CHAPTER ONE

EDUCATION

Learning objectives
At the end of Chapter One, learners should perform the following:
1. Define education.
2. Write the importance of education to human beings
3. Describe the processes of education
4. Relate teaching with learning
5. Discuss the principles of learning
6. Explain the factors responsible for inability to learn.

Meaning of Education
Education is the process that prepares an individual from
birth through his life span for useful and happy membership of
the society he belongs to. Man could have been equated to mere
animal if not for his education. Education makes the difference
between animalistic and human behaviours. This is because
education enables him to engage in literacy (reading and writing)
as well as numeracy (counting and calculation). Through
education, he is empowered to perform his civic responsibilities.
For example, he is social, lives peacefully with others, respects
the law and other people’s rights/opinions and recognises dignity
of labour. He is dynamic, innovative, responsible and
accommodating. He is not rigid, conservative or static. An

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individual develops abilities, values and skills in the society he
lives through education.

Furthermore, education provides an individual the total

development he needs to become an asset and not a liability to
the society he belongs to. The total development includes his
physical, social, emotional and spiritual developments. Education
begins from birth and continues throughout one’s life time. It is
not correct to associate education with schooling alone. This is
because learning also takes place outside the school system
(informal education). Schools and colleges are not the only places
where knowledge, experiences, skills, abilities and attitudes could
be possessed and used in life.

As a matter of fact, people that go to school and constitute

problems to the society by engaging in vices should not be
regarded as educated because they are not assets but liabilities
to the society they belong to. Education is trans-generational
because it is handed over from one generation to another
generation with modifications and corrections. Education can also
be viewed as a discipline or profession like any other profession.
For example, people in teaching have education as their
profession.

In addition, education is the bedrock of any national

development either in the developed, developing or under-
developed nation. It is the instrument for individual, societal,
national and international growth and development which
prepares the individual for total development from birth through
a life time for useful and happy membership of the society. It

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makes an individual to become an asset to the society. Gbamanja
(2012) and Onocha (2013) observed that education provides
skills and knowledge that all human societies need for their
development, growth and preservation.
With education, a man is able to realize the true life value.
Ololube (2007) described education as an essential service that
must be monitored, scrutinized and constantly evaluated. This is
because education increases a man’s intelligence, power and
efficiency. Through education, a man develops a well-balanced
personality. As education develops individual, the nation also
develops. Patel and Mohasina (2011) argued that education is the
most important invention of mankind. Man invents tools,
machines, crafts, medicine and language through education.
Without education, man would have been living just like an
animal.

Processes of Education
There are four major processes of education. They are
teaching, instruction, training and learning. Each of them will be
discussed below.

Teaching

Meaning of teaching
Teaching is transmission of skill and knowledge. Teaching
facilitates learning but learning can take place without teaching.
Teaching sets up the necessary conditions for learning to take
place. Teaching does not end at sending out the message to the

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 learners. It ensures proper response or feedback from the
learners to the teachers. Teaching is broader than instruction.
Teaching is more than what happens in the classroom. Offorma
(1994) views teaching as having four criteria. They are:

1. Teaching is a systematic activity.

2. Teaching involves some body making it possible for somebody
else to learn something.
3. Teaching is objective based.
4. Teaching involves the continuous assessment of pupils’ progress.

Teaching is the major work of a teacher. Ololube

(2007) affirmed that teaching is multidimensional. It is a complex
and diverse activity. In performing the role of teaching, a teacher
is demanded to teach effectively. An effective teaching is an
intelligent knowledge based activity because it draws on a
multiplicity of cognitive, affective and interpersonal elements.
Teaching is a complex set of activities which take place
between the learner and the teacher for effective learning. Gupta
(2011) submitted that, teaching is more than mere imparting
knowledge, giving advice, passing information or sharing
personal experiences with students. When the teacher imparts
knowledge/skills/values, gives advice or pass information, there
needs to be monitoring on how the knowledge/skills/values,
advice and information are received, absorbed and utilised by the
learners. While teaching, there is need for establishment of
harmonious relationship between the learners, teacher and the
subject matter. There should be clearly stated objectives and
learners should be intellectually ready to learn.

