth spring up as soon as the shade trees are cut and unless
they are weeded at regular intervals, they may choke crops and overwhelm estates.
o In the same way, roads and railways constructed through the equatorial lands have to cut
through forests, dense thickets and swamps and those who build and maintain them encounter
wild animals, poisonous snakes and insects.
o Once completed, they have to be maintained at a high cost.
o Many remote parts of the Amazon basin, the Congo and Borneo are without modern
communication lines. The rivers form the only natural highways.
• Rapid deterioration of tropical soil
o It is a misconception that tropical soils are rich. In its untouched state, due to heavy leaf-fall and
the decomposition of leaves by bacteria, a thick mantle of humus makes the soil fairly fertile.
o This is clear from the shifting cultivators' heavy croppings in their newly cleared ladangs.
o But once the humus is used and the natural vegetative cover is removed, the torrential
downpours soon wash out most of the soil nutrients.
o The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil impoverishment. One may
quote the Indonesian island of Java as an exception, because of its rich volcanic ashes and the
energetic local people.
o In Malaysia, Singapore and eastern Brazil much progress has also been made in the development
of the tropical lands through systematic planning and the will of the people to succeed.
• Difficulties in lumbering and livestock farming
o As mentioned earlier, though the tropics have great potential in timber resources, commercial
extraction is difficult.
o The trees do not occur in homogenous stands, there are no frozen surfaces to facilitate logging
and the tropical hardwoods are sometimes too heavy to float in the rivers, even if these flow in
the desired directions.
o Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass, even on the
highlands.
o The few animals like bullocks or buffaloes are kept mainly as beasts of burden. Their yield in
milk or beef is well below those of the cattle in the temperate grasslands.
o The grass is so tall and coarse that it is not nutritious.
o In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana, a disease.
NCERT- Tropical Evergreen Forests
• These forests are also called tropical rainforests.
• These thick forests occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics.
• These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
• As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. This is the reason
they are called evergreen.
• The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the
forest even in the day time.
• Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.
UPSC PYQ
Q. Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive
farmland that can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers.
Reason (R): The primary productivity of the tropical rain forest is very high when compared to that of
temperate forests.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true
Q. Each day is more or less the same, the morning is clear and bright with a sea breeze; as the Sun climbs
high in the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds form, then rain comes with thunder and lightning. But the
rain is soon over.”
Which of the following regions is described in the above passage?
(a) Savannah
(b) Equatorial
(c) Monsoon
(d) Mediterranean
Q. Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result the soil surface is often almost
bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy
vicariously, by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees”. This is
the most likely description of
a) coniferous forest
b) dry deciduous forest
c) mangrove forest
d) tropical rainforest
Q. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/characteristics of equatorial forests?
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns forming a continuous canopy
2. Coexistence of a large number of species
3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes
[A] 1 only
[B] 2 and 3 only
[C] 1 and 3 only
[D] 1, 2 and 3
Q. A geographic area with an altitude of 400 metres has following characteristics.
If this geographic area were to have a natural forest, which one of the following would it most likely be?
a) Moist temperate coniferous forest
b) Montane subtropical forest
c) Temperate forest
d) Tropical rain forest

Q. Consider the following statements: (2023)

Statement-I:
The soil in tropical rainforests is rich in nutrients.
Statement-II:
The high temperature and moisture of tropical rain forests cause dead organic matter in the soil to decompose
quickly.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for
Statement-I
b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for
Statement-I
c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
 • Note - high temperature and moisture of tropical rain forests cause dead organic matter in the soil to
decompose quickly – recycling nutrients back to the ecosystem.
• Tropical rainforest soils are often deep but not particularly fertile.
• This is partly due to the fact that huge amounts of some mineral nutrients are tied up inside the
vegetation rather than being free in the soil at any given time – soil is itself poor in nutrients
because they do not stay in soil long enough to accumulate .

