CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual framework
2.1.1 Overview of primary education in Nigeria
The concept primary education is commonly observed to be an education given to
children within their late childhood. This is the education given to children after
nursery education (Okwori & Henry, 2014). Federal Government of Nigeria
(2004) defined primary education as the education given in institutions for
children aged 6 to 11 plus. This means that on entry into the primary school, the
child must be at least six (6) years of age. Federal government of Nigeria (2004)
also noted that since the rest of the education system is built upon primary
education, this level of education is the key to the success or failure of the whole
system in Nigeria. At this level of education pupils is taught the basic skills of
learning, and it is at this level of education that pupils are expected to acquire the
literacy that will prepare them for the next level of education.
Students spend six years in primary school. Primary school pupils are required to
take a Common Entrance Examination to qualify them for admission into the
Federal and State Government Secondary schools, as well as Private schools
(Straightup, 2020). At graduation, primary school pupils are awarded the First
School Leaving Certificate (FSLC) which fulfils the formal requirements for
secondary school education. The Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) is the
minimum required qualification for anyone who wish to teach in the primary and
junior secondary schools in Nigeria (Apindi, 2022). It is awarded by Colleges of
Education in Nigeria.
In 1976, the Universal Primary Education program was established (Csapo, 1983).
The Universal Basic Education (UBE) was formed in 1999 and this came as a
replacement of the Universal Primary Education and intended to enhance the
success of the first nine years of schooling (Universal Basic Education
Commission, 2020). The UBE involves 6 years of Primary School education and 3
years of Junior Secondary School education, culminating in 9 years of
uninterrupted schooling, and transition from one class to another is automatic but
determined through continuous assessment. This scheme is monitored by the
Universal Basic Education Commission, UBEC, and has made it "free",
"compulsory" and a "right" of every child (UBEC, 2012).
Goals of primary education in Nigeria
The goals of primary education according to the Federal Government of Nigeria
(2004) are to:
i. Inculcate permanent literacy and numeracy and ability to communicate
effectively.
ii. Lay a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking.
iii. Give citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and
contribution to the life of the society.
iv. Mould the character and develop sound attitude and morals in the child.
v. Develop in the child the ability to adapt to the child’s changing
environment.
vi. Give the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will
enable the child function effectively in the society within the limits of the
child’s capacity.
vii. Provide the child with basic tools for further educational advancement,
including preparation for trades and crafts of the locality.
In pursuance of the above goals, Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) also went
further and said that:
i. Primary education will be tuition free, universal and compulsory for all
children of school age.
ii. Teaching will be by practical, exploratory and experimental methods.
iii. The medium of instruction in the primary school will be the language of the
environment for the first three (3) years. During this period, English
Language will be taught as a subject.
iv. From the fourth year, English Language will progressively be used as a
medium of instruction and the Language of the immediate environment and
French will be taught as subjects.
v. For effective teaching and learning, the teacher – pupil ratio will be 1:35.
vi. Advancement from one class to another will be based on continuous
assessment.
vii. The primary school leaving certificate will be based only on continuous
assessment and will be issued locally by the head teacher of the school.
viii. To take care of those children that were dropped out from primary
education, adult and non-formal education were made available by the
government for such children to enable them continue with their education.
ix. To integrate Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into
primary education, and among others.
Relevance of primary education to the overall development of the child
According to Anero (2014), the ways primary education contributes towards the
child’s overall development includes:
i. It inculcates permanent literacy and numeracy, and ability to
communicate effectively: The child at the primary school level is taught basic
arithmetic and language skills. The skills acquired enable him to effectively
communicate and transact in the society.
ii. It provides the child with basic knowledge and skills for further
educational advancement, including preparation for trades and crafts of
the locality: Primary education is a preparatory period for the child to actively
participate in the next level of education. Rudimentary skills which will enable
the child to cope with basic education are presented to the child considering his
physical, social and intellectual abilities. Through a curriculum that focuses on
basic literacy, numeracy, and social skills, primary education equips children
with the basic skills and knowledge to succeed in their future academic and
vocational pursuits to succeed In addition to this, special periods are created to
teach the child some crafts that are locally prepared within the environment.