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 Teaching involves helping or assisting others to learn. It
involves the process of giving out information and monitoring
how the information is received or absorbed. It is an interaction
between a teacher and the learner. It involves activities in which
the pupils participate fully. Teaching should move systematically
from simple to complex, known to unknown, easy to difficult task,
concrete to abstract and general to specific. Teaching is
transmission of skill and knowledge. Teaching facilitates learning
but learning can take place without teaching. Teaching sets up
the necessary conditions for learning to take place. Teaching
does not end at sending out the message to the learners. It
ensures proper response or feedback from the learners to the
teachers. Teaching is broader than instruction. Teaching is more
than what happens in the classroom.

Teacher’s effectiveness is not due to sex, age or

experience. A teacher can be effective irrespective of his age, sex
or experience. Gupta (2011) enumerates some defects in
teaching which may result to teacher’s ineffectiveness. They are:
lack of proper planning, more teachers’ talk, teaching only at the
memory level, more information with less explanation and low
level of encouragement.

Principles of teaching

When one talks about characteristics of teaching, he refers to

attributes of teaching that throw light to full understanding of
teaching. Some of the characteristics are:

1. Principle of professionalism

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 Teaching as a profession demands experts to teach a
subject due to its complexity. Teaching is an activity that should
be carried out only by trained professionals. Teaching like all
other professions requires those who had already taken training
in the field as in all other professions like medicine, engineering,
nursing etc. during training, pre-service teachers acquire skills
and knowledge through teacher education courses.

2. Principle of a role model

The teacher’s personality should be worthy of emulation in
actions, emotion, dressing and talking. This is because the
learners imitate his personality. His actions should reflect the
punctuality, sincerity, modesty, honesty, truthfulness and
regularity. In doing this, the teacher would help the learners to
reach the ideal life goals.

3. Principle of affection
The teacher should be concerned about dealing with
learners in a way that would make them imbibe sympathy and
kindness. During teaching, the teacher should emphasise on
learners’ feelings and emotion to one another, parents, siblings,
friends another people in the society. The teacher should show
interest to the needs and requests of learners. As a role model,
he should desist from scolding, nagging and rebuking. The
learners’ feelings should be respected and kindness should be
shown to learners that exhibit isolation and rejection. Learners
should be corrected in love and not in hatred.

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4. Principle of entertainment
The teacher should divert learners’ attention between 5-10
minutes of his teaching to entertainment so as to gain their
attention. Recreation removes fatigue, boredom, inattentiveness
and dullness in the class. Teaching brings out negative results
when the teacher talks like a machine continuously without
recreation that can make learners laugh.

5. Principle of planning
Teaching is a well-planned, organized and prepared
activity. Teaching as a profession demands experts to teach a
subject due to its complexity. The experts consider the aims and
objectives of a subject, teaching methods, materials and skills
suitable to the content and environmental factors at the planning
stage for effectiveness. The lesson plan that is adequately written
with correct statement of objectives makes teaching goes on
smoothly and systematically.

6. Principle of individual uniqueness and differences

Learners are not the same personally, socially and
intellectually. When the teacher exposes them to the same
experience, it is not possible for all of them to have the same
experience. This is because they have different individual
interest, aptitudes, aspirations, intelligence, aims and
achievement. This is detected when they are assessed during
and after the lesson. Some show progress while others remain
backward. Those that have progress are able to perform the
activities they are expected to perform after exposing them to

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 learning experience while those that are slow learners may not.
This explains why it is necessary to use more than one teaching
method for a group of learners.
The teacher should always remember that the group is
made up of different individuals and should try to satisfy every
learner by varying his teaching methods. Every member of the
group should be given freedom to manipulate and experiment
the learning situation according to his nature, needs, interest and
pace. There should be no restrictions on the learners and they
should be given equal opportunities to progress.