The Tropical Monsoon and Marine Climate

Sun Overhead Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn

Summer Conditions – South East and South West monsoon

Winter Conditions – North East Monsoon and North West Monsoon
The Tropical Marine Climate
• Eastern Coast – Trade Winds
• Convectional Rainfall
• Orographic Rainfall
• Without distinct Dry Period
• Favourable to Tropical Cyclones and Hurricanes.
Distribution
• These are the tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons in the summer and off-shore dry
monsoons in the winter.
• They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of
Vietnam and south China and northern Australia.
• Outside this zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds all the
year round, and has a more evenly distributed rainfall.
• Such a climate, better termed the Tropical Marine Climate, is experienced in Central America. West
Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast
and eastern Brazil
Climatic Conditions
• The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land and
sea.
• In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the great land masses of the
northern hemisphere are heated. Central Asia, backed by the lofty Himalayan ranges, is more than
15°F. Hotter than its normal temperature and a region of intense low pressure is set up. The seas,
which warm up much slower, remain comparatively cool.
• At the same time, the southern hemisphere experiences winter, and a region of high pressure is set
up in the continental interior of Australia.
• Winds blow outwards as the South-East Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the equator are drawn
towards the continental low-pressure area reaching the Indian sub-continent as the South-West
Monsoon.
• In the winter, conditions are reversed. The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn, central Asia
is extremely cold, resulting in rapid cooling of the land. A region of high pressure is created with
outblowing winds-the North-East Monsoon.
• On crossing the equator, the winds are attracted to the low-pressure center in Australia and arrive
in northern Australia as the North West Monsoon
Note - In other parts of the world which experience a tropical monsoon climate a similar Seasonal reversal of
wind directions occurs.
The Tropical Marine Climate
• This type of climate is experienced along the eastern coasts of tropical lands, receiving steady
rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time.
• The rainfall is both orographic where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and
convectional due to intense heating during the day and in summer.
• Its tendency is towards a summer maximum as in monsoon lands, but without any distinct dry
period.
• Approximately 70 per cent of the annual rainfall is concentrated in the four summer months.
• There is no month without any rainfall.
• Due to the steady influence of the trades, the Tropical Marine Climate is more favorable for
habitation, but it _is prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.
Tropical Monsoon Forests
• The natural vegetation of tropical monsoon lands depends on the amount of the summer rainfall.
• Trees are normally deciduous, because of the marked dry period, during which they shed their
leaves to withstand the drought.
• Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal
regions with a tropical marine climate, the resultant vegetation is forest.
• The forests are more open and less Luxuriant than the equatorial jungle and there are far fewer
species.
• Most of the forests yield valuable timber, and are prized for their durable hardwood. Amongst
these teak is the best known.
 • Burma alone accounts for as much as three-quarters of the world's production. It is such a durable
timber that it is extensively used for ship building, furniture and other constructional purposes.
• Other kinds of timber include sal, acacia and some varieties of eucalyptus in northern Australia.
Together with the forests are bamboo thickets, which often grow to great heights.
• With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the forests thin out into thorny scrubland or savanna with
scattered trees and tall grass.
• In parts of the Indian sub-continent, rainfall is so deficient that semi desert conditions are found.