Some such crafts are making of brooms, baskets, ropes and many more.
iii. It moulds the character and develop sound attitude and morals in the
child: The primary school is known for imparting societal norms to the
children. The extent the school and other social agents do this determines the
quality of character or morals the child can exhibit in the larger society. One
tool the primary school uses in achieving this is through story telling.
Commenting on the use of storytelling, Anero (2013) observes that Plato one
of the earliest philosophers and who is accredited as the originator of the use of
narratives in teaching children explained that teachers must start with fictitious
stories hence children enjoy them more than stories that are non fictitious in
nature. Dwelling further on this he noted that Plato stressed the need to use
stories to teach natural events that depicts honesty, patience, hard work, respect
for elders and those in authority, faith in God and many more.
iv. It gives citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and
contribution to the life of the society: The development of good leadership
and fellowship among people is inculcated in children during their primary
school days. The primary school education achieves this by enabling the
children develop ways of relating with others in a group by co-operatively
sharing and carrying out responsibilities. This is achieved through group
assignments and other group activities. Besides, certain rules are made in the
classes which sometimes are executed by the class monitor. By so doing, the
child begins to learn that within a small community such as the class there is
the need to obey laws and respect a leader.
v. It lays a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking: Prime to all
school activities is to enable children explore nature, immediate environment,
music and art. Basic habits necessary for successful science activities are
taught at the primary school level. Some such habits are hygienic practices
such as washing of hands before and after meals, toilet habits as well as sleep
and rest. Besides these, the primary school child is taught basic science
principles through the teaching and learning of major features of living and
non-living things. The child is often asked to carry out experiments to explore
nature. For instance seed germination process or determining the best soil for
planting is easily carried out by primary school children. It is also worthy to
note that the use of play in teaching the primary school child is a means of
exploring nature. The use of play in exploring nature gained pronounced
attention after Maria Montessori utilized it in training mentally retard children
to cope with activities the normal ones can do.
vi. It develops in the child the ability to adapt to the child’s changing
environment: Changes in weather conditions accounting for different seasons
are taught at the primary school level. The primary school curriculum goes as
far as explaining how the different environments predetermine the nature of
economic activities that take place in different areas. By so doing the child is
informed in adapting to the different environments.
vii. It gives the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will
enable the child function effectively in the society within the limits of the
child’s capacity: The primary school as an all round development agent does
not neglect the teaching of any aspect of the child’s potential. The school
achieves it by exposing the child to several skills. Some such rare skills are the
games/sports which may not be easily acquired in the home or any other
socialization institution.
2.1.2 Education management personnel in primary schools
The management personnel of primary schools typically includes:
1. Head Master/Teacher:
The head master is responsible for the overall management of the school,
including academic and administrative function. The headmaster is the highest
authority in the primary school. He sees to the day-to- day administration or
management of his institution. The school leans on him for co- ordination of
various persons in the schools, teacher to teacher, pupil to pupil, pupils to
teachers, the school to the community and the school to the government,
ministries and agencies in charge of education. So the role of the headmaster is
enormous and so indispensable that the school cannot achieve success without
him (Okodo, 2022). Similarly, Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) opined that
primary school headmasters perform numerous administrative roles. They
plan, co-ordinate and direct their staff and pupils, manage school buildings and
facilities and provide the physical and human school environment conducive to
teaching and learning.
According to Okodo (2022) the duties of the head master/teacher includes the
following: supervision of instruction, keeping school records, co-ordinating
teacher activities, instilling discipline, maintenance of the time table,
maintenance of teachers’ welfare, keeping school finances, organizing in-
service training programmes, settlement of disputes, taking care of the school
premises & maintaining school community relationship.
2. Assistant Head teacher/Master:
The major duty of the assistant head teacher/master is to assist the head master
in carrying out the enormous day-to-day administrative tasks (Olugbenga,
2008), and ensure that the school provides a high-quality education to its
learners. He/She assists the head master in running and managing the school
for the administrative processes to run smoothly and efficiently.
