www.4dgeosteering.

com
 [Link]
Logging While
Drilling (LWD)
Fundamentals
Logging while drilling is the measurement of formation properties during the deepening of

[Link]
the borehole, or shortly thereafter, through the use of measurement tools integrated into the
bottomhole assembly.
The conventional objective of logging, on wireline or while drilling, is to evaluate the
volume, properties and producibility of any hydrocarbons in the formation.
The Archie equation and its variants have been the standard method for evaluating formation
water and hence hydrocarbon saturation. Gus Archie proposed the following basic form of the
equation based on empirical correlation to experimental data.

where: 𝒏 𝒂 𝑹𝒘
SW= .
Φ𝒎 𝑹𝒕
Sw = formation water saturation
a = empirically derived constant
m = cementation exponent
n = saturation exponent
Φ = formation porosity
Rw = in situ water resistivity
Rt = uninvaded formation resistivity
 [Link]
The remaining pore space is assumed to be filled with hydrocarbon. Hence, the hydrocarbon
saturation, Shc = 1- Sw.
The volume of hydrocarbon per unit volume of formation is given by the porosity of the formation
multiplied by the hydrocarbon saturation.

Vhc = Φ . Sh

where:
Vhc = volume of hydrocarbon per unit volume of formation.
Φ = formation porosity.
Shc = formation hydrocarbon saturation.
If the hydrocarbon is oil then the volume of hydrocarbons is given as the stock tank oil in place
(STOIP). If it is gas then the volume is quoted in standard cubic feet (scf) or standard cubic meters
(scm).

STOIP or scf = Vhc .V reservoir. B

 [Link]
The classic “triple-combo” measurements (resistivity, density and neutron) are the
minimum set of inputs to solve for water saturation. The density measurement is generally
used to derive the formation porosity by the equation:

Bulk density, ρb = φ.ρfluid + (1-φ).ρmatrix ⇒ Φd = (ρmatrix – ρb) / (ρmatrix – ρfluid)

where:
Φd = density porosity
ρb = bulk density
ρ fluid = fluid density
ρ matrix = matrix density

The neutron and density measurements are often presented on a lithology compatible
scale (e.g. limestone compatible scale) such that in a fresh-water filled formation of the
selected lithology the neutron and density measurements overlay.
 [Link]
The resistivity measurements are used to evaluate the true formation resistivity, Rt. Due
to the invasion of mud-filtrate into the formation during drilling, modern resistivity
tools measure the formation resistivity at multiple depths of investigation to
characterize and correct for the near wellbore invasion.

Mud filtrate invasion creates an altered zone near the wellbore for which the measurements must be corrected. LWD measurements generally
do not require as much correction as later wireline measurements as the invasion is not as deep soon after the hole has been drilled.
Surface Measurements

[Link]
Numerous drilling-related measurements are made at surface and are outlined in section

[Link]
4.6. Many LWD measurements are presented versus depth, but as the downhole tool has
no means to directly determine its depth, measured depth along the wellbore is acquired
at surface by determining the length of drillpipe run in the hole.
• Depth
The measured depth of a point in a well as defined by the driller is the cumulative
length of drill pipe that has been run in the hole to position the bit at that point.
To make this measurement each piece or joint of drillpipe is manually measured at
surface with a tape-measure and the specific length of each piece of pipe added to the
tally as the pipe is run in the hole.

LWD and MWD depth is measured continuously using a device which determines
how far the traveling block holding the drill-pipe moves during drilling.
Depth is measured against time.
• Rate of Penetration

[Link]
By measuring the rate of change in depth while drilling versus time, the drilling rate of
penetration (ROP) can be determined.
• Time after Bit
Each of the formation measurements has an associated time after bit measurement which
indicates how long the formation was open prior to the measurement being taken at that depth.
As this is related to depths the time-after-bit calculation for each measurement is made at
surface and then associated with the corresponding real-time and recorded mode measurement.

Time after bit example showing that the same formation depth will be measured by the various sensors at different times
• Downhole Data Categories

[Link]
LWD data can be sub-divided into categories according to whether they are:

1. Acquired relative to (indexed by) time or depth,

2. Azimuthally focused or azimuthally symmetric
3. Transmitted in real-time or recovered from the memory of the tool when it returns to
surface.
1. Time and Depth Indexed Data

All downhole measurements are initially recorded versus time. For some
measurements, such as formation pressure response during a pretest at a given depth,
the data remains indexed in time during interpretation.

Most of the formation measurements, however, are time-merged with the time-depth
data acquired at surface to change the measurement index from time to depth so that
it can be presented as a depth log for interpretation.
2. Azimuthal and Non-Azimuthal Data

[Link]
Downhole LWD measurements can be subdivided into two main groups:

Azimuthal measurements are those for which the physics permits the measurement
to be focused on an azimuthal sector of the borehole resulting in directional
sensitivity. It has one or more directions perpendicular to the surface of a logging tool
from which it receives most of its signal.

❖ Examples are the density and laterolog resistivity measurements.

Non-azimuthal measurements are those for which the physics does not permit
azimuthal focusing so the measurement is acquired simultaneously from the 360
degree circumference of the borehole. A non-azimuthal or azimuthally symmetric
measurement is one which measures equally in all directions around the tool.
Examples are the propagation resistivity and neutron measurements.

❖ Examples are the propagation resistivity and neutron measurements.

 [Link]
3. Real-time and Recorded Mode Data

Data either recorded at surface or transmitted to surface while drilling continues is

called real-time data. The transmitted data is generally a small but critical subset of
the suite of measurements taken downhole.

The downhole measurement data is usually depth converted, merged with the surface
measurements and presented as a log so that the formation characteristics can be
determined while drilling continues.

On retrieval of the BHA to surface, the memory of the tools is recovered. This is
called the recorded mode data and consists of all the measurements.
 [Link]
Basic LWD Log Quality Control
Basic LWD Log Quality Control

[Link]
9300

9350 Last Density / Porosity Reading

Last Density / Porosity Reading
Last GR Reading

Total Depth @ 9395

Gamma Ray Average (GRMA) Collar Rotational ARC Uncorrected Phase Shift Resistivity for Thermal Neutron Porosity (Ratio Method) in
speed (CRPM) selected lithology (TNPH)
0 (GAPI) 100 (RPM) 16 inch spacing at 2MHZ (P16H UNC)
0.2 (OHMM) 2000 4.5 (PU) -15
0 200
True vertical Depth (TVDE) ARC Uncorrected Phase Shift Resistivity for
Bulk Density (RHOB)
(FT) 28 inch spacing at 2MHZ (P16H UNC) 1.95 2.95
8600 7600 0.2 2000 (G/C3)
(OHMM)
ARC Uncorrected Phase Shift Resistivity for
Neutron Time After Bit (TABNEU) 40 inch spacing at 2MHZ (P40H UNC)
Bulk Density Correction (RHOB)
0 (HR) 10 -0.8 (G/C3) 0.2
0.2 (OHMM) 2000
Rate of Penetration,Averaged Over Last 5 ft Photoelectric(PEF)
(ROP5 RM) 2 22
200 (F/HR) 0
PIP SUMMARY
Gamma Ray samples
Resistivity samples Density Ticks, 0.1 ft
NeutronTicks, 0.1 ft
IDEAL Version: ID10_2C_01
IDF

Example LWD log showing the additional information required to help understand the log response.
When interpreting LWD measurements there are several pieces of additional information that

[Link]
should be reviewed to help understand the log responses.

