LESSON 1: ETHICS

- is the Philosophy of life. Hence, most of us want to do the right thing, but internal
- delves into the deepest whys and wherefores of human existence, and external factors are in the way. However, ethicists put less
men’s actions, problems and destiny emphasis on studying philosophic principles and, instead,
- to live well and happy we must know what we are living for. emphasize the importance of establishing good habits of character
- this is taught us by Ethics that investigates the meaning and – needs of doing the right thing in the right place and time in the
purpose of human life right way.

Socrates Plato The virtues:

- The unexamined life is not - ethics is the supreme science •intelligence • bravery •patience • justice
worth living for man - the highest in the hierarchy of
human values, Guide ethical decision-making as they provide the basis
- ethics that is concerned with the for rational decisions when faced with an ethical dilemma.
attainment of life’s greatest Good
and Goal- HAPPINESS 1. We ought to be ethical, as it determines who we are both
personally and as a society
Ethics 2. There must be moral principles that should be observed by all.
- from the Greek word “ethos” which may mean tradition, habit, 3. Some people will lie; many may not do what they assume they
character, or attitude will do, and others may behave irresponsibly and participate in
- can also be called moral philosophy can be provisionally described harmful conduct.
as the empirical study of moral decisions.
- a discipline concerned with what is morally good and evil, For moralists, following one's interests is not wrong.
right and wrong. Nevertheless, an ethical individual must be able – at least
- word often refers to any scheme or philosophy of universal ideals occasionally–to place the needs of others ahead of self-interest,
or beliefs. because of our duty to civil society. (Bazerman, Max H. &
- not only about the nature of specific courses of action, but it is Tenbrunsel Ann E. (2012), Silverstone, Sean (2011),
also about the goodness of people and what it means to lead a
decent life. (Leandro, Jr & Gubia-on, 2018) Leano Jr. & Gunta-on (2018)
- a systematic analysis of the nature of human actions. - a person can gain a better insight into his claims to society as well
- concerned about the correctness and wrongness of the act. as the obligations he owes to society
- act is deemed to be right or wrong, based on the intent, - study of ethics should consider making it possible for an
circumstances, or character of the act itself individual to:
- a philosophy, is a very important discipline because it involves • fully understand what his conscience is
critical thinking, as it explores and describes fundamental beliefs, • how he has gained it
standards, ideals, and traditions. • how far he is willing and able to respect his outward
- a higher level of human discipline. manifestations with protection
- a branch of philosophy, and is divided into two: • how well he can strengthen it and make it even smarter
1. Normative Ethics He must learn to distinguish between the respects in
- concerns human behavior in general, is to address our questions which all persons are highly dependent and those who are
about the essence of human behavior. responsible for his or her own life and will focus on freedom of
- by definition, examine whether or not a particular act should or initiative. Eventually, it will at least allow certain observations, for
should not be carried out understanding, self-sacrifice, and obligation, which will enable us to
- examine how human beings respond to a moral question make these decisions
- aims to clarify and prescribe common expectations on what
human beings should do to interact with others in society and in a From the standpoints of the authors mentioned above, several
meaningful way. (Maboloc, 2012) views on the importance of ethics were profound and these are
the following:
Moral Philosophy - deals with moral ideas such as what human
beings "must do or how human beings should 1. Through ethics people can determine the difference between
be."
right from wrong, good and bad;
- deals with our moral obligation, the meaning of
2. People can eliminate actions that do not conform to what is right
the act, or the purpose of the act
3. People will be very careful to the actions and decisions to make;
Applied Ethics or - philosophy that discusses strong and basic
Practical ethics moral issues linked to abortion 4. People will not be disturbed of the internal and external factors
of not doing the right thing;
2. Meta-ethics 5. Establish good habits of characters of a person
- a discipline that relies on meaning. 6. Come up to rational decisions in facing an ethical dilemma;
- a science that is seeking to address non-moral questions about 7. Makes a person responsible in the family, school and society;
morality. 8. Person becomes sensitive to the needs of others more than
- refer to questions about the nature of moral statements, the himself or herself; and
purpose and significance of moral facts, and concerns about the 9. Reminds a person to fully need conscience in decision making
interpretation and justification of moral statements and a person can acknowledge the actions made

Importance of Ethics The differences of Moral and Non-moral Standards and

1. A set of rules that allows us to say right from wrong, good from Characteristics of Moral standards
the bad - countries and nations rich or poor, developed andunderdeveloped
2. Can provide true, specific guidance to our lives have their own set of laws, policies, cultures, traditions, customs,
3. Ethical principles such as fairness, trustworthiness, responsibility and beliefs.
help direct us to cope more effectively with ethical dilemmas by - may be acceptable to other countries but not acceptable to others
removing actions that do not adhere to our sense of right and - some principles and values have social consequences, whereas
wrong–our own moral interests–without compromising others. some do not
4. Ethics is all about decisions. We are continually faced with issues - a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste in one
that affect the quality of our lives. society may be a matter of moral meaning in another.
5. We are certain that the choices we make have consequences for - people need to recognize the difference between moral principles
ourselves and the others. We are cautious of the responsibility and non-moral ones to define the basic ethical values that can
that we have for our actions. direct our actions
- noral standards compel us to behave accordingly, although we
Bazerman and Ann Trebrunsel (2011) identify the blind spots as the have no right to insist on others on non-moral values based on the
differences between who you want to be and who you are. explanation above.
Moral standards
- guidelines we have on the types of acts that we find to be morally
permissible and morally unacceptable
- primarily deals with issues that can either potentially threaten or
greatly benefit human beings.
- some ethicists placed moral ethics on par with social values and
moral principles (Leandro, Jr & Gubia-on, 2018)
- normally promote the common good, that is, the welfare and well-
being of human beings, animals, and the environment
- are a blending of norms and values.
- norms + values = moral standards

