BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

By:- RAUSHAN KUMAR SINGH

 Kingdom System of Classification
 Earliest system of classification was proposed by Aristotle (Father of Biology & Zoology)
 He Divided living organisms into plants and animals based on one or few morphological character.

Herbs

Plants Shrubs

Trees
Living organisms

Anaima
(animal without RBC)
Animals

Enaima
(animal with RBC)
 Kingdom System of Classification
 Theophrastus – Father of Botany & Father of ancient Plant Taxonomy
 He divided plants into 4 groups.
 His classification is totally artificial.

Herbs

Plants Based on Growth Shrubs

pattern /habit

Under Shrubs

Trees
• He also proposed term Annual, Biennial & Perennial.
 Two Kingdom Classification
 Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus.
 Carolus Linnaeus is known as Father of taxonomy , Father of plant taxonomy & Father of animal taxonomy.

Two Kingdom Classification

Plantae Animalia
• Criteria of classification - Cell wall
 Demerits:-
 Few organisms like Euglena & slime moulds shows characters of both plant and animals.
 Certain organisms can’t be categorised as plant or animals.
 It does not distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
 It does not distinguish between photosynthetic and non photosynthetic organisms.
 It does not distinguish between unicellular and multicellular.
 Three Kingdom Classification
 Proposed by Haeckel.
 He proposed 3rd kingdom as Protista besides Plantae and Animalia.

Three Kingdom Classification

Plantae Protista Animalia

 Criteria of classification :–
 Unicellular & Multicellular (Complexity of organisms)
 He put all Unicellular micro-organism whether it is unicellular bacteria or unicellular plant or unicellular fungi or
unicellular animal into kingdom Protista.
 Demerits:-
 It does not distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
 It does not distinguish between photosynthetic and non photosynthetic organisms.
 Four Kingdom Classification
 Proposed by Copeland.
 He proposed 4th kingdom as Mychota(Monera) besides Plantae, Protista and Animalia.

Four Kingdom Classification

Mychota Protista Plantae Animalia

 Criteria of classification :–
 Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes (Complexity of cell)
 Demerits:-

 It does not distinguish between photosynthetic and non photosynthetic organisms.

 Five Kingdom Classification
 Proposed by R.H. Whittaker.
 He proposed 5th kingdom as Mycota (Fungi) besides Monera, Plantae, Protista and Animalia.

5 Kingdom Classification

Monera Protista Mycota / Plantae Animalia

Fungi
 Main Criteria of classification :–
1. Complexity of Cell (Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes)
2. Complexity of Organism / Thallus organisation or Body organisation (unicellular or multicellular)
3. Mode of Nutrition ***** Most important criteria
4. Reproduction
5. Phylogenetic relationship
 In Whittaker Classification,
1. Monera includes all the prokaryotic organism Like Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, BGA, Rickettsia etc.
2. Protista includes all the Unicellular eukaryotes like Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Euglenoids Slime moulds and
Protozoans
3. Mycota / fungi includes true Fungi.
4. Plantae includes all the multicellular plants like algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperm and
Angiosperm.
5. Animalia includes all the multicellular animals.

Demerits:-
1. In five kingdom classification Archaebacteria has no separate place.
2. Virus, Viroids, Prions and lichens are not given place.
5 Kingdom Charecteristics
 Six Kingdom Classification / Three Domain System
 Proposed by Carl Woese.
 He gave 3 Domains theory / system.
 In these three domain 6 kingdoms are included.
 He suggested a separate kingdom for archaebacteria.

Organisms

3 Domains

Archae Bacteria Eukarya

Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom
1. Archaebacteria 2. Monera
3. Protista 4. Fungi 5. Plantae [Link]
 Criteria of classification:-
 Archaebacteria separated from eubacteria on the basis of some major differences like
1. Absence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the archaebacteria.
2. Occurrence of branched chain lipids in the membrane. (A monolayer instead of a phospholipid bilayer).
3. On the basis of sequence of r -RNA.

Note:- Domain is a super Kingdom category and it is not obligate category rather it is extra taxonomic category.
 Bacteria are the sole (alone) members of the Kingdom Monera.
 It includes all prokaryotes.
 Monerans are the most primitive forms of life.
 All members of moneran is Unicellular.
 Main characteristic of monerans :-
 Cell type :- Prokaryotic.
 Cell wall :- Non cellulosic (Polysaccharide + amino acid = amino sugar) i.e. peptidoglycan/ Mucopeptide (sticky
substance)
 Body organisation :- Cellular, membrane bound organelles like Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Golgi bodies etc. are
absent.
 Mode of nutrition:- Autotrophic i.e. Chemosynthetic or Heterotrophic (mainly saprophytic) and parasitic
 Examples:- Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cyanobacteria, Mycoplasma, Rickettsia, chlamydiae etc.
• Study of bacteria is called Bacteriology.

• Living Bacteria was discovered by Leeuwenhoek in rain water and later on in teeth scum. And he named
‘Animalcule’.

• Term Bacteria was firstly coined by F.J. Cohen & Ehrenberg.

• Lister first of all cultured bacteria artificially and developed ‘Culture technique’, so He is also known as ‘Father
of Antiseptic Surgery’.

• Louis Pasteur proposed ‘Germ theory of Bacteria’ and called Bacteria ‘Germ’.

** He discovered Pasteurization technique (process to make any drink free from bacteria by heating at 60°C temp.
for 30 minutes.)

• Robert Koch firstly obtained 'Pure culture of bacteria' and proved that Bacteria are the cause of disease.