True Vertical Depth (TVD) should be presented on the log so that changes in the well trajectory
can be correlated to changes in the log responses.

Rate of Penetration (ROP) is useful to indicate how fast the BHA was moving during
acquisition. Often ROP will correlate with log features

The Rotations per Minute (RPM) Indicator for the corresponding tool is required whenever an
azimuthal measurement is presented. Each azimuthal tool has its own RPM indicator. As shown
in the depth track

Tick marks indicate the depth at which each measurement was acquired. Each measurement has
its own tick marks. Widely spaced tick marks act as a warning that the data may be under
sampled over the interval.

Time after bit (TAB) indicates the formation exposure time prior to the measurement being
taken at that depth.
 [Link]
Downhole Formation Measurements
 [Link]
Since the first generation of tools in the 1980’s, the downhole capabilities of LWD tools
have improved significantly to include a wider range of measurements, greater reliability
and increased real-time data capabilities.
The initial measurements were GR and simple resistivity curves which were used more for
correlation than formation evaluation.
Gradually sophisticated array resistivity, density and neutron tools have been added to the
measurement portfolio, making it possible to solve Archie’s equation for formation fluid
saturations using LWD data alone.
LWD tools provide raw data from the wellbore, and this data must be interpreted before a
decision can be made.
Interpreting horizontal data can be difficult at times, so it is imperative that the proper
evaluation methods be used.
 [Link]
Formation Gamma Ray Measurements
 [Link]
The GR measurement counts the number of gamma rays emitted from the disintegration of
the three naturally occurring radioactive isotopes commonly found in earth formations:
Thorium (Th), Uranium (U) and Potassium (K).
The GR is sometimes used to determine the proportion of clay in a formation as there tends
to be a higher concentration of these radioactive elements in clay.
The GR is a useful measurement for well placement as:

• It is relatively unaffected by fluid saturation and porosity variation. As a result, it tends to

have consistent character throughout the reservoir.
• It responds with minimal shoulder bed effect because of its shallow depth of
investigation.
• It can resolve much finer layering in a horizontal well than can be seen on the gamma ray
log from vertical wells.
There are two reasons for the improved measurement response in horizontal and high angle wells:

[Link]
1. The horizontal wellbore is at a very low angle relative to the beds.
2. The gamma ray measurement accumulates the statistical counts from the radioactive
elements in the formation over a set period of time. The slower the drilling the more counts
are acquired at a given depth. This improves the statistical precision of the measurement
giving better representation of the formation.

6-inch layer
1 degree

A 6 inch thick bed will be traversed over a measured depth of almost 344 inches if the well and layer are at 1 degree
relative to each other.
 [Link]
Formation Resistivity Measurements
LWD resistivity is critical for meaningful reservoir evaluation and is especially helpful when

[Link]
drilling in a reservoir with a fluid change such as a water contact.
LWD resistivity tools fall into two categories: laterolog and propagation
Laterolog resistivity measurements are made by pushing electrical current from an electrode,
across the borehole and into the formation, with th current returning to an electrode on the tool.
This laterolog current path measures the formation resistivities in series

Laterolog currents measure the formation resistivities in series while propagation currents measure the formation resistivities in parallel.
 [Link]
Propagation resistivity measurements are derived from the changes to the phase and amplitude
of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through a formation.
The propagating wave induces current loops in the formation that circle the body of the tool.

These propagation induced currents measure the formation resistivities in parallel.

Electromagnetic propagation tools work best in highly conductive formations and can operate in
both conductive and non-conductive muds, provided that the contrast between the mud and
formation resistivities is not so high that the induced currents tend to setup in the borehole.
1. Laterolog Resistivity

[Link]
Laterolog resistivity measurements are made by pushing current from an emitting electrode,
through the borehole to the formation and back to a return electrode on the tool.
The resistance measured by the tool is given by the voltage drop between the return and source
electrodes divided by the source current.
𝑽
R=
𝑰
where:
R = resistance seen by the tool (ohm).
V = voltage drop between the source and return electrodes (volt).
I = the current flowing from the source to the return electrode (ampere).

Electrical current will always follow the path of least resistance. In a homogeneous formation
the current will be evenly distributed around the tool, but in layered formations current will
“squeeze” into conductive beds distorting the electric field
 [Link]
Squeeze (left) and anti-squeeze (right) effects are due to measure current (red lines) following the path of
least resistance through the more conductive layer or fracture.

Focusing of laterolog measurements also allows the formation resistivity to be evaluated at

various azimuths around the borehole.
The GeoVision resistivity (GVR) LWD tool acquires 5 independent laterolog

[Link]
resistivities simultaneously:

• Bit resistivity - the bit used as a measure electrode.

• Ring resistivity - a cylindrical electrode provides a focused laterolog resistivity.
• Button resistivities at 3 depths of investigation - azimuthally focused electrodes
provide azimuthal resistivities and images

GVR measurement configuration.

3. Real-time and Recorded Mode Data

[Link]
Data either recorded at surface or transmitted to surface while drilling continues is
called real-time data. The transmitted data is generally a small but critical subset of
the suite of measurements taken downhole.

The downhole measurement data is usually depth converted, merged with the surface
measurements and presented as a log so that the formation characteristics can be
determined while drilling continues.

On retrieval of the BHA to surface, the memory of the tools is recovered. This is
called the recorded mode data and consists of all the measurements.
The bit resistivity measurement is useful for early detection of significant

[Link]
resistivity changes in the formation.
0.02 SFI Offset well 200
Ohm-m
0.02 ILM Offset well 200
Ohm-m
0.02 ILM Offset well 200
Ohm-m
0. Wireline. GR 100 0.2 RAB RING resistivity 200
API Ohm-m
0. RAB GR 100 1:240 0.2 RAB BIT resistivity 200
API ft Ohm-m

STOP

The resistivity-at-bit measurement allows early detection of significant changes in formation

resistivity, as is often the case when the reservoir is reached. This allows accurate placement of casing
or coring points. In this example the bit only penetrated 9 inches into the reservoir.
 [Link]
2. Propagation Resistivity
• Rock Electrical Properties
The impedance of a volume of rock to the passage of electrical current has a component that
is independent of the frequency of the current passed through it (the conductance) and a
component that depends on the frequency (the capacitance)
The frequency independent component, the conductance, G, is given by:
𝑨
(1) G = σ
𝑳
where:
G = Formation conductance
σ = Formation conductivity (mmho)
A = Area through which the measurement current passes (m2)
L = Characteristic measurement length (m)

Propagation tools work at significantly higher frequencies (400 to 2000 kHz) so the capacitive
impedance must be taken into account.
The frequency dependent component, the capacitance, X, is given by:

[Link]
𝑨
(2) X =iω ε𝑺
𝑳
where:
X = Formation capacitance. 𝑰𝒕
i = √-1
ω = Angular frequency (2π times measurement freq.). V ~ ω,ε
ε𝑺 = Formation dielectric constant.