Some specific responsibilities of the head teacher may include:
i. Marking of lesson notes
ii. Collaborating with teaching staff to develop and implement innovative
teaching and learning strategies to promote learners’ academic
excellence.
iii. Observing classrooms, providing feedback, support and guidance to
teachers to help improve their instructional practices.
iv. Addressing disciplinary issues among learners and teachers, working
with parents and teachers to resolve problems
v. Assisting with administrative tasks such as scheduling, organizing
school events, and managing school records.
vi. Helping to organize parent-teachers meetings and engage with the
community to support the school goals.
vii. Helping the head master to manage school resources such as textbooks,
materials and facilities.
viii. Supporting the head teacher in implementing school policies and
procedures.
ix. Organising and overseeing extracurricular activities and programs.
x. Keeping students records such as performance and attendance.
xi. Serving as acting head teacher in the absence of the head teacher.
2.1.3 Leadership styles
Effective leadership is an important element in the success of any organization or
institution such as primary schools. Hafeez et al. (2023), views leadership as a
person's capacity to influence another individual or gather to act or comply them
within the way that individual crave is alluded to as administration. Htike, (2019)
proposed that a leadership style is a person's behaviour that directs a group of
people toward the accomplishment of shared objectives. Leadership styles refer to
the behavioral approach employed by leaders to influence, motivate, and direct
their followers to achieve goals (Cfi team, 2015).
Various leadership styles
1. Transformational Leadership Style
A transformational leader inspires followers to perform at the anticipated level
by using values and principles. When a leader adopts a transformational
leadership style, his followers show honesty, loyalty, and respect for him. They
are driven to go above and beyond what their leader expects of them. The way
of motivating followers selected by the leader is dependent on the desired
outcome, urging them to put the interests of the organisation and the team
ahead of their own. Through the intellectual stimulation of followers, this
method promotes critical thinking and unconventional problem-solving.
Employee commitment to achieving the objectives of their organisation is
increased and improved as a consequence, along with their level of happiness
and performance (Khan, 2020). Charisma, inspiring drive, intellectual
simulation, and individual consideration are the four behavioural elements of
transformational leadership (Hafeez et al., 2023).
2. Transactional leadership style
The idea of transactional leadership is based on a short-term business contract,
economic exchange, or cost-benefit analysis. Organization, control, and
cooperation are significantly emphasized in the transactional leadership style.
This leadership style focuses on particular duties and encourages followers
through rewards and punishments (Haibo, 2022). It focuses on supervision,
organization, and group performance of the employees. For leaders to promote
organisational competitiveness in an era of global competition, transactional
leadership is just as crucial as transformational leadership in practice (Arshad
et al., 2021). Transactional leadership is regularly used in businesses, when
employees do something successfully, managers reward them and vice versa
(Sarwar, 2022). Followers are compensated or punished to accomplish
organizational targets (Hoy & Miskel, 2010). Hafeez et al.,(2023) found that
transactional leadership style can boost the performance of teachers but does
not encourage them to be creative and innovative.
3. Democratic Leadership Style
Democratic leadership style suggests that employees be directly involved in
decision-making in their organization. This style consists of the leader sharing
the decision-making abilities with followers through promoting the interest of
the followers and by practicing social equality. The leader simply facilitates a
conversation and then takes all the suggestions and comes up with the best
possible action. In this theory, everyone is very involved with decisions for the
team and organization (Sarwar, 2022). The democratic leader is in any case
there to supply direction and control (Andriani et al., 2018).
4. Autocratic/Authoritative leadership style
Leaders with autocratic styles of leadership are known for being authoritative
and having the most power in the decision-making process. This type of leader
merely gives instructions to group members on how to execute tasks in a given
manner, and they avoid establishing obvious lines of communication between
employees and followers. It does not encourage employees to participate in the
development of organizational policies. Leaders exercising the autocratic style
do not ask for any suggestions or initiative from followers. It allows for speedy
decision-making because only one person makes decisions for the entire group
and keeps each conclusion to themselves until he or she deems it is necessary
to share it with the rest of the group (Sarwar, 2022).