Norms Values
- are basic guidelines regarding - are universal convictions as to
human acts what is acceptable, desirable, and
beneficial or not.
Etiquette
Several characteristics of morals standards as mentioned by
- a decorum
Velasquez (2012) such as and vocabularies such as:
- formal criteria governing conduct in a civilized society.
- conventional ways and uses the rules of etiquette
1. Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit
Decorum
Examples:
- implies modesty and a sense of what is becoming or is fitting for a
• theft, the murder of innocent people
person of good breeding
• respect others, a feeding program for the poor, etc.
- a fine sense of decorum.
The first two examples cause harm and the next two examples
Legality and morality are distinct, but often people are confused
produce benefits and the action has done is helpful to human
about these [Link] believe that what is moral is also legal and
beings.
that what is immoral is not good. Not all that is lawful is moral.
2. Moral standards are not determined by authority figures.
The Professional Code of Ethics (Code of Ethics)
- moral values should always be upheld, even though they are at
- a set of guidelines intended to help practitioners differentiate
odds with self-interest.
between right and wrong to guide their decision-making
- define the purpose and ideals of the organization, how staff within
Example:
the organization are to handle the issues, and the expectations to
•Cheating on examination is an example wherein the students
which workers are bound
should not cheat during exams as a rule in an educational
institution and in doing such an act, cheating, is wrong. It’s not
Teachers as professionals
because students are afraid of the teacher, instructor, or professor
but the students know that is a wrongful act.
Duly licensed professionals who possess dignity and
reputation with high moral values as well as technical and
3. Moral standards should be adopted over other values,
professional competence. In the practice of their noble profession,
including self-interest.
they strictly adhere to observe, and practice this set of ethical and
- moral standards should always be retained even if they are at
moral principles, standard and values. (Preamble, Code of Ethics for
stake with self-interest.
Professional Teachers)
4. Moral standards are focused on objective considerations
Code of Ethics
- basis of considerations and decisions must not be favorable only
Article III, Section 3 “Every teacher shall merit reasonable social
to a particular person or group. recognition for which purpose he shall
behave with honor and dignity at all times
Example: and refrain from such activities as gambling,
• Anyone who commits mistakes and wrongful acts then is smoking, drunkenness and other excesses,
punished accordingly. It must be an unbiased or impartial much less illicit relations.”
consideration. Article XI, Section 2 “A teacher shall place premium upon self-
respect and self-discipline as the principle of
5. Moral standards are perceived to be universal. personal behavior in all relationships with
- we want everyone to live up to these norms and feel resentful others and in all situations.”
when somebody doesn't live up to them. Article XI, Section 3 “A teacher shall maintain at all times a
- moral standards believed to be universal as it is applicable dignified personality which could serve as
anywhere and anytime. model worthy of emulation by learners,
peers, and others.”
Example: Lying. Telling the truth is a universal standard. Hence, we
should not lie. Joseph Santos vs. NLRC, Hagonoy Institute, Inc.
“As teacher, (one) serves as an example to his/her pupils.
6. Moral standards are correlated with different feelings and Consequently teachers must adhere to the exacting standards of
vocabulary morality and decency. A teacher both in his official and personal
- if anyone doesn't live up to the norm or standards, he will feel conduct must display exemplary behavior.”
guilty, bad, and wrong. He must freely and willingly accept restrictions on his
- the same is true when someone else does not live up to the conduct that might be viewed some of the personal behavior of
expectations, norms, and standards, others may feel disgusted at teachers, IN AND OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM, must be beyond
this person. reproach they must observe a high standard of integrity and
honesty.”
Non-moral standards (Leandro, Jr & Gubia-on, 2018)
- apply to laws which are not related to social or legal consideration - The members of the profession to which he or she belongs haven
- these criteria are not inherently related to morality or, by their learned, approved, and complied with the laws, regulations, and
very definition, lack of ethical sense conditions set down by the profession.