The total impedance, Z, is given by the vector sum of the

conductance and capacitance: The total impedance of a formation is described by
two parameters, the conductivity σ , and the
(3) Z = G + iX formation dielectric constant, ε .

So the total current, IT, that flows through a formation is given by the equation:
𝑨
(4) 𝑰𝑻 = [ σ + I ω ε ] V
𝑳

where:
𝑰𝑻 = Total current flowing through the formation.
V = Oscillating voltage applied to the formation.
 [Link]
• Propagation Measurement Physics
Formation resistivity can be derived from the behavior of an electromagnetic wave
passing through rock in two ways:

▪ Induction measurements use the difference in the magnetic field between two
receivers that is caused by eddy currents induced in the formation.
▪ Propagation measurements measure amplitude and phase shift differences between
the receivers
A wireline induction tool generates an oscillating magnetic field – typically 10 to 100
kHz – that induces eddy currents in a conductive formation.

These, in turn, generate a much weaker, secondary magnetic field that can be measured
by a receiver coil set.

Induction tools use a trick to cancel the primary magnetic field’s flux through the
receiving coil set and allow measurement of the secondary magnetic field only.
The propagation measurement is performed using a loop of wire around a collar to transmit an

[Link]
electromagnetic wave into a formation. The difference in the phase (phase shift) and amplitude
(attenuation) across a pair of coil receivers is measured.

The phase shift and attenuation of an electromagnetic wave propagating through a

formation from a transmitter is measured at a pair of receivers.
• Borehole Compensation

[Link]
Transmitting from both above and below the receivers creates a balanced set of measurements
which compensate for effects such as hole rugosity or drifts in receiver electronics. This
balancing method is called borehole compensation (BHC). Borehole compensation is achieved
by a unique method in Schlumberger tools.
Standard BHC combines data from two transmitters placed symmetrically around the receiver
pair for one compensated measurement.
Antenna
Spacing
(in.) T
34

T
22

T
10 R
Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed
3 R Asymmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical Pseudo
0 BHC BHC BHC BHC BHC
-3 T
-16
T

-28

Mixed borehole compensation (MBHC) uses linear combinations of asymmetrically positioned transmitters to compute pseudo transmitters.
• Depth of Investigation

[Link]
The depth of investigation of a propagation resistivity measurement is controlled by 4 factors:
1. Phase or attenuation measurement of the wave
2. Transmitter-receiver spacing
3. Transmitted wave frequency
4. Formation resistivity
Despite being measured on the same electromagnetic wave, the phase and attenuation
measurements have independent depths of investigation.
Lines of equal phase are spherical in nature as the wave travels with equal speed in all
directions.
Lines of equal amplitude form a toroidal shape around the transmitter as the amplitude is
related to the energy of the wave, and the tools are designed to deliver maximum energy in the
radial direction.

Lines of equal phase around a transmitter are spherical, while lines of equal amplitude are toroidal.
 [Link]
Phase Attenuation

The phase and attenuation measurements provide two independent volumes of investigation; the phase
measurement is shallow and axially focused, the attenuation is deeper but less axially focused.

Since the depth of investigation increases as the transmitter spacing increases, the five phase
resistivities represent five different depths of investigation with nearly identical axial resolution.
Similarly, the five attenuation resistivities represent five deeper reading measurements.
 [Link]
70
16 in.
22 in.
60
28 in.
34 in.

Radius of Investigation [in]

50 40 in. Attenuation
Resistivity
40

30

20
Phase-shift
10
Resistivity

0
0.1 1 10 100
Resistivity [ohm.m]
The radius of investigation of both phase and attenuation measurements increases with increasing
formation resistivity. This plot is for a 6 ¾” tool at 2 MHz.
• Axial Resolution

[Link]
The axial resolution of a measurement (also known as vertical resolution from the days when
wells were mainly vertical) is a distance that characterizes the ability of the measurement to
resolve changes in the formation parallel to the tool axis.

The axial resolution of a propagation resistivity measurement is controlled by four main

factors:
1. Phase or attenuation measurement of the wave
2. Receiver-receiver spacing
3. Transmitted wave frequency
4. Formation resistivity
 Qualitative

[Link]
resolution
Phase
Resistivity Width at half
Axial maximum
Response
Quantitative
Function
resolution

-120 -96 - 72 -48 -24 0 24 48 72 96 120

Qualitative
resolution
Attenuation
Resistivity Width at half
Axial maximum
Response
Quantitative
Function resolution

-120 -96 - 72 -48 -24 0 24 48 72 96 120

Depth (inches)
The axial resolution of the phase shift measurement (top) is sharper than the attenuation measurement (bottom).

▪ Phase measurements have sharper axial resolution than the corresponding attenuation
measurements.
▪ Axial resolution sharpens with increasing transmitter frequency.
▪ Axial resolution sharpens with decreasing formation resistivity.
▪ Axial resolution sharpens with closer receiver-receiver spacing (this is fixed for a tool).
▪ Axial resolution sharpens slightly with closer transmitter-receiver spacing.
• Eccentricity Effect

[Link]
Eccentricity effect causes erratic and ‘spiky’ 2 MHz resistivities when the propagation resistivity
tool is run eccentered in a borehole filled with oil-based mud surrounded by low resistivity
formation.
Low formation resistivities result in the induced currents flowing in the formation very close to
the tool.
If the tool is centered in the borehole the currents continue to flow in the formation, but if the tool
is eccentered, the currents may try to cross the borehole.

2MHz
Current
path

Eccentered
Tool
400 kHz
Current

Eccentricity effect occurs when the 2 MHz induced currents try to cross a non-conductive borehole (left)
resulting in distortion of the current path (middle) which creates erratic and spiky log responses. The 400
kHz measurement is significantly less sensitive to this effect (right).
• Blended Resistivities

[Link]
Blended resistivities combine the best of the 400 kHz responses (at low resistivities) and the
2 MHz responses (at high resistivities) by applying simple threshold logic.

The blended resistivity curves are labeled in the same way as the single frequency curves other
than that the final letter is B (blended) rather than H (high for 2 MHz) or L (low for 400 kHz).