**He gave some rules to prove it,known as 'Koch Postulates' (Awarded Nobel prize.)

• Koch postulate not applicable for Obligate Parasite (Mycobacterium leprae).

 ARCHAEBACTERIA
 These bacteria are special as they live in some of the most Harsh habitats such as Saline areas
(Halophiles), Hot springs (Thermoacidophiles) and Marshy area (Methanogens)
 All archaebacteria are generally Anaerobes.

 Cell wall :-
 Made of Complex polysaccharide and complex polypeptide (not peptidoglycan as in Eubacteria)

 Cell membrane :-
 Made up of a SINGLE layer of Branched chain molecules of lipids (whereas lipids present in cell
membrane of eubacteria are straight chain molecules.)
 Due to branched chain structure of lipid and cell wall, archaebacteria have more resistance ability as
compared to eubacteria.
 Classification of archaebacteria (Based on habitat)
1. Halophiles :- (Salty areas)
 Found in highly saline areas (sea)
 Non photosynthetic
 Example :- Halo bacterium, Halo coccus

2. Thermoacidophiles :- (Hot springs)

 Found where there is temperature approx. 80 centigrade and medium is Acidic (pH =2)
 Chemoautotrophs
 Exceptionally they are aerobic bacteria
Example:- Thermus aquaticus, Thermo plasma

3. Methanogens :- (Marshy area)

 Found in the gut of several ruminant animals such as Cow and buffalo and produce methane.
 Chemoautotrophs
 Example:- Methanobacterium, Methanococcus
 EUBACTERIA

Structure of a Typical Eubacterial cell

Cell Envelope

• The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure.

1. Outermost Glycocalyx
2. Cell wall
3. Cell membrane
 Although each layer of the envelope performs distinct function but they act together as a
single protective unit.
 Structure of Eubacteria :-
• Bacterial structure is very simple but they are very complex in behaviour.

1. Glycocalyx/Slime layer/Capsule

• Formation of Glycocalyx is done by plasma membrane.

• Protects the bacteria from w.b.c.
• Helps in colony formation.
Glycocalyx

• If Thick and Tough / hard layer • If Thin and slimy

then called as Capsule. then called as Slime layer.
• Capsule is made up of • Slime layer is made up of only
Polysaccharide + Polypeptide Polysaccharide.
• Capsulated bacteria are mostly • Slime layer is rough and sticky.
pathogenic.
• Capsule is smooth and non-sticky.
 2. Cell Wall
• Cell wall of bacteria is mainly made up of Peptidoglycan/Murein/Mucopeptide.
• Besides Peptidoglycan, low amount of Lipids and carbohydrate (Lipopolysaccharide) is also found in cell wall.
• Cell wall is formed by secretions of cell membrane.

Peptidoglycan (Complex polysaccharide)

NAM NAG
(N - Acetyl Muramic Acid) (N - Acetyl Glucosamine)
• NAM & NAG both are found in • TETRAPEPTIDE is made up of 4 types
of Amino acids :-
equal amount.
1. L- Alanine
• NAM और NAG का Chain को बाां ध 2. L- Lysine
कर के रखने वाला TETRAPEPTIDE 3. D- Glutamine
4. Meso - Diaminopimellic acid (DPA)
BOND होता है I
 On the basis of Cell Wall, Bacteria are of 2 types

Gram (+) Bacteria Gram (-) Bacteria

1. Cell wall is Single layered & Thick. Cell wall is Double/ Bilayered & Thin.
2. Bacteria retain stain (violet or purple)even after Bacteria Do not retain stain (decolourise) after
washing with alcohol. washing with alcohol.
3. Cell wall is made of thick layer of Peptidoglycan Inner layer of Cell wall is thin & made up of
(20-80 nm). Peptidoglycan (8-12 nm) & outer layer is thick &
made up of Lipopolysaccharide.
4. Low Lipid Content. High Lipid Content.
5. Murein content is high. Murein content is low.
6. Teichoic acid present. (protects bacteria from Teichoic acid absent.
thermal injuries & pH fluctuations.)
7. A few Pathogenic bacteria are Gram(+) Bacteria. Most of Pathogenic bacteria are Gram(-) Bacteria.
8. Basal bodies of flagella contains 2 rings (S & M) . Basal bodies of flagella contains 4 rings (L,P,S & M) .

L- form :- Bacterial cell wall can be removed by lysozyme enzyme. When bacterial cell wall is removed
artificially then these bacteria are called L- forms (Lister form)
 3. Cell Membrane
• Bacterial cell membrane made up of lipoprotein (lipid + protein) like the eukaryotic cell membrane.
• Bacterial cell membrane resembles with inner membrane of mitochondria.
• In between cell wall and cell membrane, there is Periplasmic space which is functionally similar
(analogous) to lysosomes. It bears digestive / hydrolytic enzymes for digestion.

• Mesosomes :- A special membranous structure which is formed by the invaginations / infoldings of

cell membrane inside the cytoplasm.
• These extensions / infoldings are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.

Cell Wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Periplasmic space
 Mesosomes(Chondroid) -
Invagination of Cell membrane in cytoplasm at different places.
2 Types of mesosomes

Septal / Central Mesosomes Lateral / Peripheral Mesosomes

1. It is attached to nucleoid, & helps in DNA Have abundant respiratory enzymes & takes
replication and separation /distribution of part in Respiration. Therefore it behaves like
replicated DNA molecules to daughter cells. mitochondria, so also called as Chondroid.
2. Also helps in formation of Septa or cell wall They also help in secretion processes.
material / cell wall formation during Cell division
3. Cell division

Mesosomes are analogous to mitochondria.

 4. Flagella

• It arises from cell membrane.