Agricultural Development
• Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared for agriculture to support the very dense population.
• Wherever possible, crops are grown. The plains are ploughed, and the hills are terraced to provide
farmland. In their quest for land, they, have removed the natural vegetation, sometimes wantonly,
resulting in acute soil erosion.
• This is particularly serious in the Indian sub-continent which has a very high density of
population with a rapid rate of growth.
• Tropical agriculture dependent on natural rainfall and a large labour force, reaches its greatest
magnitude in the monsoon lands.
• Farming is not only the dominant occupation of the greater part of the people, but also forms the
mainstay of the economy of the Indian sub-continent, China, South East Asia, eastern Brazil and the
West Indies.
• Wet padi cultivation : Rice is the most important staple crop and is grown in tropical lowlands
wherever the rain exceeds 70 inches. It is perhaps the most characteristic crop of the monsoon lands
and its total acreage far exceeds that of any other crop. In fact, very few areas outside the influence
of the monsoons ever take to the cultivation of padi.
• There are two main varieties, the wet padi, which is mainly grown on lowlands in Flooded fields or
in terraced uplands, and the dry padi grown in regions of lower rainfall. A minimum of 50 inches of
rainfall is required during the growing season.
 • Droughts and floods that are almost inseparable from a monsoonal type of climate can be very
detrimental to its cultivation. Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams or wells is extensively used
in the major rice producing countries.
• Other food crops like maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, gram and beans are of subsidiary importance.
They are cultivated in the drier or cooler areas where rice cannot be grown.
• Lowland cash crops : A wide range of lowland tropical cash crops are cultivated for the export
market, after local needs have been met.
• The most important crop in this category is cane sugar. As much as two-thirds of world's sugar
production comes from tropical countries. Sugar is either grown on plantations or on small holdings
wherever rainfall and sunshine are abundant.
• Some of the major producers include India, Java, Formosa, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados.
• Jute is confined almost entirely to the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta, in India and Bangladesh. It has
long been a leading hard fiber for the manufacture of sacks (gunny).
• Manila hemp (abaca) is a product of the Philippines, particularly of Mindanao. It is used to make high
quality rope. Other crops include indigo, still cultivated in India and Java; cotton, a major export of
the Indian sub-continent and bananas, coconuts and spices.
Highland plantation crops
• The colonization of tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a new form of cultivated landscape in
the cooler monsoonal highlands. This is the cultivation of certain tree crops in tropical plantations.
• Thousands of acres of tropical upland forests were cleared to make way for plantation agriculture
in which tea and coffee are the most important crops. These were luxuries in Europe in the
eighteenth century and the products of the plantations were originally meant only for export to the
mother countries where there was a great craze for the beverages.
• Later, the local people also got into the habit of drinking them and they fast became necessities. Both
the beverages became so popular in and out of the tropics that there was great expansion in their
acreages both in regions with a Tropical Monsoon Climate and the Tropical Marine Climate.
• Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia, where it is still grown, but Brazil now accounts for
almost half the world's production of coffee. It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the Brazilian
plateau.
• The crop is also cultivated on the highland slopes between 2,000 feet and 4,500 feet in the Central
American states, India and eastern Java.
• Tea originated in China and is still an important crop there, but as it requires moderate
temperatures (about 60°F.),
• Heavy rainfall (over 60 inches) and well drained highland slopes it thrives well in the tropical
monsoon zone, but preferably at a higher altitude.
• The best regions are thus the Himalayan foothills of India and Bangladesh, the central highlands of Sri
Lanka and western Java, from all of which it is exported.
• Lumbering: Wherever there are tropical forests which still have not been felled to make way for the
plough, lumbering is undertaken in the more accessible areas.
• This is particularly important in continental South-East Asia. Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of
which Burma is the leading producer, is perhaps the most sought after. It is valuable on account of
 its great durability, strength, immunity to shrinkage, fungus attack and insects. It is grown in hilly
districts up to 3,000 feet in altitude with a moderate rainfall.
• In northern Burma, in the region of the Chindwin River, there are large teak plantations.
• Green teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily on water. It is therefore necessary to
'poison' the tree several years before actual felling, so that it is dry and light enough to be floated
down the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy to reach the saw mills at Rangoon.
• Shifting Cultivation : This most primitive form of farming is widely practised. Instead of rotating
the crops in the same field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen move to a new clearing when their
first field is exhausted.
• As tropical soils are mainly latosolic, rapidly leached and easily exhausted, the first crop may be
bountiful but the subsequent harvests deteriorate. A few years later, the field has to be abandoned
and a new patch cleared elsewhere.
• Shifting cultivation is so widely practised amongst indigenous peoples that different local names
are used in different countries. For example, ladang in Malaysia, taungya in Burma, tamrai in
Thailand, caingin in the Philippines, humah in Java, chena in Sri Lanka and milpa in Africa and
Central America.
NCERT- Tropical Deciduous Forests
• Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India, Northern Australia and
in central America .
• These regions experience seasonal changes.
• Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
• The hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham.
• Hardwood trees are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials.
Q) The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of (2014)
a) Equatorial climate
b) Mediterranean climate
c) Monsoon climate
d) All of the above climates
It lies in both the hemispheres

Alternate Hot and Cool Season- Sun Overhead between Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn

Alternate - Hot + Rainy [Trade Winds Strong during Summer] and Cool + Dry Season -
Definite dry and wet season
Special Case – Local Wind