2 MHz

400 kHz

1 Ohm-m 2 Ohm-m Resistivity

Blended resistivities use the 400 kHz resistivities below 1 ohm-m and the 2 MHz resistivities above 2
ohm-m. Between these blending thresholds a linear combination of the resistivities is used.
• Invasion Effect

[Link]
Invasion of mud filtrate into the formation near the wellbore generally results in a
change in the resistivity around the well.
Evaluation of the invasion profile is one of the primary reasons for the development
of multiple depths of investigation resistivity tools. A greater proportion of the
shallow measurement response comes from the invaded zone than for deeper
measurements.
100 100
long short
10 10
R Phase long

R Phase
short
1 1

0.1 0.1
𝑅𝑝ℎ < 𝑅𝑎𝑡 & short < long 𝑅𝑝ℎ > 𝑅𝑎𝑡 & short > long
Invasion conduction Invasion conduction

100 100

R Attenuation
long short
R Attenuation

10 10
short long
1 1

0.1 0.1
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30

A conductive invasion profile (left) has the shallowest resistivity reading lowest and the deepest resistivity
reading highest. A resistive invasion profile (right) has the opposite order with the shallowest resistivity reading
highest and the deepest resistivity reading lowest.
Multiple resistivities are required to solve an invasion model so that the uninvaded

[Link]
formation resistivity, Rt, can be determined. The simplest invasion model is the piston
invasion profile. The piston invasion profile is the most common model used to interpret
resistivity separations.
Rt Rt

Resistivity, R

Resistivity, R
Rxo Rxo
Rm Rm
𝑟ℎ
𝑟ℎ Radius, r 𝑟𝑖1 Radius, r
𝑟𝑖2
𝑟𝑖

T T

T T

T T
R R
R R
T T

T T

The piston or step invasion profile (left) is the simplest invasion model and can be determined with 3 resistivity inputs
to solve for the 3 unknowns (Rt, Rxo, ri). Solving for the more sophisticated ramp invasion profile (left) requires 4
resistivity inputs to solve for 4 unknowns (Rt, Rxo, ri1, ri2). Both examples show conductive invasion but the approach
is also valid for resistive invasion.
• Boundary Effects

[Link]
Boundary effect, also known as shoulder effect, on propagation resistivity measurements is
controlled by two factors:

1. Resistivity contrast between the layers

2. Relative angle between the borehole and layer interface
The discussion of axial resolution effects in section [Link] considered the effect of thin layers with
differing resistivity on the propagation resistivity response when the tool is perpendicular to the
layers. T
T
T Axial resolution effect
R
R
T
T
Bed
boundary
effect Proximity
effect

R
T
T

R
T

T
Axial resolution, bed boundary and proximity effects are related. Axial resolution effects are due to averaging more
than one layer within the axial “window” of the measurement. Proximity effects are due to averaging of more than
one layer within the radial depth of investigation of the measurements. Bed boundary effect is a combination of axial
and radial effects as the volumes of investigation of the propagation measurements cross a change in resistivity.
 [Link]
❖ When the propagation tool and formation layering are perpendicular, the induced
currents distribute themselves across the layers in inverse proportion to the resistivity.

1 𝑉𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
= +
𝑅𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

1
𝑅𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.5 0.5 = 1.96 ohm.m
+
1 50

Measure currents parallel to formation resistivity boundaries result in a resistivity response which is the parallel sum of the layer resistivities.
 [Link]
❖ When a propagation resistivity tool approaches a change in formation resistivity with a low
relative angle between the tool and layering, the measure currents are forced to cross both
layers, so the resistivity response is the series sum of the resistivities

𝑅𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 . 𝑅𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 + 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 . 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑅𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.5 * 1 + 0.5 * 50 = 25.5 ohm.m

Measure currents forced to cross formation resistivity boundaries result in a resistivity response which is the series sum of the layer resistivities.
• Anisotropy Effects

[Link]
Resistivity anisotropy is the phenomenon where the measured formation resistivity varies
depending on the direction it is measured. This is common where formations are thinly layered.
The resistivity in layered formations is sometimes called transverse isotropic (TI) as the
resistivity does not vary when measuring in any direction parallel to the layering.

1 V1 + V2
=
Rh R1 R2
1
⇒ Rh =
25 % 50 Ω-m (0.25+0.25 ) (0.25+0.25)
1 50
25 % 1 Ω- m
= 1.96 Ohm.m
25 % 50 Ω- m

25 % 1 Ω -m
Rv = V1 . R 1 + V2 . R 2

⇒ Rv = (0.25+0.25)*1 + (0.25+0.25)*50

= 25.5 ohm.m

Resistivity anisotropy may be caused by alternating formation layers with differing resistivities.
The propagation resistivity response to multiple thin layers can be considered the sum of

[Link]
numerous shoulder bed effects. Rather than a single polarization horn associated with
traversing a single resistivity change, anisotropy causes the phase resistivity to read
continuously higher than the attenuation resistivity.

A propagation resistivity tool oriented perpendicular to formation layering will measure Rh, (left) while a tool close to
parallel with the layering will measure a combination of Rh and Rv (right).
• Proximity Effects

[Link]
Proximity effects occur when the deeper
propagation measurements respond to more 100 Ohm-m

than one layer. 1 Ohm-m

The proximity of a conductive layer is

particularly apparent because the propagation P16H
P22H
measurement depth of investigation increases P28H
Phase P34H
with increasing local formation resistivity, and
Resistivities
the induced current seeks the path of least
resistance. A conductive layer gives the
induced current an alternate path with lower A16H
resistance. A22H
A28H
Attenuation A34H

The phase resistivities are unaffected by the Resistivities

proximity of the low resistivity layer until the
tool is very close to the layer. The proximity of a low resistivity layer reduces the deeper
attenuation resistivities (bottom) before the shallower phase
resistivities respond (middle) as the well (green line top)
traverses from high resistivity (brown) to a low resistivity layer
(blue).
• Dielectric Effect

[Link]
At propagation measurement frequencies the total impedance of a rock has a direct
current (DC) resistance component and a frequency dependent component which is a
function of the formation dielectric constant. Common practice is to transform
attenuation and phase shift independently to resistivity, assuming a certain transform
between the relative dielectric constant and resistivity.
4

3.9

3.8

100
10000
1000
Attenuation [dB]
3.7 1

3.6 Dielectric Assumption

r = 5=108.5*𝑅−0.35

ω
3.5

3.4 ω r
3.3

3.2
3.1
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Phase-shift [degree]
Using both the measured attenuation and phase shift as inputs, the formation resistivity and dielectric constants can be
determined, rather than depending on the dielectric assumption. This chart is for the 2 MHz response at 40 inch
transmitter-receiver spacing on a 6 ¾” diameter tool.
 [Link]
Resistivity Tool Selection
Laterolog and propagation resistivity tools both work well in many environments. In non

[Link]
conductive mud, however, laterolog tools will not give quantitative resistivities as the
measure current is unable to cross the borehole to and from the formation. In these
situations the propagation resistivity is the only option.
20 K

2K

200
Laterolog Only

Rt 20

Propagation Only
Complementary Region
2

• Axial resolution
• Images & dip
0.2 • Depth of investigation

0.01 0.1 1 10 Oil

Rmud filtrate / Rwater Based
Mud
Resistivity tool selection chart for a homogeneous, uninvaded formation.
 [Link]
Formation Porosity Measurements
• Formation Density

[Link]
Formation density is determined based on the down-scattering of gamma ray energies
as they interact with the electrons of the atoms in the formation.
While formation density can be determined with a single gamma-ray source and
detector, in most logging tools two detectors are used to create a compensated density
measurement which corrects for parallel standoff between the detectors and borehole
wall. The detector closer to the source is called the short spacing detector; the further
is called the long spacing.