Examples:
• etiquette •statutes • code of professional ethics
Violations of the Code - doesn’t engage in abuse of leadership
- can result in the disapproval of the Members authority, accepting inappropriate gifts
- a lawyer may be excluded from a legal career and may prohibit and other related unethical leadership.
him or her from practicing law. Toxic workplace - leader of the organization must focus
culture on the development of work culture.
Essence of the Professional Code of Ethics - makes sure that his subordinates have
- is not a more comprehensive or fully accurate guide to one's moral work-life balance, motivated and happy
obligations working in the organization, if not then
the performance and productivity of the
- allmost all professional codes are strictly moral in nature
employees will be affected
- the fact that a law is legally embodied as part of a professional
Discrimination and - leader must treat fairly his or her
code does not guarantee that it is a sound moral concept. subordinates and avoid any form of
harassment/ Employee
favoritism discrimination and harassment.
How moral standards are formed Unrealistic & - leader must have realistic and very clear
- morals are shaped by the beliefs of an individual conflicting goals goals
- values are the basis of the capacity of an individual to distinguish - work together thoroughly until they
between right and wrong reach the goals of the organization
- morals build on this to form concrete, context driven rules that Use of the - technology of the organization must
regulate the actions of an individual organizations only use for the organization’s
- are formed from the experience of a person's life and are subject technology, social transactions
to opinion. media use, technology, - social media use while in the office must
- there are certain moral standards that all of us hold in our actions and privacy concerns be avoided as much as possible
in society. Business Travel Ethics - there are times that a leader and an
employee are in official business and in
There are various factors on how moral standards are doing that, they have per diem every
influenced: meal and must use the fund of the
organization appropriately
1. The moral values or principles that we conform with, in our
rearing 2. Individual Moral Dilemma
2. The character and manners that imbibed with us by means of - a situation where individuals confront with a number of factors
birthright; which may influence all individual ethical standards (Smith,2008)
3. The religious values that our forefathers taught us;
4. The values we learned from school; Socialization
5. The moral conduct, ways and habits of those people around us; - part of every individual's life
6. The direct and implied cultural norms - just a query as to whether an individual remains aware of doing
7. Our life experiences; and what is good and what is right
8. Our critical thinking in these experiences. - there are times that due to peer pressure, an individual engages in
a certain scenario in which may change their behavior and attitude
What does the bible tell us about immorality?
Hebrews 13:4 Let marriage be held in honor among all, and let the 3. Structural Moral Dilemma
marriage bed be undefiled, for God will judge the - selecting a proper system of responsibilities and relationships,
sexually immoral and adulterous which is a continuing universal challenge.
Galatians 5:19- Now the works of the flesh are evident: sexual
21 immorality, impurity, sensuality, idolatry, sorcery, Concepts in the Structural Moral Dilemma
enmity, strife, jealousy, fits of anger, rivalries, Differentiation - conflict between the distribution of jobs and the
dissensions, divisions, envy, drunkenness, orgies, vs. Integration organization of numerous activities generates a
and things like these.I warn you, as I warned you classic dilemma
before, that those who do such things will not inherit - the more complicated a task structure, the more
the kingdom of God. difficult it is to sustain a centered, tightly coupled
Corinthians Flee from sexual immorality. Every other sin a person organization
6:18 commits is outside the body, but the sexually - complexity grows, the company needs more
immoral person sins against his own body complicated and expensive management
Thessalonians For this is the will of God, your sanctification: that techniques
4:3-5 you abstain from sexual immorality; that each one of - laws, regulations, and directives need to be
you know how to control his own body in holiness balanced by lateral approaches
and honor, not in the passion of lust like the Gentiles Gap vs. Overlap - main tasks are not explicitly defined, the critical
who do not know God; job will slip through gaps
Leviticus 20:13 If a man lies with a male as with a woman, both of - similar manner, functions and activities can
them have committed an abomination; they shall overlap, causing conflict, wasting time, and
surely be put to death; their blood is upon them. unintended duplication of responsibilities.
Lack of Clarity - employees are not clear about what they are
LESSON 2: WHAT ARE MORAL DILEMMAS? vs. Lack of expected to do, they often adapt their tasks to
- making an option to one moral value over the other (Kvalnes 2019) Creativity personal interests instead of system-wide goals
- situation where moral values are equally significant that often lead to problems
- when people 's duties are over defined, they
- scenario where a person has a strong moral reason in action, but
comply with their positions and procedures in a
not equally strong moral reason in acting in another way bureaucratic manner. They specifically
- state where a person should morally do one, two or more and follow job requirements as to how much the service
have difficulty in deciding any of these conflicting choices. Kurie or product fails.
and Albin (2007) Excessive - individuals or groups are too independent, they
Autonomy vs. are always isolated
Levels of Moral Dilemmas Excessive - if the units and responsibilities are too closely
1. Organizational ethical or moral dilemma Interdependence connected, people are absentminded from work
- situation that causes an organization to respond negatively or and waste time or excessive coordination.
positively to an ethical issues that affects staff, shareholders and
society as well as corporate ethics and customers. To avoid structural moral dilemma the following characteristics
- includes also the leaders’ ethical actions preserving financial must be maintained:
reporting integrity.
1. Must have well-distributed jobs and the laws, policies, rules, and
Unethical - leader of the organization must act with regulations must be balanced through lateral approaches.
leadership/bad candor, be an example to his 2. Must have an implicitly defined job description, roles, and duties
leadership behavior subordinates, with upright moral values. to evade from gaps and overlaps.
3. Must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in a wide range of - binds us as everyone has a responsibility not to
goals lie, regardless of conditions and even though it is
4. Must have a well-balanced interdependence and coordination. in our interest to do so
Universalizability - for him an act is only permissible if one can have
LESSON 3: FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF MORAL ACTS the principle that allows an action to be the
universal law by which everybody acts.
True freedom - he believed that the objective rule of reason is a
- is not doing whatever you want but doing what you ought. priori, arising outward from rationality.
Humanity as an "Act in such a way that you treat humanity,
end in itself whether in your own person or in the person of
Freedom of indifference
another, always at the same time as an end and
- is choosing between contraries, usually good and evil. never simply as a means "Immanuel Kant,
Groundwork fo the Metaphysics of Morals)
Freedom of excellence
- is the power to act freely in the pursuit of human perfection and - rational being can not rationally consent to be
everlasting joy. used merely as a means to an end, so it must
always be treated as an end.
- love and fear of consequences are respectively perfect and
imperfect valid motivations for obeying the moral law. 2. Kant's Philosophy on Justice and Fairness
- good moral actions make us freer, bad moral actions make us a
