ECE249:

UNIT 2:
PN junction diode and its
applications

1
Basic Diode Concepts
* Energy Diagrams – Insulator, Semiconductor, and Conductor
the energy diagram for the three types of solids

2
Intrinsic Semiconductors
* Intrinsic (pure) Si Semiconductor:

When equilibrium between

excitation and recombination
is reached :
electrondensity  hole density
n i  p i  1.5  1010 cm-3
for intrinsic Si crystal at 300 K
( Note : Si crystal atom density
is ~ 5  1022 cm-3 )

3
Intrinsic Semiconductors
*Apply a voltage across
a piece of Si:
electron current
and hole current

4
N- and P- Type Semiconductors
* Doping: adding of impurities (i.e., dopants) to the intrinsic semi-conductor
material.
* N-type: adding Group V dopant (or donor) such as As, P, Sb,…

n  p  constant for a semiconductor

For Si at 300K

n  p  ni2  pi2  1.5  10 10 
2

In n - type material
n  N d the donor conceration
n  N d  ni , p  pi
We call
electronthe major charge carrier
hole the minor cahage carrier

5
N- and P- Type Semiconductors
* Doping: adding of impurities (i.e., dopants) to the intrinsic semi-
conductor material.
* P-type: adding Group III dopant (or acceptor) such as Al, B, Ga,…

n  p  constant for a semiconductor

For Si at 300K
2
i
2
i 
n  p  n  p  1.5  10 10 2

In p - type material
p  N a the acceptor conceration
p  N a  pi , n  ni
We call
hole the major charge carrier
electronthe minor cahage carrier
6
The PN-Junction
* The interface in-between p-type and n-type material is called a
pn-junction.
The barrier potential VB  0.6  0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge
at 300K : as T  ,VB  .

7
Biasing the PN-Junction
* There is no movement of charge
through a PN-junction at equilibrium.
* The PN-junction form a diode which
allows current in only one direction
and prevent the current in the other
direction as determined by the bias.

8
 Diodes – Basic Diode Concepts
Biasing the PN-Junction
*Forward Bias: dc voltage positive terminal connected to the p region and
negative to the n region. It is the condition that permits current through
the pn-junction of a diode.

9
Biasing the PN-Junction
*Forward Bias:

10
 Diodes – Basic Diode Concepts

*Reverse Bias: dc voltage negative terminal connected to the p region and positive
to the n region. Depletion region widens until its potential difference equals the
bias voltage, majority-carrier current ceases.

11
 2. Diodes – Basic Diode Concepts
*Reverse Bias:
majority-carrier current ceases.
* However, there is still a very
small current produced by
minority carriers.

12
 2. Diodes – Basic Diode Concepts
Biasing the PN-Junction
* Reverse Breakdown: As reverse voltage reach certain value, avalanche occurs
and generates large current.

Diode Characteristic I-V Curve

13
 Shockley Equation
* The Shockley equation is a theoretical result
under certain simplification:

  vD  
i D  I s exp   1
  n VT  
where I s  10 -14 A at 300K is the (reverse)saturation
current, n  1 to 2 is the emission coefficient,
kT
VT   0.026V at 300K is the thermal voltage
q
k is the Boltzman' s constant,q  1.60  10 -19 C
 v 
when v D  0.1V, i D  I s exp D 
 n VT 
This equationis not applicablewhen v D  0

14
Diode Testing

15
Ideal-Diode Model
* We may apply “Ideal-Diode Model” to simplify the analysis:
(1) in forward direction: short-circuit assumption, zero voltage drop;
(2) in reverse direction: open-circuit assumption.
* The ideal-diode model can be used when the forward voltage drop and reverse
currents are negligible.

16
2. Piecewise-Linear Diode Models
Modified Ideal-Diode Model

* This modified ideal-diode model is usually accurate enough in

most of the circuit analysis.