Gamma ray Short spacing Long spacing borehole

source detector detector

standoff

formation

Volume investigated by the short spacing detector

Volume investigated by the long spacing detector

A dual detector density measurement can compensate for the effect of a limited standoff between the detectors and borehole wall.
The spine-and-ribs correction compares the density measured using the short and long

[Link]
spacing detectors. If they read the same density they plot on the spine and no correction is
applied. As standoff increases the density measured in the short spacing detector will
decrease more rapidly than the long spacing as it has a shallower depth of investigation and
hence is more affected by mud in front of the detector.
ρls
∆ρ > 0 Increasing formation
ρmud< ρB density,ρb
0"
0.25 " 3.0 g/cc
0.5 "

∆ρ
Actual formation ρb
ρ ls −ρss 2.0 g/cc

∆ρ < 0
Infinite standoff ρ mud> ρB
1.0 g/cc reading ρmud

ρss

Density spine-and-ribs technique corrects for standoff between the detectors and the borehole wall.
• Neutron Response

[Link]
Neutrons are emitted from a source at high energies (millions of electron volts, eV) and lose
energy as they interact with elements in the formation.

Neutrons can be classified into three main categories according to their energy level.
▪ Fast Neutrons: energy in excess of 1000 eV.
▪ Epithermal Neutrons: energy between 10 eV and 0.4 eV.
▪ Thermal Neutrons: in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings with an average
kinetic energy of around 0.025 eV at 20 Deg.C
107

High Energy
105
Intermediate Energy
Energy [ev]

103

Epithermal Energy
101 Thermal Capture

10−1 Thermal Energy

0 200 400 600

Time [μs]
Neutrons are classified as fast (high and intermediate energies), epithermal and thermal.
There are four main types of neutron interactions:

[Link]
1. Elastic scattering - neutron strikes an atom; the neutron scatters and looses some of
its energy to the target nucleus.

2. Inelastic scattering - a fast neutron strikes an atom; a portion of its energy goes into
exciting the target nucleus.

3. Radiative capture - A thermal neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus, producing a

compound nucleus (isotope). The nucleus de-excites immediately, emitting gamma
rays with an energy that is characteristics of the atom.

4. Activation - An atom as described in radiative capture, resulting in a radioactive

isotope or by nuclear reaction, absorbs a neutron. After a delay that is governed by
the half life of the isotope, the new atom experiences radioactive decay, emitting
gamma rays and other particles.

❑ A flux of fast neutrons is continuously emitted by the neutron source and travels out
in all directions into the formation.
As the neutrons progress, they go through 3 different phases.

[Link]
1. Slowing-Down (Moderation) Phase: Neutrons are slowed down through elastic
scattering by successive collisions with atoms, and loose their energy until they reach
thermal equilibrium with their surroundings.

2. Thermal Neutron Diffusion Phase: Thermal neutrons continue to make elastic

collisions with nuclei, but maintain a constant energy on average.

3. Thermal Neutron Absorption: Eventually, each thermal neutron suffers a collision in

which it is absorbed (captured). In this process a small portion of the neutron mass is
converted into energy and the capturing nucleus is moved to an excited state.

❑ The three processes of slowing down, thermal diffusion, and thermal neutron
absorption occur relatively fast, so that within a few microseconds a dynamic
equilibrium is reached where the total number of neutrons absorbed is equal to the
number emitted by the source.
As hydrogen is the main moderator, the size of the neutron cloud is determined by the formation

[Link]
hydrogen index.
Hydrogen index is defined as:
grams of H/cc in the formation
(hydrogen H) = grams of H/cc in water at 75 F
o

Formations with a high HI will result in a small neutron cloud and hence the count rate at the
detectors will be low.
The neutron response of an LWD tool can be expressed as:

Neutron Response = Φ. HI + secondary effects

Where:
Φ = true formation porosity
HI = hydrogen index of the fluid in the pores. Secondary effects refer to influences such as thermal
neutron capture, and differences in the neutron response to various lithologies.

Neutron response after all environmental and secondary effect corrections

Φ=
Hydrogen Index of pore fluid
• Density – Neutron Comparison

[Link]
The density and neutron measurements are most commonly used together. The density acts as the
primary porosity measurement, but the fluid and formation densities must be known to derive an
accurate porosity from the density.
Because the neutron responds primarily to the hydrogen index of the fluid, comparing the two
measurements on a compatible scale helps diagnose whether “standard conditions” exist in the
formation. 1.7 g/cc Density 2.7 g/cc
60 p.u. Neutron Response (limestone) 0 p.u.
Zero p.u.
limestone
Fresh water filled
18 p.u. limestone
Oil filled
18 p.u limestone
Gas filled
18 p.u limestone
Fresh water filled
18 p.u. limestone
NaCl saturated water filled
18 p.u. limestone
“Shale”
Fresh water filled
18 p.u. limestone
Fresh water filled
18 p.u. sandstone
1.7 g/cc Density 2.7
g/cc

Separation between the density and neutron measurements when presented on a lithology (limestone in this
example) compatible scale reveals whether the formation is a clean, fresh-water filled layer of the selected lithology.
• Magnetic Resonance

[Link]
Nuclear magnetic resonance refers to the way in which nuclei respond to a magnetic field. Many
nuclei have a magnetic moment - they behave like spinning bar magnets. These spinning magnets
can interact with externally applied magnetic fields, producing measurable signals.
For most elements the detected signals are small.
Before a formation is logged by an NMR logging tool, the protons in the formation fluids are
randomly oriented. When the tool passes through the formation, the tool generates magnetic
fields that activate those protons.
First, the tool's permanent magnetic field aligns, or polarizes, the spin axes of the protons in a
particular direction.
Next, the tool's oscillating field is applied to tip these protons away from their new equilibrium
position.

Spin precession. The proton (left) spins around the blue axis which precesses around the magnetic field (vertical). Similarly,
the toy top (right) spins around the blue axis which precesses around the gravitational field (vertical).
A sequence of pulses is transmitted by the tool to realign the protons so that a series of magnetic

[Link]
echoes from the spinning protons is acquired. The protons begin tipping back toward the original
direction in which the static magnetic field aligned them. In NMR terminology, this tipping-back
motion is called transverse relaxation, designated as T2.
The rate of decay of this magnetic signal is the fundamental measurement of NMR logging tools and
is controlled by the three relaxation mechanisms:
1. Surface relaxation – relaxation due to the interaction of the protons with the walls of the pores.
2. Bulk relaxation – relaxation due to interaction of protons with each other.
3. Diffusion relaxation – apparent relaxation due to aligned protons moving out of the volume of
investigation of the tool during the measurement sequence.
1.2
Initial amplitude is calibrated to hydrogen index
1
𝒕
−

0.8 𝑻𝟏
1-e 𝒕
− Decay rates provide

0.6 e 𝑻𝟐 information on pore and

fluid types.