• It helps in locomotion.

 Flagella are present both in Gram(+)ve & Gram(-)ve bacteria.

• Flagella is made up of 3 parts

I. Basal body (Ring L, P, S, & M)

II. Hook

III. Filament

 In Prokaryotes, Flagella is made up of flagellin proteins (Contractile protein), whereas in case

of Eukaryotes, flagella is made up of Tubulin proteins.
 Structure of Flagella
(3 parts)

Basal Body Hook Filament

Basal Part of Flagella (rod shaped) It connects basal body to It is hollow cylindrical str.
It lies within the cell wall & cell filament Made of protein monomers.
membrane. Middle part of flagella. Each monomer is made up of
It’s some part lies within the flagellin protein.
cell wall.
 Flagellation in Bacteria
(No. and position of flagella on bacteria)

1. Atrichous :- Flagella absent.

Ex:- Pastereulla

2. Monotrichous :- Single flagella on side.

Ex:- Vibrio

3. Amphitrichous :- Single - Single flagella on both side.

Ex:- Nitrosomonas
4. Cephalotrichous :- Bunch of flagella on one side.
Ex:- Pseudomonas

5. Lophotrichous :- Bunch of flagella on both side.

Ex:- Spirillum

6. Peritrichous :- Flagella on whole body.

Ex:- E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Clostridium tetani
 5. Pili (Pilus)
• Tube like cylindrical hollow structure, made up of protein monomers present on bacterial cell wall.
• Each monomer is made up of Pilin protein (non-contractile rod shaped protein)
• Pili do not play role in motility (as they are made up of non-contractile rod shaped protein)
• Pili are smaller than the flagella.
• Pili are of two types :- Pili

Arises from cell wall Arises from cell wall

Longer Pili / Sex Pili /F-Pili Shorter Pili / Infective Pili / Fimbriae

• It is present only in few Gram (-)ve bacteria • Bristle / Hair like outgrowth found in both Gram (-)ve
• Only found in F+ / Donor (male) bacteria. and Gram (+)ve bacteria
• Helps in forming Conjugation tube during • Help in attachment to the rock surface in streams
conjugation. and to the host tissue.
 6. Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm of prokaryotes have more density than eukaryotic cytoplasm.

 Membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, chloroplast, E.R., Golgi bodies etc. are absent.

 It does not show Cytoplasmic streaming/ Cyclosis. (cyclosis is movement of cytoplasm inside cell, It is
done by movement from Cytoskeleton element.)

 Pigments are scattered in cytoplasm or found in chromatophore (extension of plasma membrane in

cytoplasm)

7. Nucleoid / Genophore / Incipient nucleus / Prochromosome / Fibrillar nucleus

 Nucleus of bacterial cell is called Nucleoid.

 Nuclear membrane absent.
 Nucleolus (round body located inside nucleus of a eukaryotic cell) are absent.
 True chromosomes are also absent (instead they contain single false chromosome)
 Nucleoid consists of ds,circular,naked DNA (without histone), and non histone protein (polyamine).
 8. Plasmid
 Term Plasmid given by- Lederberg.
 It is Extra chromosomal double stranded circular DNA.
 It has ability to replicate independently.
Types Of Plasmid

F- Plasmid R- Plasmid Col- Plasmid Ti- Plasmid

Also known as F Also known as R or Also known as Also known as
Or Fertlity factor Resistance factor Col. factor Ti factor
On the basis of Cells Carrying ‘R’ factor Cells Carrying ‘Col’ factor Used in genetic
presence or Absence Becomes resistant Secrete ‘Collicin’ which engineering.
of F factor, there to certain drugs Have antibiotic effect on Obtained from
are Mainly 2 types Other microbes. Agrobacterium
of Bacteria tumifacians
• F- Plasmid / F or Fertility Factor:-
On the basis of presence or Absence of F factor, there are Mainly 2 types of Bacteria

F- Plasmid / F or Fertility Factor

+ -
F / Male F / Female
F + cells carrying F factor F - cells lacking F factor
Act as donor & Act as recipient &
Called as F + /Male Called as F - /female

Episome = F plasmid attached with main DNA (F plasmid + main DNA )

&
This type of cell is called Hfr (High Frequency Recombinant) Cells.
 9. Storage granules / Inclusion bodies

 Reserve food material in prokaryotic cell are stored in the form of inclusion bodies.

 These are not bound by any membrane and lie free in the cytoplasm

 Example of inclusion bodies ;

A. Glycogen Granules - it stores carbohydrate.

B. Volutin Granules – These are also known as metachromatic granules.

Volutin Granules are phosphate polymers and function as storage reservoir for phosphorus.
 Types Of Bacteria (Based on Their Shape)

• Coccus /Spherical • Spiral / Spirilla

Example:
Examples:
• Spirillum
• Diplococcus,
• Streptococcus

• Bacillus / Rod Shape • Vibrium / Comma Shaped

Examples: Example:
• [Link], • Vibrio cholrae
• Lactobacillus
 9. Ribosomes

• In bacteria, only 70s type ribosomes are found.

• In bacteria, ribosomes are seen in cytoplasm and also attached to cell membrane.

• Polyribosomes / Polysomes :-
• Many ribosomes are attach to a single mRNA, then it is called as Polyribosomes / Polysomes.

Mode of Nutrition

• The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs.

• Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates.
• They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
• Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity.
 Mode of Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic

Saprophytic Parasitic Symbiotic

 Autotrophs

Photosynthetic Autotrophs Chemosynthetic Autotrophs

• Use light energy for photosynthesis. • These are non-photosynthetic autotrophs.