Extreme Diurnal Temperature

Natural Vegetation – Tall Grass and Short Tress + Special Case – Thorny Scrub (Margins )
Natural Vegetation – Tall Grass and Short Tress
Distribution
• The Savanna or Sudan Climate is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forests
and the trade wind hot deserts.
• It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons
are most distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate.
• The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into East Africa and southern
Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn .
• In South America, there are two distinct regions of savanna north and south of the equator, namely
the llanos of the Orinoco basin and the campos of the Brazilian Highlands.
• The Australian savanna is located south of the monsoon strip running from west to east north of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
Climate of the Sudan Type
• Rainfall-
o The Sudan type of climate is characterized by an alternate hot, rainy season and cool, dry season.
o In the northern hemisphere, the hot, rainy season normally begins in May and lasts until
September, as in Kano, Nigeria.
o The rest of the year is cool and dry.
o Both the length of the rainy season and the annual total rainfall decrease appreciably from the
equatorial region polewards towards the desert fringes.
• Temperature-
o It is, however, interesting to note that the highest temperatures do not coincide with the period
of the highest sun (e.g. June in the northern hemisphere) but occur just before the onset of the
rainy season, i.e. April in Kano and October in Salisbury.
o There is also a distinct drop in temperature in the rainy period, due to the overcast sky and the
cooler atmosphere.
o Days are hot, and during the hot season, noon temperatures of over 100°F. are quite frequent.
When night falls the clear sky which promotes intense heating during the day also causes rapid
radiation in the night. Temperatures drop to well below 50°F. and night . Frosts are not
uncommon at this time of the year.
o This extreme diurnal range of temperature is another characteristic feature of the Sudan type of
climate.
o Winds - The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring rain to the coastal
districts.
o They are strongest in the summer but are relatively dry by the time they reach the continental
interiors or the western coasts of the continents, so that grass and scattered short trees
predominate.
o In West Africa, the North-East Trades, in fact, blow off-shore from the Sahara Desert and reach the
Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden wind, called locally the Harmattan, meaning the doctor’.
o It is so dry that its relative humidity seldom exceeds 30 per cent. 'The doctor' provides a welcome
relief from the damp air of the Guinea lands by increasing the rate of evaporation with resultant
 cooling effects, but it is such a dry dusty wind that, besides ruining the crops, it also stirs up a
thick dusty haze and impedes inland river navigation.
Natural Vegetation
• The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.
• The terms 'parkland' or 'bush-veld' perhaps describe the landscape better. Trees grow best towards
the equatorial humid latitudes or along river banks but decrease in height and density away from
the equator. The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent
excessive loss of water through transpiration, e.g. acacias. Others have broad trunks, with water-
storing devices to survive through the prolonged drought such as baobabs and bottle trees.
• Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds. Palms which
cannot withstand the drought are confined to the wettest areas or along rivers.
• In true savanna lands, the grass is tall and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet high. The elephant grass
may attain a height of even 15 feet! The grass tends to grow in compact tufts and has long roots
which reach down in search of water.
• It appears greenish and well-nourished in the rainy season but turns yellow and dies down in the
dry season that follows.
Animal Life of the Savanna
• The savanna, particularly in Africa, is the home of wild animals. It is known as the ‘big game
country' and thousands of animals are trapped or killed each year by people from all over the
world.
• Human Life in the Savanna
o Within the savanna lands of the tropics live many different tribes who are either cattle
pastoralists like the Masai of the East African plateau or settled cultivators like the Hausa
of northern Nigeria.
Problems, Prospects and Development
• Savanna lands with an annual rainfall of over 30 inches and without any severe cold, should be
able to support a wide range of tropical crops.
• Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have shown that the
savannas have immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar,
coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits. In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of
ground-nuts, oil palm and cocoa have been gradually extended into the savanna lands.
• Droughts may be long and trying, as rainfall is often unreliable. Unless countermeasures can be
taken in the form of adequate provision for irrigation, improved crop varieties and scientific farming
techniques suitable for the tropical grasslands, crop failures can be disastrous for the people, who
have very little to fall back on.
• The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also responsible for the rapid deterioration
of soil fertility.
• During the rainy season, torrential down-pours of hear rain cause leaching, in which most of the
plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potash are dissolved and washed away.
• Savanna lands with an annual rainfall of over 30 inches and without any severe cold, should be
able to support a wide range of tropical crops.
 • Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have shown that the
savannas have immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar,
coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits. In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of
ground-nuts, oil palm and cocoa have been gradually extended into the savanna lands.
• Droughts may be long and trying, as rainfall is often unreliable. Unless countermeasures can be
taken in the form of adequate provision for irrigation, improved crop varieties and scientific farming
techniques suitable for the tropical grasslands, crop failures can be disastrous for the people, who
have very little to fall back on.
• The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also responsible for the rapid deterioration
of soil fertility. During the rainy season, torrential down-pours of hear rain cause leaching, in
which most of the plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potash are dissolved and
washed away.
• During dry season, intense heating and evaporation dry up most of the water.
• Many savanna areas therefore have poor lateritic soil is properly conserved through regular
manuring, weeding and careful maintenance, crop yields are bound to decline.
• The savanna is said to be the natural cattle country and many of the native people are, in fact,
herdsmen of pastoralists.
• Unfortunately, the native zebu cattle are bony and yield little meat or milk. They often fall victim
to tropical diseases, e.g. the ngana or sleeping sickness carried by the tsetse fly in Africa. It seems
necessary to introduce temperate cattle such as the English Shorthorn, Friesian or Guernsey to cross
with the tropical zebu, if cattle rearing is to be successful in the savanna.
• In the African savanna, the attitude of such native herdsmen as the Masai who treat cattle as
prestige animals, not for slaughtering, will pose many difficulties towards the commercialization of
the cattle industry. But as an agricultural region, the savanna holds great promise for the future.
NCERT - Tropical grasslands
• These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics .
• This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
• The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
• Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
• Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands
Tropical Grasslands
I. East Africa- Savanna
II. Brazil- Campos
III. Venezuela- Llanos
UPSC PYQ
Q. Which one of the following is the Characteristic climate of the Tropical Savannah Region?
A. Rainfall throughout the year
B. Rainfall in winter only
C. An extremely short dry season
D. Definite dry and wet season
Q. The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees. The forest development in such
areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following
are such conditions?
1. Burrowing animals and termites.
2. Fire
3. Grazing herbivores
4. Seasonal rainfall
5. Soil properties
Select the correct answer using the code given below-
(a) 1 and2
(b) 4 and 5
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 3 and 5
The Hot Desert and Mid – Latitude Desert Cl
The Hot Desert and Mid – Latitude Desert Climate
Hot Deserts – Sub Tropical High Pressure Belt