7. Principle of interaction
The teacher and his pupils interact to make both parties
active. The interaction between them brings about attainment
and achievement of specific objectives. This results to academic
growth, excellent performance, economic prudence and physical
improvement of the learners. These go a long way in helping the
learners to exist or resist well in the life conditions of his
environment.

8. Principle of creativity
Teaching is an art and science. Teaching as an art calls for
creativity and talent exercise. On the other hand, teaching is a
science because it involves demonstrations of some skills,
techniques and procedures. To be a successful teacher, one
needs the fusion of creativity and inspiration. As an art and a
science, the teacher continues to learn. The teacher should
discourage rote learning by cramming. The students that engage

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 in cramming may satisfy their teachers and get positive
reinforcement in form of grades, medals, praise, awards etc but
they forget easily whatever they learn by cramming and cannot
apply such learning to real life situation. This explains why they
get hooked in taking life decisions.

9. Principle of democracy
The teacher creates a safe and conducive learning
environment for all the learners. In such environment, the
teacher respects individual differences and uniqueness. In
addition, all learners are given equal rights and status and they
are subjected to the same rules and regulations. There is no
discrimination on the basis of religion, colour, grade, tribe and
socio economic background. In summary, there should be no
preferential treatment.

10. Principle of correlation

The teacher should link his teaching with actual life
experience. That can benefit the learners. This means that
teaching is more than provision of information about the topic.
The topic should be directly or indirectly related to their actual
life situations. Whatever the learners gain from teaching should
help them to solve their real life problems. In addition, they
should be able to apply the knowledge gained in a subject to
another subject or in a field to another field.

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11. Principle of sensory training
The senses of sight, auditory, feelings, smell and taste play
a very important in teaching-learning process. The teacher should
provide proper sensory training to learners so as to train them on
how to observe, identify, discriminate, describe and generalise
whatever they see, hear, touch, smell and taste. This can be
provided to the learners with first hand experiences. The use of
senses has the ability of bringing about good results since the
senses are the gateways to knowledge.

12. Principle of communication

To be an effective teacher, one has to a good
communicator. He needs to be audible, clear and fluent.
Communication is crucial to effective teaching process. The
language of instruction should be the language that the learners
understand for interpretation and decoding. The language should
be simple and unambiguous.

13. Principle of formal and informal education

Teaching may occur formally and informally. Formal
teaching takes place in organized system with specific objectives.
Formal teaching is deliberate, definite, planned and systematic.
Informal teaching may occur anywhere because it is indelibrate,
incidental, unplanned, indefinite, unplanned and unsystematic.

14. Principle of child-centeredness

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 Child centred teaching is the best because it allows both
the teacher and the learners to be active. Teaching is not one
sided where only the teacher is active and the learners are silent
spectators. Teaching is not supposed to be an autocratic system
where the teacher as the leader is active while the learners are
passive because he has the monopoly of knowledge and skills.
Learners should have right to criticize and correct teachers
constructively if he disseminate wrong information. Doing this
would ginger the teacher to update his knowledge through
seminars, conferences workshops and internet as he would not
want his self-esteem to be eroded. Doing this too will give the
learners opportunity to exhibit their interests, capabilities and
competence.

15. Principle of dependence

Man as a social animal cannot survive in vacuum. A man
needs to establish relationships with other members of his
society in order to fulfil his needs for survival. Teaching too is a
social process which takes place in a social setting. The teacher
learns from his pupils and vice versa. The teacher prepares the
learners to become cultured, intelligent, morally upright, socially
acceptable and physically fit to become assets to the whole
humanity. The teacher enriches himself and becomes far better
in this process of all round social beings development.

16. Principle of evaluation

Teaching can be observed, analysed, interpreted and
assessed. The assessment provides essential feedback for

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 success or failure and desirable improvement in the teaching
process. The improvement can be seen in the teacher, learners
and teaching-learning process. The success can be built on while
the failure can be modified by changing methods, approaches
and materials of teaching.