17
 Application
Rectifier Circuits
* Rectifiers convert ac power to dc power.
* Rectifiers form the basis for electronic power suppliers and battery charging
circuits.
Half-Wave
Rectifier

18
 Center-Tapped Full wave rectifiers
• A center-tapped transformer is used with two diodes that conduct on alternating half-
cycles.

F D1
+ – During the negative half-cycle, the
+ lower diode is forward-biased and the
I upper diode is reverse-biased.
Vin Vout
–
0 0 D1
+ + F
– +
RL
–
– –
– + Vin Vout
D2
+
0 0
During the positive half-cycle, the upper – +
diode is forward-biased and the lower RL
diode is reverse-biased. I –
+
+ –
D2
19
 Bridge Full-wave rectifiers
The Bridge Full-Wave rectifier uses four diodes connected across the entire secondary
as shown.
F

I
D3 D1
+ +
Vin
– –
+ Conduction path for the
D2 RL Vout 0 negative half-cycle.
D4 –
F

Conduction path for the I

D3 D1
positive half-cycle.
– –
Vin
+
+ +
D2 RL Vout 0
D4 –
20
MCQ

The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode is about …………………

(a) 0.3 V
(b) 3 V
(C) 7 V
(d) 0.7 V

21
MCQ

The leakage current in a crystal diode is due to …………….

(a) minority carriers
(b) majority carriers
(C)junction capacitance
(d) none of the above

22
TRANSISTOR -
 Introduction
• Beside diodes, the most popular semiconductor devices is transistors.
Eg: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• If cells are the building blocks of life, transistors are the building blocks
of the digital revolution.
Without transistors, technological wonders you use every
day -- cell phones, computers -- would be vastly different, if they existed at
all.

• Transistors are more complex and can be used in many ways Most
important feature: can amplify signals and switch

• Amplification can make weak signal strong (make sounds louder and
signal levels greater), in general, provide function called Gain
Transistor Structure
• BJT is bipolar because both holes (+) and electrons (-) will take part in the
current flow through the device
– N-type regions contains free electrons (negative carriers)
- P-type regions contains free holes (positive carriers)
• Types of BJT
– NPN transistor
– PNP transistor
• The transistor regions are:
– Emitter (E) – send the carriers into the base region and then on to the
collector
– Base (B) – acts as control region. It can allow none, some or many
carriers to flow
– Collector (C) – collects the carriers
 PNP and NPN transistor
structure
P N
N P

P N

Ic(mA) IC(mA)
IB(µA) IB(µA)

IE(mA) IE(mA)

Arrow shows the current flows

 NPN Schematic Symbol

Collector

C
Base BE

Emitter
Memory aid: NPN
means Not Pointing iN.
 PNP Schematic Symbol

Collector

C
Base BE

Emitter
Memory aid: NPN
means Pointing iN Properly.
 Transistor Construction
• A transistor has three doped regions.
• For both types, the base is a narrow region sandwiched between the
larger collector and emitter regions.

▪The emitter region is heavily

doped and its job is to emit
carriers into the base.

▪The base region is very thin

and lightly doped.
▪Most of the current carriers
injected into the base pass on
to the collector.

▪The collector region is

moderately doped and is the
largest of all three regions.
 NPN Transistor Structure

The collector is Moderately N C

doped.

The base is thin and

P B
is lightly doped.

N E
The emitter is heavily doped.
 Transistor configuration
Transistor configuration –is a connection of transistor to get
variety operation.
3 types of configuration:
–
Common Base
– Common Emitter
– Common Collector
 Common-Base Configuration
• Base terminal is a common point for input and output.
• Input – EB
• Output – CB
• Not applicable as an amplifier because the relation between input current
gain (IE) and output current gain (IC) is approximately 1
 Common-Emitter Configuration
• Emitter terminal is common for input and output circuit
• Input – BE
• Output – CE
• Mostly applied in practical amplifier circuits, since it provides good voltage,
current and power gain
 Common-Collector Configuration
▪ The input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output is taken
from the emitter terminal.
• Collector terminal is common to the input and output of the circuit
• Input – BC
• Output – EC
 Current Relationships