5. Bureaucratic leadership Style
Bureaucratic leadership encourages the implementation of effective processes
and calculability. Because employees are aware of their tasks and the reporting
hierarchy, this organisational structure allows an organisation to run like a
well-oiled machine. A hierarchy of power creates management and decision-
making criteria under bureaucratic leadership. A tight and formal hierarchy can
be visible along the whole chain of command in a bureaucratic leadership
system (Hafeez et al., 2023). It is built on a foundation that needs the right
framework to support and guide its activities (Arshad et al., 2021).
6. Laissez-faire leadership
A laissez-faire leadership styles give complete rights and powers to their
followers to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems and
hurdles. In this style, decision making is passed on to the followers. This style
focuses on no interference in the affairs of others. When a leader is hands-off
and allows followers to make decisions, this is known as the Laissez-Faire
style of administration. Independences are entirely indestructible in laissez-
faire due to group objectives, processes, and operational techniques. These
administrators do not intervene too often. The laissez-faire leadership style
allows for complete autonomy in group decision-making without the
involvement of the leaders ((Sarwar, 2022).
2.1.4 Educational resources
Education resources refer to all human, financial and material or physical
resources in an academic environment to facilitate school administration and
simplify the teaching- learning process. They also include other fundamental
materials used in the school to make teaching very easy and learning more
meaningful and comprehensible to the learners (Usman, 2016).
Types of educational resources
Educational resources can be classified into the following categories:
(a) Material/Physical Resources
Physical/material resources in education refer to the tangible assets, infrastructure
and materials necessary for teaching, learning and operating of educational
institutions (Thankgod et al, 2024). The physical resources would include the
classrooms/lecture rooms, staff offices, vehicles, health centers, library and library
materials, laboratory, chalkboard, textbooks, computers, teaching aids and
materials, which directly or indirectly contribute to the achievement of goals
(Usman, 2016). These physical resources play a crucial role in creating an
environment conducive to effective educational delivery and learners’ engagement
(Thankgod et al, 2024).
(b) Financial Resources
According to Usman (2016), financial resources are the funds required for the
smooth operations of a school and are regarded as the life-wire of any system. It is
indeed a more critical facet with which other factors of administrations are created,
maintained and sustained. In school administration, funds are necessary for the
procurement of facilities, equipment, electronics and communication gadget
needed for effective performance. Apart from this, funds are needed to pay the
salaries of administrative, academic and non-academic staff. A robust financial
allocation for school administration would not only enhance goals attainment but
its sustainability. Plan and policy implementation are responsive to funds
availability. Funds are needed for the acquisition of fixed and current assets and to
settle current liabilities and expenditures incurred in the course of administration
(Usman, 2016).
(c) Human Resources
Human resources constitutes a vital part of any institution. Human resources in
education refers to all individuals who contribute to the functioning and success of
educational institutions. The human resource in the school system includes
teachers, administrators, academic and non-academic staff in the school. The
availability of human resources is not only required in school administration, but
their quality and quantity must be considered if effective and efficient
administration is to be guaranteed. The function of human resources management
in education includes staff maintenance, staff relations, staff development,
procurement of staff and job performance reward (Omebe, 2014).
2.1.5 Teacher motivation
According to Otaru and Omokide (2019), motivation is the internal feeling that
arises from the desires and needs of an individual. It is the continuous process of
needs and satisfaction that stimulates individuals to perform. Motivation inspires
an individual to utilise his or her best capabilities for the achievement of particular
goals.
Teacher motivation refers to the driving forces that encourage teachers to perform
their duties with enthusiasm dedication, and commitment. It is what inspires them
to go the extra mile to make a positive impact on their learners’ learning
experiences. A motivated teacher is someone who is very passionate about
teaching and has a strong desire to help students learn and succeed. Committed
and motivated teachers maximise their contributions to their students and schools
(Nahid et al., 2023). According to Betkowski (2024), motivated teachers are likely
to be more engaged, perform to their highest potential and positively affect those
around them. On the other hand, teachers with low motivation may lack interest in
their work, disengage from peers and students and perform at a minimum rate or
less. Some factors that motivate teachers include: personal satisfaction and
fulfillment, good working conditions, fair compensation and benefits, recognition
and reward, fair promotion system, students desire for learning, training and
development, administrative support, good organizational guidelines, adequate
resources, positive work-life balance (Cabaron & Oco, 2023; Kumari & Kumar,
2023).