• Photosynthesis is Anoxygenic (No O2 release) • Use light chemical energy for food synthesis.

• On the basis of Hydrogen Donor, photosynthetic autotrophs are • Example :-

of two types :- • Nitrifying bacteria (Oxidise NH3 to nitrites & nitrate)

1. Photo - Lithotrophs :- like Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter.

• H-Donor - Inorganic Sulphur like H2 S / Thiosulphate • Sulphur Bacteria (Beggiatoa)

• Ex:- Purple Sulphur bacteria, green Sulphur bacteria, • Iron Bacteria (Ferobacillus)

Chlorobium • Methanobacteria ((Methanomonas, methanococcus)

2. Photo - Organotrophs :-
• H-Donor - Organic compound like Amino acid.
• Ex:- Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas
 Heterotrophic mode of Nutrition

Saprophyte Parasite Symbiotic

Obligate Saprophyte Facultative Parasites

(Obligate = Compulsory) (Facultative = Optional)
• These type of bacteria completely depends • These type of bacteria are normally Saprophytes but
on dead & decaying matters for their foods. due to lack of dead & decaying matters, they
• Example :- change their nutrition to parasitic.
1. Clostridium botulism • Example :-
2. Bacillus vulgaris 1. Pseudomonas 2. Staphylococcus
 Parasite

Obligate Parasite Facultative Saprophytes

(Obligate = Compulsory) (Facultative = Optional)
• These type of bacteria completely • These type of bacteria are normally
depends on living organisms for their Parasites but due to lack of living
foods. organisms, they change their nutrition
• In absence of parasites, they will die. to saprophytes.
• Example :- • In absence of parasites, they will not die.
• Mycobacterium leprae • Example :-
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Symbiotic Bacteria

( For N2 Fixation )

• Rhizobium forms Root nodules in Legumes plant (pulses family)

• Frankia forms Root nodules in Non-legumes plant like Alnus, Casuarina

• Klebsiella forms Leaf nodules in Discorea.

• Aero-Rhizobium forms Stem nodules in Sesbania.

• Note :-

• In Sesbania, both Root nodules (Rhizobium) and Stem nodules (Aero-Rhizobium)

are found.
 Mode of Respiration in bacteria

Aerobic bacteria Anaerobic bacteria

Obligate Aerobes Facultative Anaerobes

(Obligate = Compulsory) (Facultative = Optional)
• These type of bacteria are completely • These type of bacteria are normally aerobic (require
aerobic (require oxygen) for their respiration. oxygen) but due to lack of oxygen, they become
• Example :- anaerobic.
1. Azotobacter • Example :-
2. Beijernickia 1. Pseudomonas 2. Clostridium tetani
 Anaerobic Bacteria

Obligate Anaerobes Facultative Aerobes

(Obligate = Compulsory) (Facultative = Optional)
• These type of bacteria are completely • These type of bacteria are normally anaerobic
anaerobic ( do not require oxygen) for their (do not require oxygen) but due to lack of
respiration. anaerobic conditions, they become aerobic.
• In absence of anaerobic conditions, they will • Example :-
die. • Chlorobium
• Example :-
• Clostridium botulism
 Reproduction in Bacteria

1. Vegetative Reproduction :-
• In bacteria, vegetative reproduction takes place by Budding or Binary Fission (majority).
• It takes about 20 min. to form new bacteria.

A dividing bacterium
Binary fission
 Reproduction in Bacteria

2. Asexual Reproduction :-

• It occurs by Asexual spores. i.e. Endospore formation

• Endospore formation always takes place under
unfavourable condition.
• Endospore is highly resistant structure due to presence of
Ca - Diplocolinate which makes their cell wall very tough.
• It is produced inside body. So reproduction takes place
inside body. So this is also called as ‘Reproduction without
multiplication’.
• Endospore formation mostly seen in Bacillus type of
bacteria.
 Genetic Recombination
• Here gamete formation & gamete fusion does not take place.
• Here one bacterium take up the DNA of another bacterium by method called as Genetic Recombination.
• There are 3 Types of Genetic Recombination :-
1. Transduction
2. Conjugation
3. Transformation

1. Transduction

• Discovered by :- Leaderberg in Salmonella typhi

• During Transduction, one bacterium takes up DNA of another bacterium (Donor)
with the help of Bacteriophage (Virus).
 2. Conjugation

• Discovered by :- Leaderberg & Tatum in E coli.

• During conjugation, one bacterium takes up DNA of another bacterium (Donor) with the help
of conjugation tube.
 3. Transformation
• Transforming Principle :- Griffith
• Worked with Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Two strain :
1. SIII (Smooth) Virulent
2. RII (Rough) Non virulent / Avirulent

1. SIII (Smooth) Virulent 2. RII (Rough) Non virulent / Avirulent

Cell Wall
Cell
membrane

Mucous coat
(polysaccharide)
1. LIVE SIII + MICE = MICE DIED

S
S

2. LIVE RII + MICE = MICE LIVE

R
R
3. HEAT KILLED SIII + MICE = MICE LIVE

4. HEAT KILLED SIII + LIVE RII + MICE = MICE DIED

R + S
R+ S S

Conclusion :- R Strain Transformed into S Strain

 Mycoplasma

• It is smallest living cell, completely lacking cell wall, so also known as Joker of the
microbiology, as it keep changes its shape (pleomorphism)

• It can survive without oxygen.

• They are gram (-)ve bacteria.

• They are mostly pathogenic in animal and plants.

• Examples:-

 little leaf of brinjal,

 Bovine pleuropneumonia,

 genital inflammation etc.