• • Relations between IC and IE :

• α = IC
• IE
• • Value of α usually 0.9998 to 0.9999, α ≈ 1
• • Relations between IC and IB :
• IC= βIB
• Value of β usually in range of 50 to 400
• The equation, IE =IC + IB can also written in β
• IC = βIB
• IE = βIB + IB=> IE = (β + 1)IB

• The current gain factor , α and β is:

α= β @ β= α .
β+1 α-1
Transistor operation
 NPN Transistor
Bias IC
Current flows
everywhere. N C

When both junctions P B

are biased.... IB
N E
Note that IB is smaller
IE
than IE or IC.
 IC = 99 mA
In a PNP transistor,
holes flow from
emitter to collector.
C

IB = 1 mA B
Notice the PNP
bias voltages.
E

IE = 100 mA
 MCQ

A transistor has …………………

[Link] pn junction
[Link] pn junctions
[Link] pn junctions
[Link] pn junctions
 MCQ

• The number of depletion layers in a transistor is

…………
(a) Four
(b) Three
(c) One
(d) two
 MCQ

• The element that has the biggest size in a transistor is ………………..

(a) Collector
(b) Base
(c) Emitter
(d) collector-base-junction
 MCQ
• In a npn transistor, ……………. are the minority
carriers
(a) free electrons
(b) Holes
(c) donor ions
(d) acceptor ions
 MCQ

• The emitter of a transistor is ………………… doped

(a) Lightly
(b) Heavily
(c) Moderately
(d) none of the above
 MCQ

• In a transistor ………………..
(a) IC = IE + IB
(b) IB = IC + IE
(c) IE = IC – IB
(d) IE = IC + IB
 MOSFET’s
(metal–oxide–semiconductor field-
effect transistor)
Current Controlled vs Voltage Controlled Devices
 FET ( Field Effect Transistor)
Few important advantages of FET over conventional Transistors
1. Unipolar device i. e. operation depends on only one type of
charge carriers (h or e)
2. Voltage controlled Device (gate voltage controls drain
current)
3. Very high input impedance (109-1012 )
4. Low Voltage Low Current Operation is possible (Low-power
consumption)
5. Less Noisy as Compared to BJT
6. Very small in size, occupies very small space in Ics
7. Low voltage low current operation is possible in MOSFETS
Types of Field Effect Transistors
(The Classification)

• JFET n-Channel JFET

FET
MOSFET (IGFET)
p-Channel JFET

Enhancement Depletion
MOSFET MOSFET

n-Channel p-Channel n-Channel p-Channel

EMOSFET EMOSFET DMOSFET DMOSFET
 MOSFETs
MOSFETs have characteristics similar to JFETs and additional characteristics
that make them very useful.

There are 2 types of MOSFET’s:

• Depletion mode MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
• Enhancement Mode MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
D-MOSFET Symbols E-MOSFET Symbols
 Depletion Mode MOSFET Construction

The Drain (D) and Source (S) leads connect to the to n-doped regions
These N-doped regions are connected via an n-channel
This n-channel is connected to the Gate (G) via a thin insulating layer of SiO2
The n-doped material lies on a p-doped substrate that may have an additional terminal
connection called SS
Basics Operation
 Basic Operation
A D-MOSFET may be biased to operate in two modes:
the Depletion mode or the Enhancement mode
 p-Channel Depletion Mode MOSFET

The p-channel Depletion mode MOSFET is similar to the n-channel except that the
voltage polarities and current directions are reversed
Enhancement Mode
MOSFET’s
 Enhancement Mode MOSFET Construction

The Drain (D) and Source (S) connect to the to n-doped regions
These n-doped regions are not connected via an n-channel without an external voltage
The Gate (G) connects to the p-doped substrate via a thin insulating layer of SiO2
The n-doped material lies on a p-doped substrate that may have an additional terminal
connection called SS
Basics opeartion
 Basic Operation
The Enhancement mode MOSFET only operates in the enhancement mode.