slave to our sin. Justice
- involves external acts through which an individual may directly or
Kant's Philosophy on Freedom and Morality, the Principles of indirectly influence others.
Justice and Fairness - does not affect the desires, wishes, or needs of others.
- is concerned primarily with the nature of interpersonal
1. Kant's Philosophy on Freedom relationships and not with their substance.
- is the right to control one's actions bat based on reason, not
desire What does God say about justice?
- libertarian freedom is not absolute, but in fact, it is the Justice deals appropriately "When justice is done, it brings joy to the
subjugation of oneself to one's wish with those who do right righteous but terror to evildoers" (Proverbs
- state can not legally enforce any specific definition of happiness and wrong 21.15)
on its people God loves justice and "For I, the Lord, love justice; I hate robbery
- freedom is not the only reason for the ideals that undarlies the hates injustice. and wrongdoing. In my faithfulness I will
state reward my people and make an everlasting
covenant with them" (Isalah 618).
Autonamy Justice comes with God's "Blessed are those who act justly, who
- from the Greek term, which means self-legislator blessing always do what is right." Psalm 106:3
Justice is part of who God "The Lord longs to be gracious to you;
Theory and Practice is. therefore he will rise up to show you
- highlighted the autonomous right of all individuals with conceive compassion. For the Lord is a God of
Justice. Blessed are all who wait for him!"
of happiness in their way Interference er another's freedom be
(Isaiah 30:18)
happy as the former sees fit.
God wants more justice in "Let justice roll on like river, a
- Kant makes equality the first of three concepts
the world. righteousness like a never-failing stream!"
- such as three concepts (Amos 5:24)
•the freedom of a human being as a member a state God wants us to practice "He has shown you, O mortal, what is
•the dignity of each person as a subjec justice good. And what does the Lord require of
•the freedom of any member of the commonwealth as a you? To act justly and to love mercy and to
resident walk humbly with your God" (Micah 6.8)
God wants our just actions "To do what is right and just is more
Immanueal Kant accentuates the following philosophy on more than our sacrifices acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice"
freedom: to Him (Proverbs 21:3).
1. Individuals have the right to choose one's conduct based on Justice is demonstrated "This is what the Lord Almighty said:
reason, not desire. through mercy and 'Administer true justice; show mercy and
2. Individuals have to abide by the rules that they follow. compassion compassion to one another" (Zechariah
3. Individuals are independent from being limited by the option of 7:9).
others to the extent that they may coexist with each other's God wants us to work for "Learn to do right, seek justice. Defend the
freedom under universal rule. justice- especially for the oppressed. Take up the cause of the
vulnerable fatherless, plead the case of the widow
Equality Isiah 1:17).
- the most among the various freedoms and freedom in the only Stand up for what's right, "Do not follow the crowd in doing wrong.
sven when others don't. When you give testimony in a lawsuit, do
inherent power
not pervert justice by siding with the
crowd" (Exodus 23.2).
- Individuals have an autonomous right to be happy in their own Upholding justice is an "Follow justice and justice alone, so that
way, and the intervention of another's freedom means forcing essential part of being a you may live and possess the land the
others to be happy. good steward of what God Lord your God is giving you"
has given us (Deuteronomy 16.20).
Kants Philosophy on Morality God commands His "Thus says the Lord: 'Keep justice, and do
people to uphold justice. righteousness, for soon my salvation will
Good Will and - the only virtue that can be uncontroversial good is come, and my righteousness be revealed"
Duty good will. (Isaiah 56:1).
- good will is a wider conception than the will of Jesus hears our cries for "And will not God bring about justice for
obligation justice and promises to his chosen ones, who cry out to him day
- will which acts out of obligation can be described bring it. and night? Will he keep putting them off? I
as a will which overcomes barriers to the tell you, he will see that they get justice,
preservation of moral law. and quickly. However, when the Son of
Perfect and - perfect duty is more important than an imperfect Man comes, will he find faith on the
Imperfect Duties duty earth?" (Luke 18.7-8)
- when a conflict of duty arises, perfect duty must Jesus will establish justice *Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my
be carried out. for everyone on earth. chosen one in whom I delight; I will put my
Categorical - command unconditionally. Spirit on him. and he will bring justice to
imperative - irrespective of our wishes or desires
 the nations...In faithfulness he will bring d) When Paul instructed us to pay taxes. Nero, one of the most evil
forth justice; he will not falter or be Roman emperors in history, was the head of the government We
discouraged till he establishes justice on are to pay our taxes even when the government is not God
earth. In his teaching the islands will put honoring.
their hope" (isaiah 42.14)
We are free to take every legal tax deduction available. We
To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with God is no do not have to pay the maximum amount of taxes possible. If the
easy task, but it's a worthy calling. As we apply God's heart of government allows you a tax break, you are free to take it. If there
justice, we'll see ourselves and others changed as the kingdom of is a legal way you can shelter some of your money from being taxed,
heaven comes to earth. you are free to shelter it. Illegal and/or dishonest methods of
Therefore the LORD waits to be gracious to you, and evading taxes must be rejected.
therefore he exalts himself to show mercy to you. For the LORD is a
God of justice; blessed are all those who wait for him. Romans 13:2
"Consequently, he who rebels against the authority is
Taxation in the Philippines: The rules embodied under the law rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will
- taxation policy in the Philippines is regulated primarily by the bring judgment on themselves."
Constitution of the Philippines and the three Republic Acts.
 Christians know that everything we have ultimately belongs to
1. Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the Constitution provides God.
that "the rules of taxation shall be uniform and equal" and that "a  We are stewards and are called upon to invest our money and
democratic system of taxation shall be established by the other resources into things with eternal value.
Congress.”  We are called upon to provide for our farmilies (1 Timothy 5:8)
2. National law National Internal Revenue Code-enacted as Republic and to give generously (2 Corinthians 9:5-5). It is also wise to
Act No. 8424 or the Tax Reform Act of 1997 and subsequent save (Proverbs 6:6-8) and perfectly acceptable to spend money
laws amending it; most recently, the Law of the Republic No. on ourselves and thank God for His good gifts (James 1:17,
10963 or the Law on Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Colossians 3:17). Paying taxes is the duty of a citizen, and
was amended. Christians are called to be good citizens
3. Local laws: the major sources of revenue for local government  But Christians are ultimately citizens of heaven (Philippians 3:20)
units (LGUs) are taxes imposed under the Republic Act No. 7160 Reducing our tax burden in this life should have as its goal
or the Local Government Code of 1991 and those imposed on investing in God's kingdom for eternity.
revenues levied under state law.
4. Taxes levied at national level are collected by the Office of LESSON 3.1: MORAL LIFE AND THE MORAL ACT
Internal Revenue (BIR), whereas those levied at local level (i.e. - Every human person faces moral decisions, has the necessary free
provincial, city, municipal and barangay) are collected by the will to make moral decisions, and is morally responsible for his or
Office of Internal Revenue (BIR). or her own moral actsm

