MACHINE TOOLS AND AUTOMATION

Module 3 Machine Tools and Automation

MACHINE TOOLS OPERATION

Lathe Operations

Facing
Facing is an operation of machining the ends of a work piece to produce a flat surface
square with the axis. It is also used to cut the work to the required length. The operation
involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work piece.

A properly ground facing tool is mounted in the tool post. A regular turning tool
may also be used for facing a large work piece. The cutting edge should be set at the
same height as the center of the work piece.

Plain Turning
It is an operation of removing excess material from the surface of the cylindrical
work piece. In this operation the work is held either in the chuck or between centers
and the longitudinal feed is given to the tool either by hand or power. This operation is
done to reduce the diameter of work piece.

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Threading
Threading is an operation of cutting helical grooves on the external cylindrical
surface of the work piece. In this operation the work is held in a chuck or between centers
and the threading tool is fed longitudinally to the revolving work. The longitudinal feed is
equal in the pitch of the thread to be cut.

Knurling
It is an operation of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of a work
piece. The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to
prevent it from slipping when operated by hand. The operation is performed by a special
knurling tool which consists of one set of hardened steel rollers in a holder with the teeth cut
on their surface in a definite pattern. The tool is held rigidly on the tool post and the rollers
are pressed against the revolving work piece to squeeze the metal against the multiple cutting
edges, producing depressions in a regular pattern on the surface of the work piece.

Taper Turning by swivelling the compound rest

A taper may be defined as an uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of

work measured along its length.

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It is the best method as it doesn’t affect the centering of the job. In this method of
taper turning the work piece is rotated on the lathe axis and the tool is fed at an angle to the
axis of rotation of the work piece. The tool mounted on the compound rest is attached to the
circular base, graduated in degrees which may be swivelled and clamped at a desired angle.

Drilling Machine Operations

Drilling
Drilling is a process of making hole using a tool called twist drill.

Reaming
Reaming is the operation of finishing an existing hole very smoothly and accurately in
size. A drill will not produce a hole having sufficiently good quality of finish and accuracy
for many purposes. Therefore, when a very accurate smooth hole is required, the hole is first
drilled a little under size, and then it is reamed to the correct size.

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Boring
It is an operation of enlarging an existing hole. When a suitable size drill is not
available, initially a hole is drilled to the nearest size and using a single point cutting tool, the
size of the hole is increased.

Counter boring
It is an operation of enlarging a drilled hole partially that is for a specific length. The
counter boring forms a large sized recess or a shoulder to the existing hole. The cutting tool
will have a smaller cylindrical projection known as pilot to guide the tool while counter
boring. The diameter of the pilot will always be equal to diameter of the previously drilled
hole. Generally, the counter boring is done on the holes to accommodate the socket head
screws or grooved nuts or round head bolts.

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Counter sinking
It is an operation of forming a conical shape at the end of a drilled hole. It is done
using a counter sink tool. The cutting speeds for counter sinking must be about one half of
that used for drill. The countersunk holes are used when the countersunk screws are to be
screwed into the holes so that their top faces have to be in flush with the top surface of the
work piece. The counter sinking process may also be employed for deburring holes.

Spot facing
It is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole for the seat for
the nut or the head of a screw. Spot facing may be done with a counter boring tool or using a
special spot facing tool.

Tapping
It is an operation in which external threads are cut in the existing hole. Tapping
operation uses a fluted threaded tool called Tap. A tap is a cutting tool with threads cut
accurately on its periphery. These threads are hardened and ground and act as cutting edges.
The tap removes metal when screwed into the hole and generates internal threads. A hole of

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required size in which internal threads are to be generated is drilled using a twist drill. The
drill spindle is fitted with a tap and the feeding is done by operating the feed lever.

Milling Operations
Plain or Slab milling
Plain milling is used to machine flat and horizontal surfaces. Here plain milling cutter
is used, which is held in the arbor and rotated. The table is moved upwards to give the
required depth of cut.

End milling
It is an operation of producing narrow slots, grooves and keyways using an end mill
cutter. The mill tool may be attached to the vertical spindle for milling the slot. Depth of cut
is given by raising the machine table.

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T-slot milling
In this milling operation, first a plain slot is cut on the work piece by a side and face
milling cutter. Then the T-slot cutter is fed from the end of the work piece.

ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

ROBOTICS
Introduction
An industrial robot is a general – purpose, programmable machine processing certain
anthropomorphic characteristics. The most obvious anthropomorphic characteristic of an
industrial robot is its mechanical arm, which is used to perform various industrial tasks. Other
human – like characteristics are the robot’s capabilities to respond to sensory inputs,
communicate with other machines, and make decisions. These capabilities permit robot to
perform a variety of useful tasks. The development of robot technology followed the
development of numerical control, and the two technologies are quite similar. They both
involve coordinate control of multiple axes (the axes are called joints in robot), and they both

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use dedicated digital computers as controllers. The robots are designed for a wider variety of
tasks. Typical production applications of industrial robots include spot welding, material
transfer, machine loading, spray painting, and assembly.
Some of the qualities that make the industrial robots commercially and technologically
important are listed here.
 Robots can be substituted for humans in hazardous or uncomfortable work
environments.
 A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability that cannot be
attained by humans.
 Robots can be programmed. When the production run of the current task is
completed, a robot can be reprogrammed and equipped with the necessary tooling to
perform an altogether different task.
 Robots are controlled by computers and can therefore be connected to the computer
systems to achieve computer integrated manufacturing.

Robot Anatomy and Related Attributes

The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot
anatomy is concerned with the type and size of these joints and links and other aspects of the
manipulator’s physical construction.
Joints and links
A joint of an industrial robot is similar to a joint in human body; it provides relative
motion between two parts of the body. Each joint, or axis as it is sometimes called, provides
the robot so-called degree of freedom (d.o.f) of motion. In nearly all cases, only one degree-
of-freedom is associated with each joint. Robots are often classified according to the total
number of degree-of-freedom they possess. Connected to each joint are two links, an input
link and output link. Links are the rigid components of the robot manipulator. The purpose of
the joint is to provide controlled relative movement between the input link and the output
link.
Most robots are mounted on a stationery base on the floor. Let us refer to this base
and its connection to the first joint as link 0. It is the input link to joint 1, the first in the series
of joint used in the construction of the robot. The output link of the joint 1 is link 1. Link 1 is
the input link to joint 2, whose output link is link 2, and so forth. This joint-link numbering
scheme is illustrated in figure below.

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Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into one of
five types; two types that provide translation motion and three types that provide rotary
motion. These joint types are illustrated in Fig2. The five joint types are
1. Linear joint (type L joint): The relative movement between the input link and the
output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links parallel.

2. Orthogonal joint (type O joint): This is also a translation sliding motion, but the
input and output links are perpendicular to each other during move.

3. Rotational joint (type R joint): This type provides rotational relative motion, with the
axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output link.

4. Twisting joint (type T joint): This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis of
rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.

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5. Revolving joint (type V joint, V from the “v” in revolving): In this joint type, the axis
of the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint, and the axis of the
output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Each of these joint types has a range over which it can be moved. The range for a
translational joint is usually less than a meter, but for large gantry robots, the range may be
several meters. The three types of rotary joints may have a range as small as few degrees of
as large as several complete turns.

Common robot configurations

1. Polar configuration: This configuration consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated
relative to the body, which can rotate about both a vertical (T joint) and a horizontal
axis (R joint).

2. Cylindrical configuration: This robot configuration consists of a vertical column,

relative to which an arm assembly is moved up or down. The arm can be moved in
and out relative to the axis of the column. Our figure shows one possible way in
which this configuration can be constructed, using a T joint to rotate the column about
its axis. An L joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the column,
while an O joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.

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3. Cartesian coordinate configuration: Other names for this configuration include

rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It is composed of three sliding joints two of which
are orthogonal.

4. Jointed – arm configuration: This robot manipulator has the general configuration
of a human arm. The jointed arm consists of a vertical column that swivels about the
base using a T joint. At the top of the column is a shoulder joint (shown as a R joint in
the figure), whose output link connects an elbow joint (another R joint).

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Advantages of robots
 Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase productivity, safety,
efficiency, quality and consistency of product.
 Robots can work in hazardous environments.
 Robots need no environmental comfort.
 Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and illness.
 Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
 Robots can be much more accurate than humans; they may have milli or micro inch
accuracy.
 Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
 Robots can process multiple tasks simultaneously but humans can only one.
 Robots replace human workers who can create economic problem.
Disadvantages of robots
 Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause.
 In appropriate and wrong response
 A lack of decision making power
 A loss of power
 Damage to the robot and other devices
 Human injuries
 Robots may have limited capabilities in
 Degrees of freedom
 Dexterity
 Sensors
 Vision system
 Real – time response
 Robots are costly due to
 Initial cost of equipment
 Installation cost
 Need for peripherals
 Need for training
 Need for programming

