ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND JOINING PROCESSES

Module 4: ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND JOINING PROCESSES

Engineering materials

Metals

A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and features good electrical
and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable: they can be hammered or pressed
permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking well as fusible and ductile

Metals can be either ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron while non-
ferrous metals do not. Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals are divided into pure metals and
alloys.

A pure metal is an element – Ex: iron, copper, gold - unalloyed (not mixed) with
another substance.

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements (Ex: iron and carbon) to make another
metal with particular properties (Ex: steel).

Pure
Metals
Ferrous
Alloys
Metals
Pure
Non Metals
Ferrous
Alloys

Ferrous metals

Ferrous metals contain iron. Examples are cast iron, mild steel, medium carbon steel,
high carbon steel, stainless steel, and high speed steel.

Non-ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron. Some common non-ferrous metals are
aluminium, copper, zinc, tin, brass (copper + zinc), and bronze (copper + tin).

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Type of Ferrous metal

Cast iron

Composition: Alloy of iron and 2-5% carbon, 1-3% silicon and traces of magnesium, sulphur
and phosphorus

Properties and characteristics: Hard skin, softer underneath, but brittle. It corrodes by
rusting.

Application: Parts with complex shapes which can be made by casting.

Cast Iron is divided into following types:

 Grey Cast Iron

 White Cast Iron
 Malleable Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron
 Wrought Iron

Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which is produced either by basic oxygen
steelmaking process or by electric arc furnace.

Steels are broadly classified into

a) Carbon Steels
b) Alloy Steels
c) Tool Steels

Mild steel

Composition: Alloy of iron and 0.15 - 0.3% carbon

Properties and characteristics: Tough, ductile and malleable. Good tensile strength, poor
resistance to corrosion

Application: General-purpose engineering material

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Medium carbon steel

Composition: Alloy of iron and 0.35 - 0.7% carbon

Properties and characteristics: Strong, hard and tough, with a high tensile strength, but less
ductile than mild steel.

Application: Springs; any application where resistance to wear is needed

High carbon steel

Composition: Alloy of iron and carbon: 0.7 - 1.5% carbon

Properties and characteristics: Even harder than medium carbon steel, and more brittle. Can
be heat treated to make it harder and tougher

Application: Cutting tools, mechanical elements

Stainless steel

Composition: Alloy of iron and carbon with 16-26% chromium, 8-22% nickel and 8%
magnesium

Properties and characteristics: Hard and tough, resists wear and corrosion

Application: Cutlery, kitchen equipment

The other alloys of Steel are

Nickel Steel, Chromium Steel, Manganese Steel, Molybdenum Steel, Tungsten Steel etc.

High speed steel

Composition: Alloy of iron and 0.35 - 0.7% carbon (medium carbon steel) with tungsten,
chromium, vanadium, and sometimes cobalt

Properties and characteristics: Very hard, high abrasion- and heat resistance

Application: Cutting tools for machines

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Type of Non Ferrous metal

Aluminium

Composition: Pure aluminium (an element)

Properties and characteristics: Good strength-to-weight ratio, light, soft, ductile, good
conductor of heat and electricity

Application: Kitchen equipment, window frames, general cast components

The alloys of Aluminium are Duralumin and Y-Alloy

Copper

Composition: Pure copper (an element)

Properties and characteristics: Malleable and ductile, good conductor of heat and electricity,
resistant to corrosion.

Application: Water pipes, electrical wire, decorative goods

Alloys of copper are Brass and Bronze.

Brass

Composition: Alloy of copper and zinc

Properties and characteristics: Resistant to corrosion, fairly hard, good conductor of heat
and electricity

Application: Cast items such as water taps, ornaments

Bronze

Composition: Alloy of copper and tin

Properties and characteristics: Fairly strong, malleable and ductile when soft

Application: Decorative goods, architectural fittings

Zinc

Composition: Pure zinc (an element)

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Properties and characteristics: Weak metal, extremely resistant to corrosion

Application: Usually used for coating steel to make galvanised items

Tin

Composition: Pure tin (an element)

Properties and characteristics: Soft, weak, malleable, ductile and resistant to corrosion

Application: Usually used for coating steel to form tinplate

Composites

Definition of Composite Materials

A composite is combination of two materials in on a Macroscopic level and are not

soluble in each other in which one of the materials, called the reinforcing phase, is in the
form of Fibres, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other materials called the matrix
phase.

The reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer.
Composites typically have a Fibre or particle phase that is stiffer and stronger than the
continuous matrix phase and serve as the principal load carrying members.

The matrix acts as a load transfer medium between Fibres, and in less ideal cases
where the loads are complex, the matrix may even have to bear loads transverse to the Fibre
axis. The matrix also serves to protect the Fibres from environmental damage before, during
and after composite processing.

When designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better strength than
would each individual material. Composites are used not only for their structural properties,
but also for electrical, thermal, tribological and environmental applications.

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Classification of composite material

Composite
Materials

Base Matrix Shape of

Material Reinforcement

Polymer Matrix Fibre

Ceramic Matrix Laminate
Metal Matrix Particulate

Polymer Matrix composite

It consists of polymer resin as the matrix material. The term resin is used in this
context to denote a high molecular weight re-enforcing plastic. These material are used as
matrix material in great diversity of composite application, as well as in large quantities
because of their excellent room temp properties, ease of fabrication, highly economical costs.

Thermoplastic polymer and thermosetting polymers are used extensively as matrix

material. Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled. Processes are totally
reversible. Thermosetting become permanently hard when heated and do not soften upon
subsequent heating.

Ceramic Matrix composite

Ceramics materials are very well known for their high temperature properties as well
as their resistance to oxidation. But they are very brittle which limits their application.
Ceramics which are commonly used as matrix material are silicon nitride, silicon carbide,
alumina, zirconium dioxide but it is fact that ceramics make better reinforcement material
than matrix material.

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Metal Matrix composite

Metal matrixes composite are those where metal or alloys are used as matrix material.
Metals used are usually ductile in nature and reinforced with strong and low density material
of all shapes-fibres, whiskers and particulate. Such combination helps in obtaining materials
with improved stiffness, abrasion resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity and
dimensional stability.

Some of the advantages of metal matrix composite over polymer-matrix composite

include higher operating temperature, non-flammability and greater resistance to degradation
by original fluids. But MMC’s are more expensive.

Composites can also be classified as follows

Fibre reinforced composite

Fibre reinforced composite are those where the reinforcement in form of fibre. A
natural example for fibre reinforce composite is wood in which strong cellulose fibre are
aligned in a base matrix of lignin which bind the fibres.

A Fibre is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-
sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of
contributing its properties to the composite. Technologically the most important type of
composites is fibre reinforced ones because of their wide range of application. The
characteristics of fibre reinforced composite are expressed in terms of specific strength and
specific modulus parameters. Specific strength is nothing but the ratio of tensile strength to
specific gravity whereas specific modulus is the ratio of young’s modulus to specific gravity.
Fibre reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strength and moduli have been
successfully produced using fibres of different material.

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Laminated composites

In fibre –reinforced composites, if the fibres are of uniform alignment, the composites
show anisotropic properties i.e., different properties along different direction. But if layers of
such composites are stacked and bonded together in such a way that successive layers have
their fibres aligned in different direction, the composite on the whole will have high strength
and uniform properties in all direction. The best example for a laminated for laminated
composites is plywood where successive layers of wood having different orientation of grains
are cemented together and composite on the whole has better strength in all direction.

Particulate composites

In particulate composites the reinforcement is of particle nature. It may be spherical,

cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape. In this type of composites,
particles of varying shape and size of one material is dispersed in a matrix of second material.
Particulate composites are similar in construction to dispersion strengthened alloys but differ
in particle size and percentage by volume.

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Application of composite material

Fibre reinforced composites

 Fibre glass which is a composite consisting of glass fibres within a polymer matrix is
extensively used to make pipe, roofing’s, storage container, industrial floorings,
automotive and marine bodies.
 Carbon reinforced polymer composites are widely utilized in making sports and
recreational equipment, pressure vessels, aircraft structural components.
 Boron fibre reinforced polymer composite have been used in military air craft
components, helicopter rotor blades and some sporting goods
 Silicon carbides and alumina fibre reinforced composites are utilized in tennis rackets,
circuit boards and nose cone.
 Filament winded fibre reinforced plastics which have extremely high tensile strengths
are used to make chemical and fuel storage tanks, pressure vessels.
 Hybrid composite which is obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibres in
a single matrix. They have a better all-around combination of properties than
composites containing only a single fibre type. A polymer composite reinforced with
both carbon and glass fibre is used in sporting goods and light weight orthopaedic
component.