2.1.6 Learning environment
A learning environment refers to the physical, psychological, and instructional
atmosphere in which learning takes place (Watts & Firestone, 2023). The school
learning environment refers to the physical, social, and emotional surroundings
that affect a student’s ability to learn and succeed in school. It includes:
i. Physical environment: classrooms, school buildings, playgrounds, libraries
etc.
ii. Social environment: Teacher-student relationships, peer relationships,
school culture, bullying or safety concerns etc.
iii. Emotional environment: Support systems, counseling, mentoring,
motivation and engagement, sense of belonging etc.
The school environment in which teaching and learning take place is an important
factor that cannot be ignored if the aims and objectives of the school system are to
be optimally achieved. Hence, a conducive, healthy and safe school environment
is very paramount to effective teaching and learning (Ihekoronye, 2022). The
extent to which students’ learning could be enhanced depends on their location
within the school compound, the structure of their classroom, availability of
instructional facilities and accessories. It is believed that a school with adequate
learning environment contributes to stir up expected outcomes of learning that will
facilitate good academic performance, by encouraging effective teaching and
learning (Duruji et al., 2014). Usman & Madudili (2019), argued that schools that
fail to provide the necessary learning facilities and create a conducive atmosphere
for teaching and learning may hardly put in the best in their students especially in
the area of academic achievement.
2.1.7 Learner’s achievement
Learner’s achievement refers to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that a
learner acquires or demonstrates as a result of their learning experiences. Barowski
& Carter (2023), defines learner achievement as the measurement of the amount of
academic content a pupil/learner learns in a given time frame. It refers to the
extent to which a learner has attained their short or long-term educational goals. It
is the result or outcome of the learning activities undertaken by students. Learning
achievement encompasses cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects.
According to Keenze-Wells (2022), to improve learners’ performance and increase
student achievement in the school, you need a positive school climate and culture.
Achievement is usually assessed through continuous assessments, tests,
homework/assignments and examinations (Anwar, 2010). The factors that affect
academic achievement includes: prior knowledge, students’ learning skills,
motivation, learner’s study habits, parental background, learning environment,
teacher-student relationship, teacher qualification and peer influence. (Chapagai,
2022; Suleiman, 2023). Teachers play a crucial role in facilitating and motivating
students to achieve educational goals (Hasan, 2022). According to Keenze-Wells
(2022) teachers can help to improve learners’ academic achievement by praising
effort rather than performance, reinforcing attendance, encouraging positive
classroom behavior, providing academic feedback, offer multiple opportunities to
practice, ignite their learning passions, foster a sense of belonging and adapt to the
changing learning needs of students.
2.2 Empirical review
This review will synthesize the findings of some empirical studies that have
investigated the impact of leadership styles, resources management practices,
teacher motivation strategies and the management of learning environment on
learners’ achievement across educational levels.
Leadership styles and learners’ achievement
Igwe et al. (2017) study was on the principal leadership styles and students’
academic performance in Enugu metropolis. The study compared the leadership
styles of principals in public and mission secondary schools on students’ academic
performance in Enugu South Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria. Ex-
post facto descriptive research design was adopted. Data collection instruments
were the use of structured questionnaire and interviews. Results of the
investigation revealed that autocratic leadership style was positively correlated
with students’ academic performance. The study recommended that the
application of autocratic leadership style by principals has the capacity of
increasing the level of students’ academic performance.
Chen & Abari (2015), investigated the influence of principal’s leadership styles
and student’s academic achievement in secondary school mathematics in Makurdi
local government area of Benue State. Descriptive survey design research was
employed in the analysis. Three (3) research questions were generated and tested
at 0.05 significant levels. Data for the study were collected using a self-developed
questionnaire. The findings of the study revealed that both autocratic and Laissez-
faire leadership styles had no significant effect on student’s academic achievement
while democratic leadership style however was significant. Based on the findings
of the study, the following recommendations were given teaching service
commission in collaboration with state Ministry of Education should be organizing
seminars and workshops for school principals on effective style for school
management; schools should make provisions of available instructional materials
and ensure there is discipline generally (both staff and students) and school
climate.