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Applications of robots
 Hazardous work for humans: When the work and the environment in which it is
performed are hazardous, unsafe, unhealthful, uncomfortable, or otherwise unpleasant
for humans, it is desirable to consider an industrial robot for the task.
 Repetitive work cycle: A second characteristic that tends to promote the use of
robotics is a repetitive work cycle. If the sequence of elements in the cycle is that
same, and the element consists of relatively simple motions, a robot is usually capable
of performing the work cycle with grater consistency and repeatability than the human
worker.
 Difficult handling for humans: If the task involves the handling of parts or tools that
are heavy or otherwise difficult to manipulate, an industrial robot may be available
that can perform the operation.
 Infrequent changeovers: Most batch or job shop operations require a changeover of
the physical workplace between one job and the next. The time required to make the
changeover is nonproductive time since parts are not being made. Consequently,
robots have traditionally been easier to justify for relatively long production runs
where changeovers are infrequent.
 Part orientation and position are established in work cell: Most robots in today’s
industrial applications are without vision capability. Their capability to pick up an
object during each work cycle relies on the part being in a known position and
orientation.
 Multi-shift operations: In manual operations requiring second and third shifts,
substitution of a robot provides a much faster financial payback than a single shift
operation. Instead of replacing one worker, the robot replaces two or three workers.

AUTOMATION
Introduction
Automation can be defined as the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without human assistance. It is implemented using a program of instructions
combined with a control system that execute the instructions. To automate a process, power is
required, both to drive the process itself and to operate the program and control system.
Although the automation can be applied in a wide variety of areas, it is most closely
associated with the manufacturing industries.

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Automated manufacturing system can be classified into three basic types:

1) Fixed automation
2) Flexible automation
3) Programmable automation
Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing operations is fixed
by the equipment configuration. Each operation in the sequence is usually simple, involving
perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of the two, such
as feeding of a rotating spindle. It is the integration and coordination of many such operations
into one piece of equipment that make the system complex. The typical features of fixed
automation are (1) high initial cost (2) high production rates (3) relative inflexibility of the
equipment to accommodate product variety, (4) suitable for mass production.
In Programmable automation the production equipment is designed with the
capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product
configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of
instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted by the system. New program can
be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products. Some of the feature that
characterize programmable automation include (1) high investment in general purpose
equipment, (2) lower production rates than fixed automation, (3) flexible to deal with
variations and changes in product configuration, and (4) high suitability for batch production.
Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible
automation is capable of producing a variety of parts (or products) with virtually no time lost
for changeover from one-part style to the next. There is no lost production time while
reprogramming the system and physical setup. Accordingly, the system can produce various
mixes and schedules of parts or products instead of requiring that they be made in batches.
The features of flexible automation include (1) high investment for a custom-engineered
system (2) continuous production of variable mixture of products (3) medium production
rates (4) flexible to deal with product design variations.

NC/CNC
Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the
mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program
containing coded alphanumeric data. The alphanumeric data represent relative positions
between a work head and work part as well as other instructions needed to operate the
machine. The work head is a cutting tool or other processing apparatus, and the work part is
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the object being processed. When the current job is completed, the program of instructions
can be changed to process a new job.
Numerical control can be applied to wide variety of processes. The applications
divided into two categories: (1) machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning,
and other metal working; and (2) non-machine tool applications, such as assembly, drafting
and inspection.

Basic components of an NC system

An NC system consists of three basic components: (1) a part program of instructions,
(2) a machine control unit, and (3) processing equipment. The general relationship among the
three different components is illustrated in Figure below.

The part program is the set of detailed step-by-step commands that the direct actions
of the processing equipment. In machine tool applications, the person who prepares the
program is called a part programmer. In these applications, the individual commands refer to
positions of a cutting tool relative to the worktable on which the work part is fixed.
Additional instructions are usually included, such as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool
selection, and other functions.
In modern NC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) is a microcomputer and
related control hardware that stores the program of instructions and execute it by converting
each command into mechanical actions of the processing equipment, one command at a time.
The relative hardware of MCU includes components to interface with the processing
equipment and feedback control elements. The MCU includes one or more reading devices
for entering part program into memory.
The third basic component of an NC system is the processing equipment that
performs the actual productive work (e.g., Machining). It accomplishes the processing steps

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to transform the starting work piece into a complete part. Its operation is directed by the
MCU, which in turn is driven by instructions contained in the part program.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is defined as an NC system whose MCU is based on

a dedicated microcomputer rather than on a hard-wired controller. The latest computer
controllers for CNC feature high speed processors, large memories, solid-state flash memory,
improved servos, and bus architectures. Some controllers have the capability to control
multiple machines.