Maxims (rules) of teaching

Maxims are well known rules for sensible behaviours. In

other to make teaching-learning process easy, there are rules
and regulations the teacher should follow to make him to proceed
systematically. Following the tenets {truths) make teaching
interesting, easy and effective. The rules and regulations of
teaching behaviours are universally significant. It is expected of
every professional teacher to keep in view and familiarize himself
with the teaching maxims. The maxims of teaching are as
follows:

1. Teaching should be done from known to unknown

At the entrance into school of a child, he possesses some
knowledge. The knowledge is referred to as previous knowledge
or entry behaviour. Whatever knowledge a child has should be
linked with the new knowledge so as to make teaching more
effective, fruitful, definite and clearer.

2. Teaching should commence from simple to complex

Simple tasks are easy tasks that should be presented first to
the learners and gradually proceed towards difficult tasks.
Learners are motivated, encouraged and interested to get

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 comfortable, convenience and confidence by learning the simple
materials first before the complex one. Learners become bored,
upset and discouraged when complex tasks are presented first
because the tendency is for them to start with failure.

3. Teaching should commence from concrete to abstract

Concrete materials are solid things that can be viewed or
visualised while abstract materials are imaginative things.
Learners understand easily and retain better when they are
taught through their senses. On the reverse situation, when
learners are taught with abstract materials or ideas, they forget
easily.

4. Teaching should commence from analysis to synthesis

Analysis means when a task is divided into easy parts or
separate elements while synthesis means when a task is
presented as a whole. For proper understanding and performance
of a task, presentation in analysis form is better than synthesis.

5. Teaching should commence from specific to general

Specific task refers t particular task while general task
refers to something that is not specific. General ideas, tasks,
principles and facts are more difficult to understand than specific
ones. From specific task, the learners can be led to general task.

6. Teaching should commence from empirical to rational

Empirical knowledge is based on scientific findings,
observation and first-hand information while rational knowledge

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 is based on explanations, discussions, debates and arguments.
Empirical knowledge is more concrete, more particular, easier
and simpler than rational knowledge. Therefore, for teaching to
be effective, it has to start from empirical to rational.

7. Teaching should commence from induction to deduction

Induction is the process of deriving general rules, laws,
formulae and principles from particular examples while deduction
refers to the process of deriving a certain particular conclusion
from general laws, principles, rules and formulae. Induction
allows the teacher to present particular examples with their
similarities, differences and attributes. Conclusions are therefore
taken from examples. Therefore, teaching-learning process
should start from induction and finishes at deduction.

8. Teaching should commence from psychological to logical

Emphasis is laid on child’s psychology in modern education
especially developmental psychology. Learners’ interests,
abilities, aptitudes, growth, developmental level and maturational
level are taken into consideration using psychological approach.
In logical approach, learners’ characteristics are not considered.
The approach considers the arrangement of the chosen content
into logical order and steps.

9. Teaching should commence from definite to indefinite

Definite task has limited boundaries and jurisdiction than
indefinite task. Children learn better using definite approach

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because they have confidence. Children can learn indefinite task
gradually after having adequate knowledge of definite task.
[Link] should commence from actual to
representative

Actual approach deals with first-hand information and

experience. Learning through actual presentation makes learning
more effective, efficient, real and vivid than representative ones.
Actual approach presents a task through natural or real objects
while representative approach is the improvised representation
using pictures, models, drawings and sketches. Children retain
and recall better using actual approach than when representative
is used. Therefore, representative approach should be used when
real objects are too big, too small, unavailable or dangerous for
classroom situation.

Instruction

Both teaching and instruction aim at facilitating learning but

instruction is a sub-set of education as instructional technology is
a sub-set of educational technology. Instruction could be
described as the deliberate arrangement of the learners’
environment in order to produce specific known outcome in
specified situations. Instruction is an aspect of teaching. A learner
cannot teach himself but he can instruct himself. He interacts
with the learning activities and learning takes place through this
contact and interaction. Learning takes place through the
learner’s experiences and reactions to environmental conditions.
When he goes through those experiences and reacts to the
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environment, he instructs himself and learning takes place. So,
learning can take place without teaching but cannot take place
without instruction.