0.4

0.2 Polarization, T1

Transverse Relaxation, T2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (seconds).
Magnetic Resonance involves polarization of hydrogen nuclei followed by a sequence of
realignments to measure the transverse relaxation rates, T2, of the nuclei.
The T2 decay rate measured by the tool is the cumulative sum of multiple decay rates. The decay

[Link]
rate measured by the tool is inverted to find the component decay rates (bottom). This process
generates a T2 distribution from fast decay rates on the left to slow decay rates on the right. The total
area under the T2 distribution equals the hydrogen index of the formation.
30

Signal amplitude
30

Signal amplitude
25 T2=500 ms
20
25 T2=70 ms
20 30
15
15
10
10
25 Signal received
5

Signal amplitude
0
5
20
in antenna
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (sec) Time (sec) 15

Signal amplitude 30
10
25 T2=3 ms

Signal amplitude
30
20 25 T2=70 ms 5
15 20
0
10 15
5 10 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0 5 Time (sec)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0
Time (sec) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (sec)
03 07 20
T2 (ms)
60 100 500 900 4000 8000 30000
T2 (ms)
30 1 03 07 20 60 100 500 900 4000 8000 30000

normalized signal amplitude

normalized signal amplitude
1
09
25 T2
Signal amplitude

09
08
08
20 Inversion 07
07
06
06
15 05
05
04
10 04
03
03
5 02
02
01
0 0
01
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 03 07 20 60 100 500 900 4000 8000 30000 0
03 07 20 60 100 500 900 4000 8000 30000
Time (sec) T2 (ms) T2 (ms)

The T2 decay measured by the tool is the cumulative sum of multiple decay rates (top). To reconstruct
this array of relaxation rates the measured decay is inverted into a T2 distribution. which represents the
proportion of the total signal coming from each of a number (usually 30) of different decay rates.
In a water-filled formation where surface relaxation is the dominant relaxation mechanism, the T2

[Link]
distribution can be related to the pore size. In small pores the protons repeatedly interact with the
pore walls and hence are desynchronized, or relaxed, quickly.
In large pores the protons have fewer interactions with the walls of the pores and hence the decay is
slower and the T2 peak further to the right. Magnetic resonance analysis on cores allows the T2 cut-
off above which fluid will flow to be determined.
𝑇2 original
𝑇2 spun sample
Signal Free fluid cutoff
distribution

1 10 100 1000
Time (𝑻𝟐 msec)
Capillary-bound
Clay-bound Water Producible fluids
water

NMR porosity
Free fluid porosity
The T2 distribution before (blue) and after (red) centrifuging a core sample. The decrease in the late T2
components is due to the free fluid being spun off and so the signal lost. The non-mobile fluid remains in
the small pores. This type of core data allows a T2 cut-off between free and bound fluids to be
determined.
• Sonic Logs

[Link]
LWD sonic tools transmit an acoustic pulse which propagates through the formation. The energy
is reflected, refracted and converted through interactions in the borehole, formation and fluid-
solid interface resulting in a wave train comprised of various arrivals

Amplitude

Transmitter
Firing

Time (s)

Shear arrivals
arrivals
Compressional

Mud arrivals
Rayleigh
arrivals
Stoneley arrivals
Total transit time

Acoustic arrivals schematic. The arrivals of greatest interest are the formation compressional, shear and
Stoneley arrivals.
An array of equally-spaced receivers measures the acoustic wave train. The distance

[Link]
between the receivers is known, so measuring the time difference between an arrival at one
detector and the next allows the acoustic travel time per unit distance (seconds per meter),
otherwise known as the slowness, to be determined. The inverse of the slowness is the
acoustic velocity through the formation (meters per second).

Time

Receiver
Receivers
spacing

Transmitter

Multiple receivers measure the wave train as it passes.

As the wave train is comprised of various arrivals the velocity of each can be determined by

[Link]
measuring their arrival time at each of the detectors. This is calculated through a process
called slowness-time coherence (STC). The coherence of the waveforms is calculated
(effectively points of greatest similarity between the waveforms are identified) and plotted
as a color (red indicates highest coherence, blue lowest) on a Slowness versus time
crossplot. Time Slowness
µsec/ft 40 –240

Time refers to how long the arrival takes to Receiver

spacing
propagate from the transmitter to receiver.
Slowness refers to the inverse of the
velocity across the receiver array. The
slower the arrival propagates through the
formation the longer it will take to get to
the receivers.

Time
Slowness-Time Coherence (STC) processing extracts the velocity of
the individual arrivals. The data is then presented
 [Link]
Lithology Determination
• Photoelectric effect

[Link]
When low energy gamma rays interact with the electrons in an atom, the gamma ray can
be absorbed and an electron ejected in a process known a photoelectric capture.
The probability of a gamma ray undergoing photoelectric capture is dependent on the
photoelectric capture cross section of the atom and the energy of the gamma ray.
The lower the energy of the gamma ray, the more likely it is to undergo photoelectric
capture. The photoelectric capture cross section is dependent on the average atomic mass
of the material being encountered.

Lithology Photoelectric factor Volumetric Photoelectric factor

PEF (barn/electron) U (barns)
Quartz 1.8 4.8
Calcite 5.1 13.8
Dolomite 3.1 9
Anhydrite 5.1 15
Illite (clay) 3.5 8.7
Lignite (Coal) 0.2 0.24

The photoelectric factor and volumetric photoelectric factor for common lithologies.
• Neutron Capture Spectroscopy

[Link]
Once a neutron has lost the majority of its original energy through interactions with the atoms in a
formation it reaches thermal energy level. Eventually the neutron is captured by an atom which
becomes a different isotope of the same element through the addition of the neutron to its nucleus.
Some of the energy from this process is released as a set of gamma rays whose energies are
characteristic of the element from which they were released.
Incoming gamma rays are allocated to channels according to their energy. After an accumulation
period the number of gamma rays counted in each channel is plotted to create a gamma ray count
versus gamma ray energy spectrum.
500
Counts/Channel [arbitrary scale]

100

10
Calcium

Iron
1
Tool Background
Chlorine

0.1
0100 50 150 200 250
Gamma ray energy (channel number)
Neutron capture spectroscopy allows the elemental composition of a formation to be determined by examining the gamma rays emitted after neutron bombardment.
 [Link]
Formation Thermal Capture
Cross-section (Sigma)
Sigma is the macroscopic thermal neutron capture cross section of the formation.

[Link]
The measurement makes use of the fact that after slowing down to thermal energies,
neutrons linger in the formation and the borehole for several hundred microseconds,
undergoing multiple collisions with nuclei in the surrounding material.
Their capture by formation (and borehole) nuclei results in the emission of one or more
gamma-rays from the resulting highly excited nucleus.
100000

Count Rate [cps]

10000 Low Σ = Low Salinity

Borehole Decay

High Σ = High Salinity

Formation Decay
1000

500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time [microseconds]
Sigma, the macroscopic thermal neutron capture cross-section of the formation, is closely related to the formation salinity.
The sigma measurement is based on a single gamma ray detector. Sigma is a volumetric

[Link]
measurement related to the chloride content of the formation. Because chloride generally
occurs dissolved in the formation water, sigma can be used to derive resistivity independent
water saturation as long as the formation water is sufficiently saline to produce a usable
sigma contrast between water and hydrocarbons.