Hot Deserts – Cold Currents

Hot Deserts – Off Shore Trade Winds
Hot Deserts – What ever wind reaches the desert blow Cooler to Warmer Regions - Drought Prone
Conditions
Mid Latitude Deserts – Leeward Side of Continents
Mid Latitude Deserts – Continentality – Considerable Distance from Sea and surrounded by Mountain
Ranges
Distribution
• Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type; or
temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.
• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they are
also called Trade Wind Deserts. The temperate deserts are rainless because of their interior location
in the temperate latitudes, well away from the rain-bearing winds.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes
15° and 30°N. and S.
• They include the Sahara Desert, the largest single stretch of desert, which is 3,200 miles from east to
west and at least 1,000 miles wide. The next biggest desert is the Great Australian Desert which covers
almost half of the continent.
• The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib
Deserts. the Mohave.
• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at
different places, e.g. Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
 • In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts with less than 0.5 inches
of rainfall annually.
• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateaux and are at a considerable distance
from the sea. These are the Gobi, Turkestan and Patagonian Deserts.
• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
Andes than to continentality.
Climate
• Rainfall - The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts
where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for precipitation of any kind to take place.
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside the
desert limits." Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely low,
decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of permanent
drought.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-
coming air.
• This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The dessicating effect of the
cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the
Atacama Desert is not more than half an inch! Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the
convectional type.
• It 'bursts suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas. An inch or more may be
recorded in one single shower!
Temperature
• The deserts are some of the hottest spots on earth and have high temperatures throughout the year.
• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is around 86°F.
• The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry air
and a rapid rate of evaporation.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have
much lower temperatures.
Climate
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great. Intense insolation by day in a region of
dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to rise with the sun. But as soon as the sun sets, the land
loses heat very quickly by radiation, and the mercury column in the thermometer drops to well below
the mean temperature.
• Frosts may occur at night in winter.
Climatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude deserts
• The climatic conditions of the mid-latitude deserts are in many ways similar to those of the hot
deserts.
• Aridity is the keynote. These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are sheltered by
the high mountains all around them. As a result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds.
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall in winter,
or unexpected convectional storms may bless the parched lands with brief showers in summer.
• Due to their coldness and elevation, snow falls in winter.
Desert Vegetation
• All deserts have some form of vegetation such as grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or bulbs.
• The environment, so lacking in moisture and so excessive in heat, is most unfavourable for plant growth
and a significant vegetation cannot be expected. But very rarely are there deserts where nothing grows.
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant
scrub.
• This includes the bulbous cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.
• Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialized means of adapting themselves to the arid
environment. Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to
accumulate on the surface forming hard pans.
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very deficient in humus,
Plants, whether annuals or perennials must struggle for survival against both aridity and poor soil.
Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for ground
water.
• Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to reduce
the loss of water through transpiration. Some of them are entirely leafless, with pricks or thorns.
Others like the cacti have thick succulent stems to store up water for long droughts. There are still
others that shed their leaves during droughts.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie
dormant.
Life in the Deserts
• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of inhabitants.
• Some, like the Egyptians have attained a high level of civilization, others like the Bedouin Arabs have
fared quite well with their flocks of sheep, goats, camels and horses.