VGS is always positive

IDSS = 0 when VGS < VT
As VGS increases above VT, ID increases
If VGS is kept constant and VDS is increased, then ID saturates (IDSS)
The saturation level, VDSsat is reached.
 p-Channel Enhancement Mode MOSFETs
The p-channel Enhancement mode MOSFET is similar to the n-channel except that the
voltage polarities and current directions are reversed.
MCQ
A JFET has three terminals, namely …………

(A) cathode, anode, grid

(B) emitter, base, collector
(C) source, gate, drain
(D) none of the above
 MCQ
A MOSFET is a ………… driven device
(A) current
(B) voltage
(C) both current and voltage
(D) none of the above
MCQ
A MOSFET can be operated with ……………..

(A) negative gate voltage only

(B) positive gate voltage only
(C) positive as well as negative gate voltage
(C) none of the above
MCQ
The input control parameter of a MOSFET is ……………

(A) gate voltage

(B) source voltage
(c) drain voltage
(D) gate current
MCQ
The input impedance of a MOSFET is of the order of ………..
(A) 1 Ω
(B) a few hundred Ω
(C) kΩ
(D) several MΩ
 OP-AMP
(Operational Amplifier)
MCQ
• In which of the following application op-amp is/are used?

(a) Integrator and Differentiator

(b) Voltage to Current Converter
(c) Adder or Summing Amplifier
(d) All of the above
 Introduction

• OP-AMP is basically a multistage amplifier which uses a number of

amplifier stages interconnected to each other.

• OP-AMP amplifies the difference between two signal and diminish

common signal.

• The integrated op amp offers all the advantage of monolithic

integrated circuit such as small size, high reliability, reduced cost,
less power consumption.
MCQ

• Op-Amp is abbreviated as ________.

(a) Operational Amplifier
(b) Operand amplitude
(c) Operational amplitude
(d) None of the above
MCQ

• The Op-amp can amplify

• (a) a.c. signals only
• (b) d.c. signals only
• (c)both a.c. and d.c. signals
• (d) neither d.c. nor a.c. signals
 Symbol and terminals

• An OP-AMP has a two input terminal, one output terminal and two
supply voltage terminals.
• The input terminal marked with negative(-) sign is called as an inverting
terminal .

If we connect the input signal to this terminal then the amplified

output signal is 180º out of phase with respect to input.
• The input terminal marked with positive (+) sign is
called as Non-Inverting terminal.
If the input is applied to this pin then the
amplified output is in phase with the input.

• Offset null is used to nullify the offset voltage and pin no

8 is dummy pin.
MCQ

• Op-Amp has _______ gain.

(a) Low
(b) High
(c) Zero
(d) Infinity
Inverting Amplifier Non- Inverting Amplifier
 Characteristics of an OP-AMP
• Characteristics are important because, we can use them to compare the
performance of various op amp ICs and select the best suitable from them for the
required application.
 MCQ

• Which one of the following characteristics is true for ideal op-amp?

(a) Ri=0
(b) Ro= ∞
(c) B.W.= 0
(d) CMRR= ∞
 MCQ

• Which one of the following characteristics is not true for ideal op-amp?
(a) Ri= ∞
(b) Ro= 0
(c) B.W.= 0
(d) Gain= ∞
 MCQ

• Which one of the following combination for op-amp characteristics is true

?

(a) Ri= ∞, Voltage gain= 0

(b) Ro= 0, CMRR= ∞
(c) B.W.= 0, Voltage Gain= 0
(d) Gain= ∞, Slew Rate = 0
 Concept of virtual short

• The input impedance of an OP-AMP is ideally

infinite. Hence current flowing from one input
terminal to the other will be zero.
• Thus the voltage drop across Ri will be zero and both the terminals
will be at the same potential.

• Means they are virtually shorted to each other

 Virtual Ground
If one of the terminal of OP-AMP is connected to ground then due to
the virtual short existing between the other input terminal, the other
terminal is said to be at ground potential.
Any Queries