Sandstone = 4.3
Dolomite= 4.7

Lithology Calcite = 7.1

Anhydrite = 12 CLAYS

Σ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Fluid GAS OIL Fresh Water Increasingly

Typical Sigma values for common formation components.

 [Link]
Formation Pressure
Measurements
The fluid pressure in the pores of a formation can be measured by creating a hydraulic seal

[Link]
against the borehole wall, reducing the pressure on the formation and allowing the formation
fluids to flow into a tool equipped with a pressure gauge. The movement of a pre-test piston is
generally used to drop the pressure in the tool flowline below formation pressure so that
formation fluid flows into the tool.

Dead volume expands by the volume Packer gives a hydraulically tight seal to
Pressure gauge is isolate the inside of the tool from the
of this cylinder ‘Pre-test Chamber’
surrounded by clean fluid. annulus, so the gauge does not measure
annular pressure. Packer sits on mudcake
Pre-test Piston and conforms to shape of the hole.

Probe barrel does not need to penetrate

the rock. Mudcake will produce into the
tool with the formation fluid, when the
pre-test piston moves up. Mudcake will get
‘Bellows’ separate the clean expelled when probe is retracted.
hydraulic fluid surrounding the
gauge from the dirty fluid. The ‘Dead Volume’ refers to the
bellows move so as to equalize entire volume of fluid inside the
pressure on each side tool, up to the formation wall

Formation
Mudcake
A formation pressure measurement requires a seal between the tool and formation, a piston to reduce the pressure in the tool
below formation pressure so that fluid flows into the tool, and a pressure gauge to measure the pressure response.
The sequence of formation pressure drawdown and buildup is called a pretest as it was original

[Link]
designed to confirm a pressure seal between the tool and formation prior to taking further tests and
samples. The drawdown and build-up rates provide information about how freely the formation fluid
moves. The mobility of the fluid is defined as the ratio of the formation permeability divided by the
fluid viscosity. This takes into account the ease with which the fluid moves (viscosity) and the
ability of the rock to transmit fluids (permeability).
Tool Sets

Flowline Expansion
Tool Retracts
Fluid Draw-down
Fluid Draw-down (Measurement)
(Investigation)
Build-up 1 Build-up 2
Formation Pressure

time
Time allocated for pressure measurement

A typical formation pretest showing drawdown and buildup sequences which allow determination of the
fluid mobility and pressure.
The hydrostatic pressure of a fluid at depth is given by the equation:

[Link]
P = ρ.g. TVD X500
Where:

P = pressure Gas
Gas-Oil Contact
ρ = fluid density
g = gravitational acceleration X600

TVD = true vertical depth Oil

Oil-Water Contact
One of the major applications of pressure data is for
identification of the fluids and their contacts within the
X700
formation. When plotting pressure against the true Water
vertical depth of a well fluids of similar density will fall
on a line
X450 X550 X650
Pressure (psi)
Plotting measured formation pressure against true vertical
depth allows fluid gradients to be identified. The gradients
indicate the density of the fluids (and therefore often help
identify the fluids) and the intersection of the gradients
identifies fluid contact depths.
 [Link]
Remote Boundary
Detection
• Seismic While Drilling

[Link]
Seismic while drilling services are either
configured with the drill bit as a downhole
energy source and receivers at surface (drill bit
seismic); or a surface source with receivers
downhole. Both systems measure the one-way
transit time of the seismic energy through the
earth. As the depth of the downhole tool is
known the velocity of the seismic wave
through the earth can be determined.

Knowledge of the seismic velocity through the

various layers allows time to depth conversion
of the surface seismic data so that the depth of Seismic While Drilling. Drill bit seismic (left) uses vibrations from the drilling process
a feature identified on the surface seismic can as a seismic energy source. It can only be used under specific conditions. The more
widely used seismic LWD system uses a conventional seismic source at surface and
be determined. detects the signal downhole.
• Electromagnetic Boundary Detection

[Link]
One of the major problems with traditional well placement is the limited depth of investigation
of the measurements designed primarily for petrophysical formation evaluation.
While azimuthal data greatly enhances well placement by permitting determination of the
direction from which features contact the borehole, most azimuthal measurements have limited
depth of investigation (of the order of inches).

The development of deep, directional electromagnetic measurements has revolutionized well

placement by permitting remote detection of resistivity changes within a formation.

The PeriScope 15 service (so called because under favorable conditions it can detect a
resistivity contrast up to 15 feet from the borehole) complements the LWD measurement
portfolio by adding the azimuthal sensitivity previously only available with images, while
extending the depth of investigation beyond that of conventional LWD propagation resistivity.
This deep, directional capability fits nicely into the real-time measurement portfolio Seismic data

[Link]
is able to visualize large structural features, but due to the limited frequency content of surface
seismic data, some features are below seismic resolution.
Seismic
10’s of ft

Distance to Boundary
15 ft

Pro pagatio n Resistivity

4 ft

Im ages

The PeriScope 15 distance to boundary service delivers both directionality and depth of investigation.
1. Applications of Remote Boundary Detection

[Link]
Remote detection of surrounding layers opens up a whole new capability for well placement.

▪ Wells can be positioned closer to the reservoir roof, minimizing "attic oil" left behind.
▪ Drilling can follow ancient river channels, ensuring the wellbore remains in productive zones.
▪ Wells can be drilled parallel to fluid contacts, enabling exploitation of thin oil rims.
▪ Sub-seismic faults can be detected, important for avoiding reservoir exit in thinner
formations.
▪ Improved tracking of reservoir layers enhances estimation of hydrocarbon volumes.
▪ Resistivity measurements in adjacent layers allow remote tracking of water movement,
reducing the need for multiple observation wells.
40 ft

20.6 degrees
15 ft

40 ft
5.7 degrees
4 ft

Remote detection of a change in formation dip with sufficient forewarning to enable trajectory
adjustment to remain in the reservoir.
The PeriScope tool adds two tilted receivers and one transverse transmitter to the conventional

[Link]
propagation resistivity array. The conventional transmitters (red arrows) and receivers (blue
arrows) can be used to deliver standard propagation resistivity measurements.
The directional measurements used for remote detection of formation resistivity changes are
derived from the tilted receivers (black arrows). A transverse transmitter, T6 (green arrow) is used
in conjunction with the axial and tilted receivers to derive resistivity anisotropy measurements at
any well angle.
The PeriScope uses increased transmitter-receiver spacing (34”, 84” and 96”) and operates at lower
frequencies (100 kHz, 400 kHz and 2 MHz) than conventional propagation resistivity
measurements to gain greater depth of investigation.
96”
84”
74 ” 44 ”
34 ”

R3 T5 T3 T1 R1 R2 T6 T2 T4 R4
34”
84”
96”

The PeriScope 15 deep directional measurements are acquired at 3 frequencies using the axial
propagation resistivity transmitters and directional receivers tilted relative to the axis of the tool.
The conventional axial coils do not shown any sensitivity to tool orientation as the

[Link]
tool rotates. The sensitive volume of an axial transmitter – tilted receiver pair.