Features of CNC
Computer NC system include additional features beyond what is feasible with
conventional hard-wired NC. The features, many of which are standard on most CNC MCUs,
include the following:
1. Storage of more than one-part program: With improvements in computer storage
technology, newer CNC controllers have sufficient capacity to store multiple programs.
2. Various forms of program input: Whereas conventional (hard-wired) MCUs are limited
to punched tape as the input medium for entering part programs, CNC controllers generally
process multiple data entry capabilities, such as punched tape (if the machine stop still uses
punched tape), magnetic tape, floppy diskettes, RS-232 communications with external
computers, and manual data input (operator entry of program).
3. Program editing at the machine tool: CNC permits a part program to be edited while it
resides in the MCU computer memory. Hence, a program can be tested and corrected entirely
at the machine site, rather than being returned to the programming office for corrections.
4. Diagnostics: Many modern CNC systems possess a diagnostics capability that monitors
certain aspects of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of impeding malfunctions
or to diagnose system breakdowns.
5. Communication interface: With trend toward interfacing and networking in plants today,
most modern CNC controllers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or other communications
interface to link the machine to other computers and computer driven devices.

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The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC. The general
configuration of the MCU in a CNC system is illustrated in Figure 8. The MCU consists of
following components and sub systems: (1) central processing unit, (2) memory (3) I/O
interface, (4) controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed, and (5) sequence controls for
other machine tool functions.
Central processing unit: The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the MCU. It
manages the other components in the MCU based on software contained in main memory.
The CPU can be divided into three sections: (1) control section, (2) arithmetic-logic unit, and
(3) intermediate access memory.
Memory: The immediate access memory in the CPU is not intended for storing CNC
software. A much greater storage capacity is required for the various programs and data
needed to operate the CNC system.
Input/output interface: The I/O interface provides communication between the various
components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the machine operator. As its
name suggests, the I/O interface transmits and receives data and signals to and from external
devices.
Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed: These are hardware components that
control the position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis as well as the rotational
speed of the machine tool spindle.
Sequence controls for other machine tool functions: In addition to control of table
position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional functions are accomplished under

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part program control. These auxiliary functions are generally on/off actuations, interlocks,
and discrete numerical data. To avoid overloading of CPU, a programmable logic controller
is sometimes used to manage the I/O interface for these auxiliary functions.

Advantages and Disadvantages of NC

Advantages of NC
1. Nonproductive time is reduced: NC cannot optimize the metal cutting process itself, but
it can reduce the proportion of time the machine is not cutting metal. Reduction in noncutting
time is achieved through fewer steps, less setup time, reduced work piece handling time, and
automatic tool changes on some NC machines.
2. Greater accuracy and repeatability: Compared with manual production methods, NC
reduces or eliminates variations that are due to operator skill differences, fatigue, and other
factors attributed to inherent human variabilities.
3. Lower scrap rates: Because greater accuracy and repeatability are achieved, and because
human errors are reduced during production, more parts are produced within tolerance. As a
consequence, a lower scrap allowance can be planned into the production schedule.
4. Inspection requirements are reduced: Less inspection is needed when NC is used
because parts produced from the same NC part program are virtually identical.
5. More complex part geometries are possible: NC technology has extended the range of
possible part geometries beyond what is practical with manual machining methods.
6. Engineering changes can be accommodated more gracefully: Instead of making
alterations in a complex fixture so that the part can be machined to the engineering change,
revisions are made in the NC part program to accomplish the change.
7. Simple fixtures are needed: NC requires simple fixtures because accurate positioning of
the tool is accomplished by NC machine tool.
8. Shortest manufacturing lead times: Jobs can be setup more quickly and fewer setups are
required per part when NC is used. This results in shortest lead time.
9. Less floor space required: This result from the fact that fewer NC machines are required
to perform the same amount of work compared to the number of conventional machine tools
needed.
10. Operator skill level requirements are reduced: Workers need fewer skills to operate an
NC machine than to operate a conventional machine tool.

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Disadvantages of NC
1. Higher investment cost: An NC machine tool has a higher first cost than a comparable
conventional machine tool. There are several reasons why: (1) NC machines include CNC
controls and electronic hardware; (2) software development cost of the CNC control etc.
2. Higher maintenance effort: In general, NC equipment requires more maintenance than
conventional equipment, which translates to higher maintenance and repair cost.
3. Part programming: NC equipment must be programmed. To be fair, it should be
mentioned that process planning must be accomplished for any part, whether or not in
produced on NC equipment.
4. Higher utilization of NC equipment: To maximize economic benefits of NC machine
tool, it usually must be operated for multiple shifts. This might mean adding one or two extra
shifts to the plant’s normal operations, with the requirement for supervision and other
support.

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