 Cyanobacteria /BGA / Slime Algae

• They are freshwater(Mainly), marine or terrestrial.

• They are gram(-)ve photosynthetic autotrophs.

• They have rigid cell wall.

• They Show Oxygenic photosynthesis. (most primitive oxygenic photoautotrophs.)

• Cyanobacteria is always non motile.

 Pigments:-

 Chlorophyll a, Carotenoids and

 Phycobillins (C-phycocyanin, C-phycoerythrin, C- allophycocyanin)

 Phycobillins show chromatic adaptation called as Gaudikov’s phenomenon(changes body colour

according to different wavelength)
 Body Organisation:-

• The structure of blue green algae is similar to gram (-)ve eubacteria.

• They are covered with mucilaginous sheath (made up of mucopolysaccharide)

 Cell wall:-

• Bilayered i.e. outer layer- Lipopolysaccharide & inner layer- Peptidoglycan

Cell membrane:-

• lipoprotein (same as eubacteria)

 Cytoplasm:-

• Lack membrane bound organelles but EXCEPTIONALLY in BGA, 2 membrane

bound organelles are present i.e.

A.) Thylakoid - Here photosynthetic pigments are present

B.) Gas vacuole - Provide Buoyancy to blue green algae in water.

Stored food:-

 Cyanophycean starch(structurally similar to glycogen) or cyanophycean protein or fat droplets.

Some blue green algae that are Symbiotic (Anabaena and Nostoc) are found in

 Coralloid roots of cycas

 Leaves of Azolla (water fern) with Anabaena

 Thallus of Anthoceros (bryophyta)

 Nodulated roots of Trifolium (Angiosperms)

 Gunnera stem.

 Different forms of blue green algae

Unicellular - Spirulina (rich source of protein)

Colonial - Anabaena, Microcystis

Filamentous - Nostoc, Oscillatoria (can survive in hot water spring)

 Nitrogen fixation:-
• N2 fixation occurs in Specialised cell Called as Heterocyst.

 Cell wall thickens and become& fully permeable to N2 & impermeable to O2.

 Contain Nitrogenase enzyme.

 Creates Anaerobic environment in cell even under Aerobic condition.

 Also lack PS-II activities so oxygen is not evolved as PSII is absent.

Hence blue green algae improve soil fertility

by N2 fixation under anaerobic condition.
Economic importance of BGA:-
Useful effects :-
• Improve soil fertility by N2 fixation.
• Provide protein rich food for animal- Spirulina.
• Also used as green manure.
• Aulosira - Increase yield of rice production, so used to grow in rice fields.
• Some blue green algae inhibit growth of mosquito larvae by secreting toxin.

Harmful effects :-
• Water bloom/algal bloom - Excessive growth of BGA pollutes the water.
• Some secrete toxin which cause death of a aquatic life.
• It also gives bad odour (smell) to water.
• Term Protista was given by :- E. Haeckel
• It includes all Unicellular Eukaryotes.
• Unicellular Plant like Protists - Euglenoides, Chrysophytes, Dinoflagelletes
• Unicellular Animal like Protists - Protozoans
• Unicellular Fungi like Protists - Slime moulds
• This kingdom forms a link with Plantae, Animalia & Fungi. So there is no well defined boundaries
of this kingdom.

• General Characters of Protista :-

1. Habitat - Aquatic (majority), Terrestrial
2. Mode of Nutrition - Autotrophic, Heterotrophic, Absorptive, Saprophytes, Holozoic or both
Absorptive and Holozoic ( Different steps of Holozoic nutrition - 1. Ingestion 2. Digestion 3.
Absorption 4. Assimilation 5. Egestion )
3. Reproduction – It occurs through
A. Asexual Reproduction -
• Majority (common type in protists) through Binary fission and spore formation.
B. Sexual Reproduction -
• First time sexual reproduction occurs in protista (primitive type)
• It may be through Isogamous, Anisogamous or oogamous (advanced type)

 Classification of Protists :-
I. Chrysophytes
II. Dinoflagelletes Unicellular Plant like Protists

III. Euglenoids
IV. Slime moulds - Unicellular Fungi like Protists

V. Protozoans - Unicellular Animal like Protists

 1. Chrysophytes
• They are mainly photosynthetic Protists.
 Pigments :-
• Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-c and Xanthophylls (so they appear golden in colour).
• This group includes Diatoms and Golden algae(desmids)
 Body structure :- Mainly unicellular.
 Habitat :- Aquatic; either marine or freshwater(mostly)
• They float passively in water currents (because flagella are absent) except in reproductive stage
(phytoplankton), so they are immotile.
 Cell wall :-
• Cellulosic, often filled with Silica, so walls are indestructible.
• It is made up of two halves: one half covering the other half and hence resembles like a soapbox.
• As cell walls does not get destroyed even after death, so it forms very huge rocks of Diatoms at
the bottom of the sea, which are also known as ‘Diatomaceous earth’ or ‘keiselgurh’.
• Being gritty, this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrup, sound proofing.
• Diatoms are the chief producer in the oceans.
 Stored food :-
• Leucosin (Chrysolaminarian)and fats (oil).
• They float with help of stored fats/oils.
 Reproduction :-
(i) Mainly Asexual reproduction:- Through Binary fission
(ii) Sexual reproduction very rare.
• Here Zygote formed is called Auxospore(2n).
 2. Dinoflagelletes
• Also called as ‘Armoured algae’.
• It is photosynthetic protists.
 Habitat:-
• Mainly Marine, found on surface water.
 Photosynthetic pigments:-
• Chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-c, α-carotene and Xanthophylls
(Dinoxanthin or didinoxanthin)
• They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in their cells.
 Cell wall :-
• Stiff and Cellulosic (cellulose + pectose)
 Dinoflagellates have two flagella one transverse and other is longitudinal (Heterokont type), hence so
special type of movement called as “Whorling whips”.
 They are haploid.
 Histone is absent in its chromosome so also called as Mesokaryotes.
 It has osmoregulatory structure called as “PUSULE” which is a type of Non-contractile
vacuole , Pusule also helps in flotation.
 Stored food :-
• Starch
 Maximum Dinoflagellates show Bioluminescence, so Dinoflagellates also called as
‘Night light’ or ‘fire algae’.
• Example: Noctiluca, Gonyaulax etc.
 Gonyaulax undergo rapid multiplication and spread on surface of sea water due to
which sea appear red, so also called as ‘Red tide’.
 Gonyaulax also release Toxin, called as called as Saxitoxin.
 (it cause paralysis in human being transferred through food chain.) & also cause
death of fishes.
 3. Euglenoides