Ceramics composites

 Concrete which contains steel rods in a matrix of cement, sand and crushed stones is
extensively used in construction.
 Silicon carbide particles reinforced in titanium-di-boride matrix has good wear and
corrosion resistance and hence can be used to produce heat exchangers.

Metal-Matrix composites

 Boron fibre reinforced aluminium alloy matrix composite is used as a material to

make some structural members in space shuttles owing to its very high strength to
weight ratio
 Particulate alumina reinforced in aluminium matrix finds application in producing
sporting equipment automobile engine parts.

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Soldering, Brazing and Welding

Soldering

Soldering is a method of uniting two thin metal pieces using a dissimilar metal or
alloy by the application of heat. The alloy of lead and tin is called soft solder, is used in
varying proposition for sheet metal work, plumbing work and electrical junctions. The
melting temp of the soft solder will be between 150̊ to 350̊ C. To clean the joint surfaces and
to prevent oxidation a suitable flux is used while soldering. Zinc chloride is the flux that is
commonly used in soft soldering. A soldering iron is used to apply the heat produced from
the electrical source.

An alloy of copper, tin, and silver known as hard solder is used for stronger joint. The
soldering temp of hard solder ranges from 600̊ to 900̊ C

Method of soldering

(i) Cleaning of joining surfaces

(ii) Application of flux

(iii) Tinning of surface to be soldered

(iv) Heating

(v) Final clean-up

(i) Cleaning of joining surfaces: Firstly, the joining surface are cleaned mechanically to
make free from dust, oil scale etc. and ensure that the molten filler metal wets the surfaces.

(ii) Application of flux: Then the joining surfaces are coated with a flux usually rosin or
borax. This cleans the surfaces chemically and helps the solder in making bond.

(iii) Tinning of surface to be soldered: before carrying out the soldering operation, the
soldering iron must be tinned. This is to remove a thin film of oxide that forms on the copper
bit, which in turns does not allow the job to be heated and thus it becomes difficult to solder.
In tinning the copper bit is heated and then rubbed with a file to clean it properly and then
rotating with solder using resin. This causes the formation of a thin film of solder over the
copper bit. This whole process is called tinning

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(iv) Heating: the soldering iron is then heated and flowing molten filler metals fills the joints
interface. Allow the soldered area to cool and then solidify thus making the joint.

(v) Final clean-up: after completing the soldering and joints are formed, clean it with steel
wool or solvent to remove left over flux. After this clean the soldering iron using a damp
sponge

Advantages of soldering

1. Low cost and easy to use

2. Soldered joints are easy to repair or do rework

3. The soldered joint can last for many years

4. Low energy is required to solder

5. An experienced person can exercise a high degree of control over the soldering process

Disadvantages of soldering

1. Not suitable for heavy sections

2. Temperature is limited

3. Strength is limited.

Brazing

Brazing is the method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals using a special
fusible alloy. Joints formed by brazing are stronger than that of soldering. During the brazing,
the base metal of the two pieces to be joined is not melted. The filler metal must have ability
to wet the surfaces of the base metal to which it is applied. Some diffusion or alloying of the
filler metal with base metal takes place even though the base metal does not reach its melting
temperature. The materials used in brazing are copper base and silver base alloy. These two
can be classified under the name spelters.

Method of brazing

1. Cleaning the surface of the parts.

2. Application of flux at the place of joint.

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3. Common borax and mixture of borax and boric acid is used as flux.

4. The joint and the filler material are heated by gas welding torch above the melting
temperature of the filler material.

5. It flows into the joint space and a solid joint is formed after cooling.

Advantages of Brazing

1. It is easy to learn.

2. It is possible to join virtually any dissimilar metals.

3. The bond line is very neat aesthetically.

4. Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty type of application.