What does the Bible say about paying taxes? Moral act
- involves both deliberation and choice, has a moral content, and
Matthew 22:17-21 affects the character of the person who acts.
The Pharisees asked Jesus a question: "Tell us then, what
is your opinion? Is it right to pay taxes to Caesar or not?" But Jesus, What is some of the evidence that morality is a universal
knowing their evil intent, said, "You hypocrites, why are you trying struggle?
to trap me? Show me the coin used for paying the tax. They brought  Literature, philosophy, history, and the development of law
Him a denarius, and He asked them, 'Whose portrait is this? And testify that morality is a universal struggle at the very core of
whose Inscription?" 'Caesar's,' they replied. Then He said to them, human experience.
'Give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's."
What does it mean to say every person has the necessary free
(Romans 13:6-7). will to make moral decisions?
In full agreement, the apostle Paul taught, "This is also  Every person has the ability to choose what is good and right or
why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give what is evil and wrong. Every person has the natural law written
their full time to governing. Give everyone what you owe him: If you in his or her heart so he or she knows good from evil.
owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then
respect; if honor, then honor" Why is a person responsible for his or her actions?
 The interplay between the mind, which evaluates the choices set
Matthew 11:19; 21:31-32: Luke 3:12-13 before us, and the will, which makes the choice, makes us
It seems there is an endless amount of the types of taxes responsible for our actions.
to which citizens and participants in the local and global economy
are subjected. Taxes are unpopular, and sometimes the What is a moral act?
government agencies in charge of collecting those taxes are  Any action that results from a deliberate choice between good
thought of with disgust, whether they are corrupt or not. This is and evil or between different degrees of goodness is a moral act.
nothing new. Tax collectors were not thought highly of in Bible
times either What is not a moral act?
 Any thoughtless, unpremeditated act is not a moral act. Acts
a) The Bible commands, yes, commands us to pay our taxes taken under duress or threat of force are not moral acts. Purely
Romans 13:1-7 makes it clear that we are to submit ourselves to physical acts like breathing are not moral acts.
the government.
b) Only instance in which we are allowed to disobey the government What do moral acts do to the person who commits them?
is when it tells us to do something the Bible forbids. The Bible  They express and determine the good or evil of the person who
does not forbid paying taxes. In fact, the Bible encourages us to performs them.
pay taxes. Therefore, we must submit to God and His Word-and
pay our taxes. What is the cumulative effect of our moral acts?
c) Generally speaking, taxes are intended to enable the beneficial  They form character, either leaving us better or worse off, closer
running of society. Depending on one's priorities, tax revenue is to or farther from God.
not always put to the best use. The most frequent objection to
paying taxes is that the money is being misused by the Knowledge and moral responsibility
government or even used for evil purposes by the government. - knowledge and moral responsibility are related in that the more
That, however, is not our concern When Jesus said, "Give to knowledge one possesses the more morally responsible one is for
Caesar the Roman government was by no means a nighteous his or her actions.
government. - is why well-formed people have the greatest moral responsibility.
Knowledge 1. Culture is always social and communal by which the
- increases the virtue of a good action, and ignorance decreases the relationship of the people towards one another and their
sinfulness of a bad action. experience as people are the culture's meadow
- if one has a doubt about the morality of an action, he or she has - culture is social and communal in character where the people
an obligation to resolve it by gathering more information established and develop their relationships with each other and
learned from their experiences with them in the community
Vincible ignorance Invincible ignorance - laws, norms, values, and attitudes serve as a binding force to
- when we do not know - is when we do not know enhance their relationships
something we ought to know something impossible for us to - from that perspective then culture influence the moral
know development of the members of the community
- one is not morally culpable for
acts performed when one is 2. The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors
invincibly ignorant. of society
- refers to the definition of the principles and behaviors to be
Why is everyone accountable for his or her behavior? maintained, preserved, and changed for the benefit and best
 Every individual has, at minimum, an innate grasp of the interest of the members of the community
standards of correct behavior. - from the relationship and experience of the members of the
community where the community itself would be able to form
Why do people have a greater responsibility for their moral certain normative principles and behaviors to be relayed and to be
behavior than others? taught to the members of that community
 Adult is more responsible for telling a lie than a child because
the adult ought to know better. Similarly, a people ought to know 3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people,
what he or she should do better than others who have not develops restrictions and sets boundaries and limitations as
received people moral formation. they live and relate with one another
- restrictions and boundaries will serve as the protection and
What do we have the obligation to do if we suspect an action security of the members of the community
might be wrong? - laws, rules, principles, and norms will be the guidelines for the
 We have the obligation to resolve that doubt by gathering correct members of the community to behave accordingly, and if not then
information. they will be subject to the punishment or sanction embedded in
their culture
How can knowledge make an act more virtuous?
 Knowledge can increase the goodness of the act 4. As culture helps in generating the character and identity of
its people, it also includes their moral character
Example: - culture shapes the character and identity of the people in the
if I give to a charity out of a desire to look good, I am not as community through the norms, standards, rules, regulations, and
virtuous as if I give because I understand that it is good to give to laws
charity and this particular charity is a good cause.
5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing
How does ignorance exonerate one from culpability? individuals or groups