 Euglenoids are both photosynthetic and non photosynthetic

hence, it shows MIXOTROPHIC mode of Nutrition.
(photosynthetic holozoic saprophytic)
 Cell wall:-
• Absent instead they have a protein rich layer on cell
membrane which make their body flexible. Euglena
 Pigments:-
• Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-b, and xanthophyll (Zeaxanthin)
(identical to higher plants.)
 Stored food:-
• Paramylum and fat (Paramylum is a type of carbohydrate)
 Flagella:-

• They have two flagella, (one short and one long). But only one is functional (long).

• They are motile.

• They also locomote by ‘Wriggling movement’ (due to wave motion of pellicle)

 They are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight, and when lack of sunlight, they

behave like heterotrophs by predating on other small all organisms.

 Example:-

• Euglena
 4. Slime Moulds
• These are saprophytic protists.
 Habitat:-
• They are found on decaying stem, leaves, the body moves along
decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
 Cell wall:-
• Absent,
Slime Mould
• So, Outer covering is plasma membrane covered by slime layer.
• Organism is amoeboid and move with help of pseudopodia.
 During favourable condition body of organism is known as Plasmodium which grows up to several feet.
 During unfavourable condition, fruiting body Sporangium is formed which produces spores.
(spores are haploid having true cell wall),
• It is highly resistant and can survive unfavourable period for many years.
• Spores are dispersed by air currents.
 5. Protozoans

 All Protozoans are Heterotrophs.

 The live either as Predators or parasites.
 They are believed to be primitive relatives of Animals.
 Four major groups of Protozoans:-
I. Amoeboid protozoans:-
• Habitat:-
• Live in freshwater, marine water or moist soil.
• They move and catch their prey by putting out pseudopodia
(false feet) as in amoeba.
• Many have silica Shells on their surface.
 Example:-
• Entamoeba (Parasites)
II. Flagellated protozoans :-
• Habitat:- they are either free living or parasite.
• They have flagella
• Their flagellated forms cause disease.
• Example:-Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness)
III. Ciliated protozoans :-
• Habitat:- Aquatic
• Actively moving due to presence of thousands of cilia.
• Have a cavity called as Gullet, which open outside of cell surface.
• Due to coordinated movement of rows of cilia, water and food is steered into the Gullet.
• Example:- Paramoecium
IV. Sporozoans:-
• They have an infectious spore like stage in their life cycle.
• Among the Sporozoans, Plasmodium (Malaria parasite) is most notorious which causes malaria.
• (A Disease which has a staggering effect on population human population.)
• Study of Fungi :- Mycology
• General Characters of Fungi :-
1. Habitat –
• Cosmopolitan in nature. Found everywhere either in soil, water, air, animal body, plant body.
• They prefer to grow in warm & moist condition (200 - 300c ) So food are kept in refrigerator to avoid
spoilage of food.
• They can also grow in slightly acidic pH condition (pH = 6)
2. Eukaryotic
3. Immotile
4. Body is Haploid
5. Mode of Nutrition - Completely Heterotrophic
6. Body Organisation - Multicellular (Majority), Exception - Yeast (Unicellular) & multinucleated synchterium
7. Cell Wall :- Made up of Chitin (N - containing polysaccharide i.e. NAG)
8. Body Organisation / Fungi Structure :-
• Most fungi grow as Hyphae (Hyphae are long thread like structure )
• Interconnected group of Hyphae is called as Mycelium.

• Structure of Hyphae :-
• Inside hyphae, there is a normal cell like structure. It has :-
 Nucleus Hypha wall

 Cytoplasm
 Mitochondria
 Ribosome
 ER
Septa (cross wall)
(separate one cell to another cell)
 Type of Hyphae / Mycelium

Aseptate Septate

Cell wall

Nuclei

Pore
Septum
• Septa Absent (Without cross wall) • Septa Present (Without cross wall)
• Multinucleated Aseptate condition • Multinucleated Aseptate condition (Coenocytic
(Coenocytic condition) condition)
• Example :- Phycomycetes • Example :- Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes,
Deuteromycetes
• Pores :-
• Present on septa (cross wall ).
• Helps in exchange of protoplasm & other material, sometimes exchange of nucleus. (Without
cross wall).