Instruction is the deliberate arrangement of events or

experiences to help learners achieve a desirable change in
performance. It is a set of events that are arranged in a way that
learning is facilitated. Instruction is more systematic, specific and
objective than mere teaching. For learners to achieve the
desirable learning outcomes there should be careful planning,
design, implementation, evaluation and modification of events.
Instruction must be properly planned and designed in a
systematic way to give room for effectiveness of instruction.

Training
Training is another process of education. Training is a form
of teaching but it is more specific, focused and directional than
teaching. Training focuses on professionalism. For example in
Nigeria, nurses are trained in Schools of Nursing and Midwifery to
acquire nursing skills. Teachers are trained in Colleges of
Education, Institutes of Education and Faculties of Education to
acquire teaching skills while lawyers are trained in Law Schools to
practice law. The training given to nursing students cannot be
used to practice law, the skills acquired by teachers cannot be
used to practice nursing while those acquired by lawyers and
nurses cannot be used to practice teaching.
Furthermore, training entails observation, imitation and
practice. The trainees observe their supervisors and trainers,

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imitate the practical in their fields and experiment with what they
have observed in practice. During training, learners or trainees
are exposed to some theoretical and practical courses they need
to become professionals in their fields and chosen careers. It is
how good they are in the practical that make them to become
efficient when they get to the [Link] addition, there are some
professions in Nigeria that train their trainees outside the formal
school system or classroom system. The trainers have their rules,
regulations and principles guiding their professions. For
instances, there are professions that affect people’s lives such as
tailoring, carpentry, vulcanizing, brick building, mechanics etc.
Such careers contribute to the development of individual and the
society at large.

Learning
Learning is a process of education. Jekayinfa (2012) and
Imogie (2013) described learning as a permanent or relatively
permanent change in human behaviour that arises out of
experience and not attributed to inherited behavior pattern or
physical growth. The result of change in behaviour empowers
people to face later situations differently. Through the process of
learning, a society’s values, habits, skills, knowledge, craft,
language and trade are transmitted from one generation to
another.
Learning can be defined as acquisition of new ideas, skills,
values, knowledge and experience which enables an individual to
modify or change or alter his/her actions. Learning never ends. It
starts from birth till death. Anyone who stops learning has

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reached the life terminus and ready for mortuary whether young
or old. The child is the learner. He is sometimes referred to as
pupil or as student. He should be ready to learn and must have
reached maturity level before learning can take place. The
teacher needs to have knowledge of different types of pupils in
his class for successful teaching-learning process. Learning
happens where there is interaction between the teacher, learners
and content at a conducive environment.

Learning is a conscious change of individual behavior as a

result of experience e.g. formal schooling, apprenticeship and
learning of norms from parents. Learning is personal and
idiosyncratic (when each person gives something or individual
interpretation and not a forced meaning). Learning depends on
individual interpretation but one learns a skill or knowledge when
he acquires it. Thinking, feeling and acting are all parts of
learning. Learning takes time because one needs to go over
something several times.
Before learning takes place, people learn by repeating
several times. It takes time because it involves interaction
between the teacher and learner. It involves ability of the learner
to utilize the newly acquired knowledge or experience
appropriately. For any change in behaviour to be regarded as
learning, it must be a permanent change. Learning arises from
experience. Learning is a private event that cannot be directly
observed by another person. It occurs within a person.
The result of learning is the capability to perform a certain
behaviour or task in a given situation. Learning is obvious as a
result of performance or new ways of doing things which result to

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change of behaviour in thinking, psychological activities,
perception and emotional reactions. It is the performance of the
task or behaviour that is a public observable event. The only way
the public can know whether the learning has taken place is
indicated by the learner’s task or behaviour performance. Today,
students have more learning opportunities than past generation
as a result of availability of textbooks, television in the home,
radio (in the car, pocket or room), computer and the use of
internet.
Principles of Learning
There are principles that guide learning. These are discussed
below.
1. Principle of Readiness
Learning takes place when the learner is ready to learn. His
willingness to learn depends on the combination of his
maturity, ability, perception, aptitude, motivation and
experience. This explains why it is necessary for teachers to
guide pupils on essence of learning. If they are guided
genuinely, they will be eager to learn so as to succeed.