The study of Saidu (2017) examined the impact of principals leadership styles on
teaching and learning in secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State,
Nigeria. Descriptive survey design research was employed in the analysis. Data for
the study were collected through a self-structured questionnaire. The findings of
the study revealed that situational, transactional, transformational, democratic and
charismatic leadership styles had positive impact on teaching and learning while
autocratic leadership style had a negative impact on teaching and learning in
secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis. Based on the findings of the study, it was
recommended, among others, that Principals should adopt situational leadership
style to eliminate predictable leadership approach in their administration of
schools which affects teaching and learning outcomes. Principals should not use
the autocratic leadership style except when the need arises to exert authority and
quell disciplinary problems which mostly undermine teachers‟ classroom
performance that affects teaching and learning outcomes.
Resource management and learners’ achievement
Mwikaria et al (2019) studied the effects of resource management on academic
achievement of students in public secondary schools in Garissa Sub-County,
Kenya. The study's objectives were to examine the effects of human resources and
the influence of financial resources on students' academic achievement in
secondary schools in Garissa Sub-County. The researcher employed survey
research design. Interviews and questionnaires were used to collect data for the
study. The findings of the study revealed that there was a significant relationship
between academic achievement and human resource and financial resources
management. Out of this study recommendations
Nakpodia (2010) examined the usefulness of Human Resource Management in the
administration of secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria. A questionnaire was
used in collecting data which were analyzed using percentage and Z – test statistic.
The result of the findings revealed that human resources undergo different forms
of training. The result also revealed that there is a significance difference between
the performance of human resources in relation to students’ academic
performance. It was therefore concluded that school personnel should undergo
training and attend regular workshops and seminars. Also that the performance of
human resources management have considerable effects on students academic
performance. The researcher therefore recommended that the human resources in
schools who are not trained professional staff should be advised to go for Post
Graduate Diploma in Education to acquire teaching skills. They should be made to
understand the importance of appropriate teaching methods for specific subject
areas as they help the staff perform more effectively.
Wagithunu et al. (2019) investigated the influence of physical resource
management on academic performance of trainees in public primary teacher
training colleges in Kenya. Questionnaires were used to collect data from tutors
and trainees whereas interview guides were used to gather information from
principals and deans of curriculum. The findings confirmed that the availability
and management of physical facilities such as libraries and lecture halls are core in
attaining the educational objectives. The study established that physical resource
management do effectively influence teacher trainees’ academic performance in
Kenya. The study findings conclude that curriculum implementers need to be
aware of the phenomena of mismanagement of physical resources in public
Primary Teachers Training Colleges as it leads to straining of the tutors,
overstretching the available resources and substandard training of students. The
study recommends that there is need to supply colleges with adequate resources,
ensure effective utilization of resources and ensure proper maintenance of resource
through supervision by teachers’ service commission.
Teacher motivation and learners’ achievement
Olalere et al. (2022) investigated the impact of teachers’ motivation on the
academic performance of secondary school students in Nigeria. It explored the
problems surrounding teachers’ motivation in Nigeria. Specifically, it examined
poor teachers’ motivation, lack of staff development activities in schools, lack of
fringe benefits for teachers, poor staff salary structure and absence. The data from
the returned questionnaires were statistically analyzed for the five hypotheses
designed to focus on the problem under study. It was discovered that there was no
significant impact of teachers’ motivation on the academic performance of
secondary schools students in Nigeria. This finding implies that while there is an
impact of teachers’ motivation on the academic performance of students, the
impact is not significant. Among others, it was recommended that since the
observed students’ academic performance was not the outcome of prevailing
teachers’ motivation, the present teachers’ motivation should be sustained because
it does not negatively affect the academic performance of secondary school
students. It was also recommended that teachers’ motivation be improved to
increase their commitment.