Types of Pore

Simple Pore Dolipore

Parenthosome
(modification of ER)

• Circular shape • Found in members of Basidiomycetes

9. Nutrition :-
• Heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
• Stored food :- Glycogen
• Fungi are Saprophyte (Mainly), Parasites or Symbiotic like :-
I. Lichen :- Symbiotic association between Algae + Fungi
II. Mycorrhiza :- Symbiotic association between Roots of higher plants + Fungi

10. Reproduction :-
I. Vegetative Reproduction :-
a. Through Fragmentation of Hypha / mycelium
b. Through Budding - In Yeast
c. Through Binary fission - In Yeast

II. Asexual Reproduction :-

• Through the formation of spores, called as Mitospore.
• These spores are categorised as :-
 Motile (Flagellated) → Zoospores
a. Sporangiospores
Non motile (Non-Flagellated) → Aplanospores

a. Conidia - (Most common type of Asexual spore)

• Most favoured (under favourable condition) type of reproduction in fungi - Asexual reproduction.

III. Sexual Reproduction :-

• Sexual reproduction often occurs in response to adverse / unfavourable environmental condition.
• Here we don’t refer male or female fungi, instead we refer as (+) or (-) mating type.
• Homothallic - If 2 mating type i.e. (+) & (-) are found on same mycelium.
• Heterothallic - If 2 mating type i.e. (+) & (-) are found on different mycelium.
• When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come together and
fuse.
• In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n).
• In other fungi like Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, sexual reproduction is indirect i.e. it involves
sexual cycle.
• Sexual cycle is completed in 3 steps :-

Step 1 :- Plasmogamy = Fusion of cytoplasm of two different haploid mycelium which results in
formation of Dikaryon (n + n) and the phase is called
dikaryophase of fungus.
• In Dikaryon, both n (nucleus) has Different nature.

Step 2 :- Karyogamy = In Karyogamy, the two nuclei of

Dikaryon fuse to form a Diploid Zygote (2n).

Step 3 :- Meiosis = In Meiosis, diploid zygote form 4 Meiospores/ spores (n).

• The fungi form Fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of haploid
spores.
 Meiospores on germination give rise to mycelium / new fungi.
 There are four different types of spores formed in different fungi.
i. Oospores - Found in few members of Phycomycetes.
ii. Zygospores - Found in members of Phycomycetes.
iii. Ascospores - Found in members of Ascomycetes.
iv. Basidiospores - Found in members of Basidiomycetes.

 Relation between Sexual and Asexual cycle :-

 Classification of Fungi
 On the basis of structure of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies, there
are four different types of fungi.

i. Phycomycetes / Zygomycetes / Conjugation Fungi

 Habitat :-
• Aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on
plants.

 Body str. / Mycelium str. :-

• The mycelium is Aseptate and Coenocytic.

 Reproduction :-
a. Vegetative Reproduction :- Through Fragmentation
b. Asexual Reproduction :-
• Through formation of zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile) .
• These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium.

c. Sexual Reproduction :-
• It may be through isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
• A Zygospores (Zygote) is formed by fusion of two gametes.
 Examples:-
 Rhizopus (Bread mould)
 Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard).
 Mucor
Mucor
 रामबाण :- R A M
 ii. Ascomycetes

 Also known as Sac fungi.

 They are saprophytic, decomposers,parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).

 Body str. / Mycelium str. :-

 Multicellular (generally) e.g., Penicillium, EXCEPTION :- YEAST (unicellular)
• The mycelium is Septate and Branched.

 Reproduction :-
a. Vegetative Reproduction :- Through Fragmentation or Budding / Binary fission in yeast.
b. Asexual Reproduction :-
• Through formation of Conidia (Asexual spores).
• Conidia are exogenously produced on special structure conidiophore.
• Conidia on germination give rise to new mycelium / fungi.
c. Sexual Reproduction :-
• It may be through isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
• Sexual spores are called Ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus).
• These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
 Examples:-
 रामबाण :-
 Neurospora (biochemical and genetic work)
 NaYi
 Yeast

 Claviceps

 Aspergillus  CAP
Aspergillus
 Penicillium (Antibiotic)

 Morels (edible)
 MaT
 Truffles (edible)
 iii. Basidiomycetes

 Also known as Club fungi.

 They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and
smuts.

 Body str. / Mycelium str. :-

• Multicellular
• The mycelium is Septate and Branched.

 Reproduction :-
a. Vegetative Reproduction :- Through Fragmentation
b. Asexual Reproduction :-
• Asexual reproduction through asexual spores are generally ABSENT.
c. Sexual Reproduction :-
• Sex organ are absent. But Plasmogamy occurs through fusion of 2 different type of vegetative cell /
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes.
• The resultant structure is dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise to basidium.
• Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium producing four basidiospores.
• The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl.: basidia).
• The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
 Note :-
• Clamp connection helps in formation of Dikaryon.
 Examples:-  रामबाण :-
 Puccinia (rust fungus) P

 Ustilago (smut) U

 Agaricus (mushroom) A

 Bracket fungi Bada

Agaricus
 Puffballs Puffed hai
 iv. Deuteromycetes

 Also known as Imperfect fungi. (because only the asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are
known. SEXUAL PHASE IS COMPLETELY ABSENT)
 Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are decomposers of
litter and help in mineral cycling.

 Body str. / Mycelium str. :-

• Multicellular
• The mycelium is Septate and Branched.

 Reproduction :-
a. Vegetative Reproduction :- Through Fragmentation
b. Asexual Reproduction :-
• Asexual reproduction is through asexual spores known as conidia.
b. Sexual Reproduction :-
• Perfect sexual stage is Completely ABSENT.
• If sexual stage is found in any members of deuteromycetes then it will be placed either in
Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes.