2. Principle of attendance
Before a child can acquire knowledge or learn a skill, he has
to be in attendance in the venue of teaching-learning
process where he will receive instruction. If the instruction
is not classroom based, he needs the materials he will
interact with before learning can take place. If the
instruction is classroom based, he needs to be there
personally. He needs to be regular and punctual. Regularity

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 refers to the number of times he is to meet with the teacher
for learning to take place. Punctuality refers to the
scheduled time and duration he needs to be there for
practice before learning can take place. He needs to take
part in all assessments to ascertain whether he has learnt
or not. In classroom based instruction, the teacher will not
attend to individual learner at his or her house. Therefore,
attendance is mandatory at the agreed place and time.
3. Principle of practice
Learning of skill is facilitated by demonstration, explanation
and meaningful practice. Without adequate practice of
skills, it may be difficult for learning to take place. Pupils
need to practice what they attempt to learn before they can
ascertain that they have actually learned a skill.

4. Principle of Peers’ influence

Children learn easily from their peers than from adults. This
explains why cooperative/collaborative learning gains more
popularity today. Children learn better when they watch
their mates and friends performing a task. This explains
while they should be monitored so as not to be under evil
influence of peers who can easily lead them astray.

5. Principle of Reinforcement
Success and rewards stimulate more learning in children
while failure is a discourager. Children’s success presently
determines their learning in the subsequent task. This
explains why it is not advisable for teachers to start his

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 lesson with difficult questions on a new topic he has not
exposed the pupils to. When they start the topic with
failure, they are already discouraged on the new topic and
this makes them to lose focus.

6. Principle of Result orientation

Pupils learn better if what they have learned is geared
towards achieving their goals. When they are successful,
they are always satisfied with what they have been able to
achieve. This encourages them to be eager to learn more.
An example of result orientation is pupils’ promotion to the
next class or level.

7. Principle of Use of acquired skill

Constant repetition of performance of acquired skill makes
pupils to to learn better. If what they learned is put to
practice, they improve as they practice constantly. Jack of
constant use of acquired skill can result to forgetfulness of a
learned skill.

8. Principle of Conducive environment

For learning to take place, the teacher must provide a
conducive environment for the learners. Pleasant experiences
change attitude better than unpleasant experiences.
Therefore, teachers are encouraged to be friendly,
accommodating and cordial with the pupils. Nagging, rating,
racking, using abusive words and cursing should be avoided in

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the classroom by the teacher. The teacher needs to control his
emotion in what-ever situation he finds himself.

9. Principle of Evaluation
There should be a way of assessing the learners to determine
whether learning has taken place or not. Both the teacher and
the learners should be able to ascertain whether learning has
really taken place.

10. Principle of individual differences and

uniqueness
Individual learns at his or her own pace, form and rate. Each
learner determines what he wants to learn and how he wants
to learn it. The teacher exposes them to the same experience
but they don’t gain the same experience at the same rate,
pace and time because they are different and unique
individually. This is why it is advisable for teachers to be
patient with the slow learners. The rate of the fast learners
should not be used to determine that of slow learners in
performing activities for learning to take place.

Factors responsible for inability to learn

Four factors are responsible for learners’ inability to learn.
The factors are; the teacher, the curriculum and the learners.
Both the teacher and the learner interact using the curriculum

1. The teacher: The teacher is the implementer of the

curriculum. He is to make sure that the aims and objectives

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 are achieved. In performing his roles, he can be a hindrance
to achieving the goals. Ways by which a teacher can serve
as hindrance include poor teaching methods/skills, lack of
knowledge of the subject matter, teacher’s personality,
teacher’s emotional instability/imbalance, lack of
instructional materials, teacher’s poor communication skills,
inadequate planning and preparation as well as
presentation of
uninteresting lesson.