Igoche (2022), study adopted the descriptive survey research design to examine
the influence of teachers’ motivation on students’ performance in mathematics in
secondary schools in Okpokwu Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria.
The instrument used for data collection is a structured questionnaire designed by
the researchers. The findings revealed that teachers’ condition of service has
influence on the students’ performance in mathematics in Okpokwu LGA, Benue
State, Nigeria. Also the result showed that teachers’ upward job mobility
(promotion) has influence on students’ performance in mathematics. Lastly it was
revealed that payment of teachers’ salaries regularly and on time influences
students’ performance in mathematics. These findings have shown that with
teachers’ motivation, the students’ academic performance in mathematics can be
enhanced in Okpokwu LGA, Benue State, Nigeria. The paper recommends that for
proficient delivery of mathematics knowledge, secondary school proprietors, most
especially those within the study area, should take the issue of teachers’
motivation seriously by paying their salaries when due, providing the appropriate
resources needed for delivery of mathematics knowledge and assign appropriate
workload in order not to overload them. The Ministry of Education should
regularly access teacher’s file and grant promotion to teachers when due according
to their qualification, dedication and workload. School authority should regularly
create means for teachers’ in-service training such as seminars and orientation
section that will help the teachers get more acquainted with job description and
resource.
Kokoro (n.d), sought to investigate how teacher motivation influences learner
academic performance of primary school learners in Serowe, Botswana. This
research followed a qualitative research approach. The researcher conducted
individual telephonic interviews with principals, HODs and teachers, guided by an
interview schedule. The collected data were analysed through thematic analysis.
The study revealed that teachers in the sub-region are faced with many challenges
such as poor infrastructure and shortage of relevant teaching and learning
resources especially textbooks. This impacts negatively on teacher job satisfaction
and lowers their morale which affects learner results. Stagnation in one position,
low salaries and lack of recognition for good performance were also cited as major
contributory factors for teacher demoralisation. Almost all the participants viewed
in-service training as an essential factor that can promote classroom effectiveness.
For quality curriculum delivery, the study recommended that the Government of
Botswana should ensure that schools are well equipped with up-to-date and
relevant teaching and learning resources and consider upgrading teachers’ salaries
to align them with those in other professions. Provision of adequate classrooms,
classroom furniture and good housing is also recommended.
Learners achievement and learners’ achievement
Odeh et al. (2015) investigated the influence of school environment on academic
achievement of students in secondary schools in Zone “A” Senatorial District of
Benue State, Nigeria. A descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. A
15-item structured questionnaire was developed by the researchers. The results of
the study indicated that school climate, discipline and physical facilities has
significant influence on academic achievement of secondary school students in
Zone ‘A’ Senatorial District of Benue State. Based on the findings of this study,
the researchers recommended among others that appropriate school authorities
should enable to provide a conducive school environment that has good climate
for effective teaching and learning. Such environment should be safe, students
treated fairly by teachers and happy to be in school as well as feel they are a part
of the school.
Ikegbusi et al (2021), the study examined the influence of school environment on
academic achievement of preschool pupils in some selected public and private
preschools in Eti Osa Local Government Area of Lagos State. Descriptive
research design was adopted for the study. A researcher-developed instrument
duly validated by experts was used for data collection. The study found among
others that there is a serious influence of school physical structure on pupils’
learning interest in schooling. Recommendations included among others that
preschool education should be encouraged by the government by providing
preschool educational facilities (classrooms, instructional materials, and
equipment) needed for the success of the programme.
Makewa et al. (2011), sought to find out the type of school climates prevailing in
all the provincial secondary schools and the school climate differences between
the high and low performing provincial secondary schools in Nandi-Central
District, Kenya. Causal-comparative research design was used where the mean
ratings on school climate of 103 teachers of four high and four low performing
schools were compared and analysed to establish the extent of differences and
their implications. School climate was found to have a significant influence on
academic performance of students in provincial secondary schools in Nandi–
central district. The study recommended that schools strive to improve the
schools’ ecology, milieu, social climate and school culture, thereby creating a
positive climate that will encourage better academic performance among students.
2.1.3 Summary of literature review