 Examples:-  रामबाण :-

 Colletotrichum C

 Alternaria A

 Trichoderma T
 Viruses, Viroids, Prions

• Study of Virus- Virology

• Term/name virus given by- Louis Pasteur, he called virus as venom or poisonous fluid.
• Virus is also known as Phage.
• First of all virus was discovered by D.J. Ivanowsky (TMV)
• First discovered virus - Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
• M.W. Beijerinek called Virus as “Contagium Vivum Fluidum” means infectious living fluid.
• First of all virus was crystallized by W.M. Stanley (got Nobel prize for this work).
• Virus are found to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through bacteria-proof filters.
 Living / Biotic /Animate Character Non-living /Abiotic /Inanimate Character

• Condition- Present inside the Host cell. • Condition- Present outside the Host cell.

• Replication • Cell wall, Cell memb.- Absent

• Protein Synthesis • Cytoplasm/Protoplasm – Absent

• Multiplication • Inert crystalline form

• Mutation • Virus can be crystallized.

• Host Specificity • Antibiotic resistant.

• Obligate Intracellular Parasite • Enzymatic machinery Absent.

• Metabolism Absent.
• Conclusion:- Virus is connecting link between living & non living form.
• Exception to cell theory.
• Exception to Biology.

Shape of Virus:-
• Spherical - HIV, Infleunza,Corona
• Rod Shaped - TMV
• Tadpole Shaped - Bacteriophage
Chemical Composition:-
• 1. Nucleic Acid - Genetic material
• Genetic material is either DNA or RNA.
• Generally Plant Virus - ss RNA
• Generally Animal Virus – ds DNA & in some ss/ds RNA

 Many are exceptions :-

a. Cauliflower Mosaic Virus - ds DNA
b. Curly Top Virus (Member of Gemini virus) - ss DNA
c. Retro virus - ssRNA (Most Lethal Virus.), They have capacity of Reverse Transcription.(Have
Reverse Transcriptase enzyme.)
EX:- HIV, Rabies, Hepatitis , Nervous system disease.

2. Protein Coat:-
• In Virus, Protein coat is called as Capsid.
• Capsid is made up of small subunits.
• Each subunit is called as capsomere.
Symmetry in Virus:-
Means arrangement of capsomere.
1. Helical - TMV , Mumps
2. Polyhedral (Many faces) - Bacteriophage
3. Icosohedral (Type of polyhedral, here capsomere is arranged in prism like shape.) - φ X174
Bacteriophage, Herpes virus, Adeno virus
 Enveloped Virus-
• In Some Virus, there is additional covering on protein coat, known as envelope.

• These envelpos are made up of either protein or lipid.

• Enveloped Virus Examples:- HIV, Influenza ,Corona Virus

 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) :-

• First Discovered virus.

• Discovered by - D.J. Ivanowsky (Russian scientist)

• Genetic Material - ss RNA

• ss RNA - 5% & Protein - 95%

 Bacteriophage :-
• Term Bacteriophage given by - Felix d’ Herelle.
• Discovered by - F.W. Twort
• Genetic Material - ds DNA
 EXCEPTION :-
 QB Bacteriophage - ss RNA
 φ X 174 Bacteriophage - ss DNA
• Shape – Tadpole Shaped
• Two Types of Bacteriophage :-
1. Lytic / Virulent Virus -
• This type of Bacteriophage immediately
Kills Bacteria After attacking.
• They show Lytic cycle.
2. Lysogenic Virus / Temperate virus -
• This type of Bacteriophage do not
Immediately Kills Bacteria After attacking.
• They show Lysogenic cycle.
 Transduction -
• Discovered by Zinder & Leaderberg in Salomonella typhi.
• It is a Virus (Bacteriophage) mediated gene transfer from one bacterium to another bacterium.
• Useful in genetic engineering.

 Cyanophage :-
• Virus Infecting BGA/ cyanobacteria.
• Genetic Material - ds DNA
• Ex:- LPP -1 (Lyngbya, Plectonema, and Phormidium)

 Mycophage :-
• Virus Infecting Fungi.
• Genetic Material - ds RNA
 VIRIONS:-
• Smallest part of virus, which can cause infection.
OR
• It is One infecting unit of virus, so virions is also known as Viral Particle.
• It has both Genetic material as well as Protein coat.
 VIROID:-
• Discovered by T.O. Diener
• Only made up of Genetic Material – ss RNA of low molecular weight.
• Protein Coat is absent. So it is also known as Free Infectious RNA.
• Viroids are also known as Naked virus(as protein coat is absent.)
• T.O. Diener discovered one disease caused by Viroids- Potato Spindle Tuber Disease (Caused by Potato
Spindle Tuber Viroids)
 PRIONS:-
• They are made up of only Protein Coat.
• Prions are made of prions protein.
• Genetic Material is Absent.
• Prions generally Causes Neural disease.
• Ex :- Cr- Jacob Disease in Human.
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) Disease in Cattle.

Disease Caused by Virus

Plant Disease Animal Disease
TMV Mumps
Yellow vein mosaic Polio
Leaf curl Rabies
Bunchy top of Banana AIDS
Leaf Rolling Viral flu
Tungro Disease
Chlorosis, Necrosis
Dwarfism, Stunted growth
 Lichens

• Green algae (Chlorophyceae)

Algae Phycobiont • BGA (Cyanophyceae)

• Photosynthesis only

• Ascomycetes
Fungi Mycobiont • Basidiomycetes

• Dominant
• Provide Water, minerals to algae,
• Provide Shelter to algae

• Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas.
 “परफेक्ट पररस्थिति का इं िजार मि कीतजए,
आज से अपने लक्ष्य को पाने के तलए पूरी िाकि झोंक दीतजए,
सफलिा इं िजार से नही ं, काम करने से तमलेगी”