Disadvantages of Brazing

1. Brazed joints can be damaged under high temp.

2. Brazed joint require a high degree of cleanliness.

3. The joint colour is often different from that of the base metal.

Welding

Welding may be defined as the metallurgical joining of two metal pieces together to
produce essentially a single piece of metal. Welding is extensively used in the fabrication
work in which metal plates, rolled steel sections, casting of ferrous materials are joined
together. It is also used for repairing broken, worn out, or defective metal part.

Principle of welding

A welding is a metallurgical process in which the junction of the two parts to be

joined are heated and then fused together with or without the application of pressure to
produce a continuity of the homogenous material of the same composition and characteristics
of the part which are being joined.

Types of welding

Welding are classified in to two type

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• Pressure welding

• Fusion welding

In Pressure welding the parts to be joined are heated only up to the plastic state and
then fused together by applying the external pressure.

Ex: Forge welding, resistance welding

In Fusion welding which also known as non-pressure is welding, joints of the two
parts are heated to the molten state and allowed to solidify.

Ex: Arc welding, gas welding.

Arc welding

The arc welding operates under the principle that when two conductor of an electric
circuit are touched together momentarily and then instantaneously separated slightly,
assuming that there is sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain the flow of current, an
electric arc is formed. Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the arc at a
temperature of about 5000 to 6000°C. in arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired
as one pole of the circuit, and the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When
the arc is produced, the intense heat quickly melts the work piece metal which is directly
under the arc, forming a small molten metal of the electrode. The molten metal in the pool is
agitated by the action of the arc, thoroughly mixing the base and the filler metal. A solid joint
will be formed when the molten metal cools and solidifies. The flux coating over the
electrode produces an inert gaseous shield surrounding the arc and protects the molten metal
from oxidizing by coming in contact with atmosphere.

Arc welding machine

Both AC and DC are used for arc welding. For AC arc welding a step down
transformer is used. It receives AC supply between 200 to 440V and transforms it to required
low voltage of 80 to 100V. A high current of 100 to 400A is suitable for arc welding.

In DC arc welding work piece is connected to positive pole of DC generator and the
electrode to the negative pole in order to melt greater mass of metal in the base metal, this
setup is called straight polarity

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When the heat required is less in the base metal then the polarity is reversed Due to
this option in DC arc welding it is possible to melt many metals. In AC there is no choice of
polarity since the current changes every cycle.

Arc welding electrodes

There are two types of electrodes that are used in arc welding

(A) Consumable electrodes

(B) Non- consumable electrodes

Consumable electrodes

Consumable electrodes are the electrodes which also melts along with the work piece
and fill the joint. Consumable electrodes could be either bare or coated. When bare electrodes
are used globules of the molten metal while passing from the electrodes absorb oxygen and
nitrogen from atmosphere. Which gets trapped in the solidifying weld metal and thereby
decreases the strength of the joint Electrodes are made up of soft steel or alloy steel The
coating consists of chalk, starch, ferro manganese and binding agents.

Coated electrode facilitates:

(a) Protection of molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen by providing a gaseous shield
around the arc

(b) To establish and maintain the arc throughout the welding

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(c) The formation of the slag over the joint thus prevents from rapid cooling

(d) Addition of alloying element

Non- consumable electrodes

When these are used, an additional filler material is also required Advantage in using
this electrode is that amount of metal deposited can be controlled which is not possible in
other type of electrode.

Resistance welding

This type of welding employs the principles of both the pressure and fusion welding
methods. It consists of heating of the Parts to be welded are heated up to the plastic state and
joined by applying mechanical pressure. Heating is done by passage of heavy localized
electric current, the current flowing from one part of joint to other encounters a high
resistance and temp increases. This method is employed for fastening thin metal sheets and
wires.

General welding procedure

1. Cleaning: The surfaces of the parts to be welded need to be thoroughly cleaned for
removal of dirt, oil, grease, etc.

2. Edge preparation: The process of preparing a contour at the edges of the pieces to be
joined is called as edge preparation. This involves bevelling or grooving. The idea of doing
this is to get fusion or penetration through the entire thickness of the member.

3. Clamping: Next, the parts to be welded are clamped suitably through jigs and fixtures to
that there are no undesirable movements during welding.