 Partial ignorance lessens the moral culpability of an evil act. - authorities serve as the maker, interpreter, and implementer of
Complete ignorance completely removes moral responsibility. the laws, rules, and regulations that they have in the community
- a system of governance that they have the roles and duties to play
LESSON 4: CULTURE in the community and their moral judgment is important in moral
issues in the community
What is culture? How does it define our moral behavior?
- culture is at the root of human alienation from the environment
- not just a compilation of artifacts or reflection of people's Characteristics of Filipino Culture
preferences and appreciation of beauty. (Kohak 1984), The Filipino people - despite the negative experience of the Filipinos
- culture is derived from the Latin word, "cultus", which means are very resilient we are still able to manage and handle a
giving respect to the sacredness of all. difficult situation lightly
- culture as a concept that refers to a broad and diverse collection - they can still smile and always manage to rise
of often intangible areas of social life. (Cole 2019) above the challenge
Filipinos take pride - filipinos first and foremost priority is the family
Culture in their families - even the closest friends are regarded as a
- introduced culture as the collective knowledge and schemes family too.
generated by a group of people to perceive, view, convey, and Filipinos are very - many religions in the Philippines, different
react to the social realities around them. (Lederach,1995) religious denominations and yet they value their beliefs
- culture as the characteristics and awareness of a specific - for the Roman Catholics, they pay their respect
community of people, including language, religion, food, social to the different cross, images of Sto. Nino, the
behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, and the arts. (Zimmerman , Little Christ, and other religious articles can be
2017) found in the house
- an analects of items with cultural or historical interest. Filipinos are very - Filipinos used “po” and “opo”, at the end of the
respectful sentences when addressing the elders
- remark of peoples' choices and admiration of beauty.
- also pay respect to someone older than them
- in harmony with the environment and an individual has a role to through “pagmamano” which means raising the
play on it. backs of the hands of their elders to their
- is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, ideals, communication, forehands as a sign of respect
language systems, behaviors, and commonality of people within a Filipinos help one - are known to “bayanihan” or “comunity spirit”
group. another where everyone helps each other to make the
- embraces material objects that are significant to a particular group task easier without expecting in return
or society Filipinos values - filipino traditions and culture are very
- is related to the social structure and economic aspects of society. traditions and important for Filipinos
- a combination of the skills, talents, capacities, and artifices culture - they spent time on celebrations such as
brought about by a group of people to look at, relay messages, birthday parties, reunions, festivals, etc.
and respond to the realities of social life. Filipinos have the - In the Philippines, Christmas songs started to
longest Christmas play in the malls, restaurants, respective homes
The influences of culture in Moral Development celebration from September and last until the second week
of January the next year
- they hang a parol and assembling the
Christmas tree with the decoration of balls in
different colors, toys, and others
Filipinos love art - gigantic and tall buildings everywhere signify culture without being impacted by how it views morality
and architecture. Filipinos creativity in art and architecture or what is ethically right or wrong.
- love to design, think, and have a passion for - social learning is the process by which individuals
aesthetic value which is unique and different acquire knowledge from others to which they belong as
Filipinos are - visitors whether foreigners or Filipinos are very a normal part of childhood.
hospitable people much welcome for the Filipinos during - process by which infants and children socially learn the
festivities and even no occasions culture including morality, of those around them is
- offer the best food, utensils, and the place to called enculturation or socialization.
stay Cultural - we do not judge a society by our own criteria of what is
- the visitors will feel at home Relativism right or wrong, odd or natural.
- make an effort to understand the cultural traditions of
Weakness of Filipino Character other communities in their own cultural context
Extreme - Filipinos always try to give an interpretation of - desire to consider a culture on its own terms and not to
Personalism the actions or they take things personally make conclusions based on the norms of one's own
- they say thank you with "but" (compliment- community.
criticism-compliment) - concept of cultural relativism also means that any
Extreme Family - Filipinos have very high family protection opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each
Centeredness whether in good or poor condition and person within their particular culture.
circumstance (konsentidor)(overprotected) - holistic understanding, it tries to promote the
Lack of Discipline - Filipinos have a rather relaxed attitude, but bad understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar
time management (famous Filipino time) to other cultures such as eating insects, genocides or
- are impatient and unable to postpone genital
incentives or rewards - a moral theory that contends that there are no objective
- want to take shortcuts or the 'palusot' scheme universal moral rules, and the moral rules that do not
and careless. exist are culturally bound
Passivity and Lack - demanding someone's accomplishment, so - there is a negative claim that there are no moral claims
of Initiative they're not displaying the same flag just such as that killing is wrong that would apply to every
because of race culture, and there is a positive claim that there are
- are rather complacent (relax) but they often moral rules, but they vary depending on culture,
have a sense of urgency society, and context
- Filipinos have a positive personality, but a lack - an attitude toward the meaning and role of values in
of self-confidence and a deep desire to achieve various cultures
their goals - beliefs in terms of norms and behavior in a particular
culture are specific to that society
Colonial Mentality - patriotism vs active awareness mentality
- appreciate too much other nationality and
foreign products than native ones (local vs Goal of Cultural relativism
imported) - to foster the awareness of the cultural traditions that are not
- even lack love and appreciation for what they usually part of one's own culture.
have