• The Bushmen of the Kalahari and the Bindibu of Australia remain so primitive in their mode of living
that they barely survive.
The primitive hunters and collectors
• Of the primitive tribes, the Bushmen and the Bindibu are the best known.
• Both the tribes are nomadic hunters and food gatherers, growing no crops and domesticating no
animals.
The nomadic herdsmen
• These people represent a more advanced group of desert dwellers who pursue a livestock economy.
They ride on animals instead of walking and are heavily clad against the blazing sun, the stormy winds
and the chilly nights.
• The Bedouin of Arabia ride on horses and live in tents; the Tuaregs of the Sahara are camel riders and
dwell in grass zeriba, while the Gobi Mongols ride on horses to herd their yaks and live in portable
yurts (a kind of tent).
The settled cultivators
• For crops to be cultivated in the desert, irrigation is indispensable. This is obtained either from oases,
rivers or dams, through a network of canals. In Egypt, the Nile supports a population of 25 million,
mainly concentrated in the Nile valley and delta. The life-giving waters of the Nile made it possible for
the Egyptians to raise many crops as early as 5,000 years ago.
• When the Nile flooded in summer, the overflowed water was caught in basins with raised banks and
led into the fields to irrigate the crops. This was basin irrigation, which was widely practised by the
ancient Egyptian farmers and is still employed by the Egyptians today.
The mining settlers
• The lure of mineral wealth has attracted many immigrants into the desert. Mining camps and isolated
settlements have sprung up following the discovery of certain mineral deposits.
• In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought many white men to the
‘thirstland’ as it is called.
• Similarly in the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah and copper in
Nevada.
NCERT - Thorny bushes
• These are found in the dry desert like regions.
• Tropical deserts are located on the western margins of the continents.
• The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.
UPSC PYQ
Q. What could be the main reason/reasons for the formation of the African and Eurasian desert belt?
1. It is located in the subtropical high pressure cells.
2. It is under the influence of warm ocean currents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Q. Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?
1) Hard and waxy leaves
2) Tiny leaves
3) Thorns instead of leaves
Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
MAINS - Why World’s most tropical Deserts are found on Western Margins of Continents?
• Offshore areas of trade wind : When the moisture laden trade wind flows from east to west shed their
moisture on the eastern part and by the time they reach the western margin, they become dry.
• Anticyclonic conditions: The areas between 20 ° -30 ° latitude on western margins of continents are the
regions of descending air. Because of this, the air gets compressed and warm as it descends and thus
the moisture keeps decreasing
• Formation of Rain-shadow Zone: A region in the leeward of mountains that receives less rainfall than
the region windward of the mountains is called rain-shadow zone.
• Presence of cold ocean currents along the western coast of continents tends stabilise the air over the
coast. This prevents cloud formation and rainfall. Hence, it leads to arid conditions or the formation of
marine deserts on the adjacent coastal lands.
The process of desertification does not have climatic boundaries. Justify with examples.
(UPSC PYQ)
• “Desertification” is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from
various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. As per UN Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD), about 45 percent of world population and 10% of world GDP is affected by
desertification.
• Causes – Water Erosion + Vegetation Degradation + Deforestation + Soil Erosion+ Soil Salinity + Water
Logging
• Although world climate is classified into various types by scientists like W Koeppen depending upon
temperature, precipitation and vegetation, Desertification knows no boundaries mainly because
anthropogenically induced global warming and climate change knows no boundaries :
• Climate zones themselves are changing : Human activities-induced warming has played havoc with
climatic zones: dry climates have increased, while polar climates have decreased.
• Sahel Region in Africa is facing alarming desertification due to combination of long draughts and
overgrazing.
• Similarly Murray Darling Basin in Australia and cold deserts of northern China also faced severe loss
of vegetation and resulting desertification.
• Tropical rainforest regions: India is prime example where 6 out of top ten states in terms of
desertification are from the north east as per the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of ISRO.
• Mediterranean region: Southern Europe, with increasing drought spells and land use changes,
witnessed its worst draught in 500 years and this is directly aiding the desertification process.
• Thus desertification is a global challenge which is fast becoming a catastrophe. To ensure land
degradation neutrality by 2030 and working on climate change goals in a responsible manner is the
only way forward.