4. Check for safety devices: safety devices like goggles and shield to protect the eyes,
protective clothing to prevent the sparks and flying globules of molten metal, safety shoes,
gloves, apron and other safety devices must be ensured

5. The initial weld: Initial tack welds are done at opposite corner of the joints to secure the
pieces together. Any cracks at this stage must be chipped off as the presence of these cracks
causes residual stresses. The length and spacing of the tack weld varies with the thickness of
the metal and length of the joint.

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6. Intermediate and final welding: The weld joint is formed through various weaving
movement. During the process, filler metal and a suitable flux are used. After the
intermediate run of welding, the final run is taken

7. Excess material removal: Extra material on the weld surface can be removed using tongs
and chipper. The final weld is now allowed to cool and finally cleaned.

Gas welding

It is a fusion welding, in which a strong gas flame is used to raise the temperature of
the work piece to melt them. As in the arc welding, a filler metal is used to fill the joint. The
gases that can be used for heating are

(i) Oxygen and acetylene

(ii) Oxygen and hydrogen.

Oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in gas welding

Oxy-acetylene welding

When Right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and
then ignited. The flame produced is called as the oxy-acetylene flame. The temperature
attained n this welding is around 3200ºC hence has an ability to melt all commercial metals.

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Types of oxy-acetylene flames

The types of flames depend on the gas ratio i.e. ratio of the parts of oxygen to the
parts of the acetylene Depending on the gas ratio following flames are obtained

(i) Neutral flame

(ii) Oxidizing flame

(iii) Reducing flame (carburising flame)

(i) Neutral flame

• A neutral flame is obtained by supplying equal volume of oxygen and acetylene

• It consists of a small whitish inner cone surrounded by sharply defined blue flame

• Most of the gas welding is done using the neutral flame

(ii) Oxidizing flame

• This is obtained when there is excess of oxygen, gas ratio

• It appears to be similar to that of neutral flame but the inner white cone flame is shorter than
that of neutral flame

• This flame is generally used in metal cutting rather than welding since weld metal gets
oxidized

(iii)Reducing flame

• This is obtained by supplying excess of acetylene in the gas ratio

• It has 3 cones, an inner white cone, surrounded by an intermediate whitish cone known as
“intermediate flame feather” and a bluish envelope flame

• This flame is used for welding alloy steels, cast iron, aluminium

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Advantages of oxy-acetylene welding

1. Most versatile process of welding with wide use in various manufacturing process

2. Low cost of the equipment and low cost of maintenance of the equipment

3. Because of separate heat source and filler metal the control can be exercised on the rate at
which the filler metal deposits.

4. The rate of heating and cooling is slow. This help in retaining the structural homogeneity.

5. The equipment is portable and multi-functional because, apart from gas welding, it can
also be used in torch brazing, braze welding, preheating and post heating.

Disadvantages

1. Difficult to attain low cost target while joining heavy section.

2. Handling and storage of gases not an easy job.

3. It takes long time for the flame to heat up the metal piece than compared to the arc
welding.

4. Possible hazards due to explosion of gases.

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Difference between Brazing, Soldering and Welding

Brazing Soldering Welding

In brazing filler metal is Soldering using the filler Welding using the filler
having the melting point metal having the melting metal having the melting
greater than 450ºC point less than 450ºC point nearly equal to the base
metal
Joints takes place due to Capillary action is also No capillary action is
capillary action between the present in soldering between present. Joint takes place due
base metal and the filler the base metal and filler to fusion.
metal metal.
Base metal does not melt Base metal does not melt. Base metal melts in welding
Filler metal is having the Filler metal is having the In welding filler metal is not
melting point less than the melting point less than the having the melting point less
base metal. base metal. than the base metal.
Filler metal is uniformly Filler metal is uniformly Filler metal melts and gets
distributed because of distributed because of mixed with the base metal
capillary action. capillary action
Joints are stronger than Joints are weaker than Joints are stronger as
soldering but weaker than brazing compared to brazing,
welding soldering
It was uses filler metal It uses the filler metal which It uses the filler metal mostly
which contains copper contains lead and tin. having the same composition
and zinc etc. as that of base metal.

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