Kanya-kanya - have self-serving attitude that generates feeling Definition of cultural relativism stated above are summarized to
Syndrome of envy and competitiveness towards others the following:
(status vs prestige)
- have personal ambition but insensitive to 1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by their
common will (people and own country). standards in the principle of right or wrong, eccentric or natural.
- there is also a crab mentality attitude (Hilahan 2. People must understand other societies culture
and Inggitan System) 3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our knowledge and
- lack of appreciation resulting unhealthy
interpretation of the practices and cultural traditions that are not
competition
part of our culture and that not uncommon to other cultures.
Lack of Self - Filipinos are superficial and dreamy
4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the idea of no
Analysis and - lack self- evaluation and reflection of the
Reflection situation objective universal moral rules that would apply to every culture
and it varies depending on the culture of the society.

LESSON 6: CULTURAL RELATIVISM Example:

In the case of Islam, for instance, to marry five times are allowed as
Culture in - understand the role of culture in moral behavior, it is
long as the man is capable to support them while in Christianity, it
Moral important to first of all have an understanding of what is punishable by the law if any man or woman are married twice as
Behavior culture is and its necessary relationships with man. it is bigamous as stated in Article 349 of the Revised Penal Code
- commonly said that culture is all around US and the second marriage will be void from the very beginning if the
- culture appears to be an actual part of our social life as first manage is valid under Article 35 of the Family Cooe
well as our personality.
Cultures - a 'way of life' of a group of people a) The moral standards of every society differ from the other and
Role in - so called way of life actually includes moral values and for that reason, any culture should be respected by anyone.
Moral behaviors, along with knowledge, beliefs, symbols that b) We cannot say that it is right or wrong because that culture
Behavior they accept, generally without thinking about them, and permits them to do so and the other societies' cultures would
that they are passed along by communication and view the same that is right or wrong or vice versa.
imitation from one generation to the next. c) What is moral to other societies may not be moral to our
- culture is learned as children grow up in society and societies and what is moral to our societies may not be moral to
discover how their parents and others around them them, it is indeed hard to reconcile the conflicting cultures s of
interpret the world.
the societies with their respective moral standards.
- we learn to evaluate what is (morally) good and bad and
d) The boundaries would be the understanding and acceptance of
to judge when an unusual action is appropriate or
inappropriate (Manebog & Pena, 2016). the cultures of the societies.
- many aspects of morality are taught. People learn moral
and aspects of right or wrong from transmitters of Pros or advantages of Cultural Relativism
culture: respective parents, teachers, novels, films, and
television. Advantages
- observing or watching them, develop a set of what is It creates learning - cultural difference allows people to lean as
right and wrong and what is acceptable and what is not. opportunities that they can compare their respective cultures
- even experientially, it is improbable, if not impossible, could make humanity and fromn those differences, they can
to live in a society without being affected by its culture. stronger. improve their lives.
- follows too that it is hard to grow up in a particular It eliminates the - across culture, there are groups of people
concept of separate, who have common beliefs and values, but •protecting innocent people •
but equall who face prejudice, injustice, and differences •telling the truth
depending on the classes they belong to. •being creative
It creates a system of - people will concentrate on the things they do
niche expertise better when cultural relativism is stressed. Universal Values, however, can be understood in two ways
- will no longer be a need to strengthen the 1. First, it could be that something has universal value because
points of weakness since the weakness of everyone finds it important.
one individual is the strength of another.
2. Second, it could have universal value when all people have reason
- individuals will have to reflect on their
to believe it has value.
strengths instead of their weaknesses
It encourages - different cultures have different backgrounds
respect and perspectives to support civilization. Didactic Encyclopedia (2015),
- with cultural relativism, these interactions - universal value is a concept that it is not obvious to define
and viewpoints contribute to the common because a principle is connected with morality or ethics
good, as it helps us to benefit and learn from - difficult to transpose or apply to the level of the group
each particular viewpoint in their way. - in other words, all people have certain values that come from
within them and direct their actions.
Disadvantages - human beings do not think in the same way, values can differ
There will be actions - since each person can set his or her moral from person to person. Universal values, however, need to be
taken that would be code of conduct socially expressed.
defined by some as - there will be those who choose to perform
"violent," "unsafe," of acts that the majority of people will interpret Universal Values
"wrong." as wrong
- murder, robbery, child abuse, all of these will Have reason Connected
become legally viable acts if that person's Has value to believe it with ethics
morality described them as being good. has value or morality
It is based on a - we may all like to think that we're perfect but
concept that people the fact is that we're all far from it.
Need to be
are perfect. - theory of cultural relativism is based on the
socially
premise that society can be perfect.
expressed
It creates a personal - cultural relativism is a worthy goal.
bias. - societies have a natural prejudice against
them
- cultural relativism does move accountability SCHWARTS CONCEPT OF UNIVERSAL VALUES
from a group perspective to an individualistic - values as conceptions of what is important that affect the way
perspective. people choose action and evaluate events. (Sen. 1999)
- promoting a particular set of morals is the
focal point rather than the promotion of a Power - authority: leadershipc domsihance, social power,
collective set of morals wealth
Achivement - success, capability, ambition, influence; intelligence,
It eliminates the idea - any of the greatest thinkers and teachers to self-respect
that reform or be followed in history will all be deemed Hedonism - pleasure; enjoying life
change can be a wrong in a system of cultural relativism. Stimulation - daring activities: varied life, exciting life
good thing - there is no need to change hearts and minds, Self-direction - creativity, freedom, independence; curiosity,
as they are all held to their standards. choosing your own goals
- benefit of cultural relativism is that it teaches Universalism - broadmindedness; wisdom; social justice, equalty a
acceptance to individuals. world at peace world of beauty, unity with nature,
- drawbacks are that this is a philosophy that protecting the environment inner harmony
is based on the belief that humans eventually Benevolence - helpfulness, honesty, forgiveness: loyalty,
do the best thing to do. responsibility, friendship
- from the very beginning there is already a Tradition - accepting one's portion in life humility, devoutness:
conflict of cultures in societies because it respect for tradition; moderation
varies from each other, Conformity - self-discipline: obedience
- from that differences, we can adjust, change Security - deanliness; family secuику, nazonnal security stability
our perspectives and learn from the strengths of social order; reciprocation of favors, health sense
and weaknesses of each culture to improve of belonging
ourselves.
- to better understand the people as what and
Schwarts Types of Universal Values
who they are, their roots, their moral
standards, acceptable and unacceptable or
permissible or prohibited in their societies Power Universalism
then we need to embrace their cultures to Achivement Benevolence
determine the trends or situations to develop. Hedonism Tradition
Stimulation Conformity
Before society can grow up and learn from Self-Direction Security
each other, there is a great deal of potential
for harm in this idea. (Lombardo, (2015) Un Charter of Uniersal Values
"Knowing the advantages or pros and
Secretary-General Kofi Annan
disadvantages or cons of cultural relativism,
we able to balance the cultures of the societies “The values of peace, freedom, social progress, equal
despite the differences rights and human dignity enshrined in the Charter of the United
Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, are no less
LESSON 7: UNIVERSAL VALUES valid today than when ober half a century ago”