Sensitivity
- 0.0001

- 0.001
- 0.01
- 0.1

1
0.1

0.01
0.001

0.0001

The sensitive volume of an axial transmitter - tilted

receiver pair. Note the positive (upper) and negative
(lower) lobes.

When rotated in a homogenous layer the response from the positive and negative
lobes cancel each other resulting in a net zero phase shift and attenuation response.
In a layered formation the directionality created by the tilted receiver results in a
sinusoidal response.
Symmetrization:

[Link]
In homogeneous formations with boundaries parallel to the tool, interpretation of the directional
responses is relatively simple. However if the formation resistivity is anisotropic or there is relative
dip between the layering and tool the interpretation becomes more complex.
The single axial transmitter and 45 degree tilted receiver pair (left) shows sensitivity to anisotropy
including complex changes to the location of the maximum response. Symmetrization, much like
borehole compensation, involves having signal arrive at the receivers from above and below.
T R
+
T
R

=
T
R

18 18
16 16
14 14
60 deg 60 deg
12 70 deg 𝑅ℎ = 6 Ω m 12 70 deg
10 80 deg 10 80 deg
𝑅𝑣 = 30 Ω m 𝑅ℎ = 6 Ω m
Attenuation (dB)

Attenuation (dB)
90 deg 90 deg
8 100 deg 8 100 deg
6 110 deg 6 110 deg
120 deg 120 deg 𝑅𝑣 = 30 Ω m
4 4
2 2
0 3Ωm 0
-2 -2 3Ωm 1Ωm
-4 1Ωm -4

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
TVD (feet) TVD (feet)

Symmetrization removes sensitivity to formation anisotropy and relative dip, greatly simplifying interpretation of the directional responses.
Tool Response:

[Link]
When the tool is rotating the symmetrized directional responses are plotted versus gravity tool face
(tool azimuth relative to the top of the hole), which shows a cross section of the tool (black circle to
the right)) rotating below a conductive bed which is dipping at 60 degrees in the cross section
through the tool. The amplitude of the response varies sinusoidally, with the maximum amplitude
occurring as the positive lobe is oriented toward the conductive bed. The minimum occurs when the
positive lobe is oriented away (180 degrees of azimuth) from the conductive bed.

60°
1 Ωm
10 Ωm
Amplitude
60°
or Phase

Tool rotation angle Tool rotation

The symmetrized directional response is a maximum when the positive lobe is oriented toward the
conductive bed and a minimum when oriented away. The azimuth of maximum amplitude found by
sinusoid fitting allows the azimuth of the bed to be determined.
1. The Three Layer Model

[Link]
Interpretation of PeriScope measurements is generally performed using a three layer model.
In its most complex form this model has 6 unknowns:
Ru
Rh – horizontal resistivity of the local layer
Rv – vertical resistivity of the local layer Rh , Rv
Ru – resistivity of the bed above hu
Rd – resistivity of the bed below
Hu – distance to the bed above
Hd – distance to the bed below.
hd
The local layer resistivities, Rh and Rv, are determined
using the conventional propagation resistivity
Rd
measurements available form the axial transmitters and
receivers on the tool. PeriScope measurement interpretation is
based on a three layer model with 6
Solving for local layer resistivity anisotropy requires both unknowns.
conventional phase and attenuation resistivity
measurements.
 [Link]
Crossplots
Crossplots are a way of visualizing the sensitivity of the PeriScope measurements to
various conditions. They can be used to determine which of the array of measurements
gives the best sensitivity to the expected formation resistivities.
As a crossplot is a 2-dimensional representation of data, four of the model unknowns
must be fixed, leaving two to be presented on the crossplot. The most common cross plot
configuration is to assume that the resistivities of the beds above and below the well are
known and that the local layer thickness is also known.
The distance to the other boundary is known as it is given by the bed thickness minus the
distance to the opposite boundary.
To keep the cross plot as simple as possible a conventional propagation resistivity is
plotted against a deep, directional response. The conventional measurement helps define
the resistivity of the local layer. The directional measurement is used to determine the
distance to the boundaries.
 [Link]
Example CrossPlot
Unti System: English

10
2 ft
3 ft
4 ft
5 ft
6 ft
1
7 ft
8 ft

9 ft
SAD4 (Db)

0.1

5 ohm.m
9 ohm.m
17 ohm.m
29 ohm.m
50 ohm.m
0

-0.1 10 ft

10 100 1000
P28H (ohm.m)

PeriScope response crossplot for the formation. The blue and red points correspond to examples discussed
in the text.
Inversion Fundamentals

[Link]
The PeriScope inversion automates distance to boundary and remote resistivity determination
with the added benefit that it takes all the data into account rather than only 2 channels from the
array of measurements as is the case with cross plotting data. Distance Angle
UPPER Bed 2.07 -22.08
0 LOWER Bed 1.34 157.92

The inversion is calculated on a point-by-point basis. The -30 30

results from one point are not used to guide the results for -60 60
subsequent points. This independence between points
means that when a trend is noted it is likely that the trend is
real and not a consequence of one point affecting the next. -90 90

-120 120
As discussed previously, the PeriScope tool provides an
azimuth to the boundaries around it, based on the -150 150
180
assumption that the layers above and below are parallel.
The boundary azimuth, in conjunction with the distance to 11043 ft

boundary (DTB) information, is presented in an azimuthal The azimuthal viewer provides a representation of the
subsurface as if looking down the borehole (center) with
the upper (yellow) and lower (blue) boundaries shown at
the distance and azimuth around the borehole determined
from the PeriScope measurements.
Challenging Environments:

[Link]
As the PeriScope inversion is based on a three layer model there are several challenging
environments in which the inversion may deliver a cross-section which is not a good representation
of the subsurface.
▪ Thin beds
One such situation is where more than three layers affect the response of the tool. In thin layers
for example, the PeriScope measurements will tend to mix the responses from the various layers
with a bias toward the more conductive layers as the measure currents seek the path of least
resistance.
40 Ω 6 Ω
6 Ω

30 Ω 30 Ω
3 Ω
100Ω 100 Ω Input Model
7 Ω
70 Ω 70 Ω

6Ω
30 Ω 8Ω

100 Ω 3Ω
Inversion Output
90 Ω

70 Ω 7Ω 70 Ω

Thin bed example where the PeriScope responds to more than three layers resulting in potentially misleading inversion results.
▪ Resistivity Ramp Profiles

[Link]
Resistivity changes in a formation may not show discrete steps. Transition zones between
hydrocarbons and water are an example of where the resistivity may change smoothly from one
value to another. The PeriScope responses in a ramp profile will indicate higher resistivity above
and lower resistivity below.
Increase Resistivity

Ramp
Resistivity
Profile
Periscope
Tool

Measurement Volume

In a resistivity ramp profile the PeriScope inversion will represent the smooth resistivity change with a
three layer approximation, as this is the only model for which it can solve.
[Link]