Value - "ali states reaffirmed certain fundamental values as being

- means something that a person or a group believes has a value essentials to international relations in the twenty-first century":
that merits being sought, promoted, or privileged. freedom, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature and
- it can be a: shared responsibility."
a) thing: •money •food •art - looking at the fundamental values mentioned above and the
b) a state of mind: •peace •protection •certainty provisions under the Charter of the United Nations, countries of all
c) a behavior that results from those things or states of mind: nations and cultures must apply these principles to maintain peace
and security in the world.
- rich, poor, developed, underdeveloped, advanced, or not and Exampe: "A man of dignity and unbending principle”.
highly technological or not countries must not only adapt but
implement these values seriously.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 2 Section 11
In reality the presence of discrimination, double standards, "The state recognizes the dignity of every human person
injustice, partiality, oppression, etc., can be seen in an international and guaranteed full respect for human right."
setting. it is admittable that the nations, which are advanced are
powerful than those states in poverty considered as weakest states. - this implies that any person in whatever capacity. economic and
If all nations in the world despite differences in races, social status, rich or poor, educated or uneducated deserve to be
colors, international standings, cultures, religions, customs, respected by anyone.
traditions, set aside their respective-self- interests, peace and - there are instances that a simple individual is respectful more than
security in the whole world will evidently possible. professionals.
It can be described as, unified, cooperative, promoter of - status in life is not a guarantee that an individual has dignity and
mutual understanding, and peace-loving nations. A better future for honor.
all the countries in the world. - is in the inner self of a person, an innate character built and
developed day by day of anyone.
Basic Universal Human Values - whatever action to be done will reflect on whom and who you are.
Happiness - refers to good fortune; pleasure; contentment, joy.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

"happiness or flourishing or living well is a
complete and sufficient good. This implies that it is
desired for itself, that it is not desired for the sake
of anything else, that it satisfies all desire and has
no evil mixed in with it, and that it is stable.
Peace - is a freedom from disturbance; tranquility
- a state or period in which there is no war or a war
has ended
- state of mutual harmony between people or
groups, especially in personal relations:

Example: Live in peace with your neighbors

Freedom - is the state of being free or at liberty, freedom
from control, interference, obligation, restriction,
hampering conditions, etc.; power or right of
doing, thinking, speaking, etc., according to
choice.
Safety - state of being safe; freedom from the occurrence
or risk of injury, danger, or loss
Intelligence - capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding,
and similar forms of mental activity; aptitude in
grasping truths, relationships, facts, meanings, etc
Respect - formal expression or gesture of greeting, esteem,
or friendship: deference to a right, privilege,
privileged position, or someone or something
considered to have certain rights or privileges;
proper acceptance or courtesy: acknowledgment:
respect for a suspect's right to counsel; to show
respect for the flag; respect for the elderly.
Equality - state or quality of being equal; correspondence in
quantity, degree, value, rank, or ability: promoting
equality of opportunity in the workplace
Justice - quality of being just; righteousness, equitableness,
or moral rightness: to uphold the justice of a cause
Nature - material world, especially as surrounding
humankind and existing independently activities
Health - general condition of the body or mind with
reference to soundness and vigor: good health;
poor health: soundness of body or mind; freedom
from disease or ailment to have one's health; to
lose one's health

The Human Dignity

Dignity
- state or quality of being worthy of honor or respect.
- refers to bearing, conduct, or speech indicative of self-respect or
appreciation of the formality or gravity of an occasion or situation
- importance and value that a person has, that makes other people
respect them or makes them respect themselves
- is earned and cannot be taken away from anyone.
- must be preserved so that the respect of others is maintained
- any act or action to be done by an individual will be reflected in
his or her personality.
- only one big mistake can ruin a good reputation for anyone.
- people must be very careful of his or her action and words to be
said