2. The curriculum: The curriculum determines the content

to expose the learners to. Too hard or to easy course work
may serve as hindrance to learning. The curriculum that has
no bearing on the interest, needs and lives of the learners
may hinder children from learning. What is to be learned
must prepare the learners for today and future lives.

3. The learners: Many things contend with the learners’

ability to learn especially at this era of technology. Learners
themselves constitute problems on their learning. The
factors include poor health, fatigue, inattentiveness, day
dreaming, poor studying habit, inattentiveness, physical
and mental limitations as well as emotional difficulties.
Others are distractions by peers, use of phones during
lesson, catnapping, eating, smashing of chewing gum, using
ear piece during lesson and browsing on Facebook,
TwiterWhatsapInstagrametc during lesson.

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 CHAPTER TWO

EDUCATIONAL AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Learning objectives

At the end of Chapter two, learners should perform the following:

1. Define aims, goals and objectives

2. Differentiate the three concepts
3. Classify educational objectives

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 4. Compare and contrast the use of cognitive, psychomotor
and affective domains in Nigeria educational system
5. Describe factors for stating learning objectives
6. Explains skills needed by the teacher for stating learning
objectives
7. Write functions of learning objectives

Introduction (meanings of aims, goals and objectives)

When someone starts a journey, there must be a reason

and a destination of his journey. Every human activity or
behaviour is geared towards achieving a purpose or attaining a
target. Such a target can be stated as an aim, a goal, an intention
or an expected outcome. The name given to such target depends
on how long it will take to reach the destination and the level of
its specification and concreteness. Aims, goals and objectives
form a stage out of the five stages of Curriculum Development;
aims, goals and objectives, selection of learning experiences,
selection of content, organization and integration of content and
learning experience as well as evaluation.

In the same vein, there are differences between

educational aims, goals and educational objectives. The three
concepts are used frequently by teachers and educators.
However, they are used interchangeably. This has always brought
confusion to students as the usage of the concepts has made it
difficult for students to bring out differences in their meanings.

Similarities among aims, goals and objectives

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 a. The three concepts are derived from an educational
situation.
b. The three concepts (aims, goals and objectives) refer to
expected teaching outcomes but at different levels and in
various degrees.
c. The three concepts are meant to redress specific needs of
the society.
d. The three concepts are not static; they change as society
changes.

Levels of aims, goals and objectives

Though aims, goals and objectives refer to educational intentions

and outcome there are differences between the three concepts.
Aim (highest level) comes first, followed by goal (medium level)
while objective (lowest level) is the smallest in nature.

a. Educational Aims

Educational aims are educational statements that are more

abstract, vague and ambiguous than goals. Aims talk in broad
terms such as transmission of culture, provision of life-long skill,
creation of self-awareness, preparation of intellectual and
emotional development, equipping an individual for life coping
skills etc. Educational aims give the big picture which must be
translated to goals that are more [Link] Aims
operate at the highest level. They have wider scope than
educational goals. Aims are ultimate (greatest and takes long

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 process) and philosophical. Aims are broader and wider than
goals.

Educational aims reflect the philosophies of education. For

example, the Federal Republic of Nigeria’s National Policy of
Education (FGN, 2009) specified the following:

a. A free and democratic society

b. A just and egalitarian society
c. A united, strong and self-reliant nation
d. A great and dynamic economy
e. A land bright and full of opportunities for all citizens.

Educational aims come from the views and opinions of the

people in the society about the skills needed by the learners. The
aims of education are given at the levels of national policy,
curriculum planning and development, syllabus and courses but
objectives are stated at the levels of a lesson, a unit or a module.
Just like educational aims, educational goals also give directions
which are very difficult to measure. Both aims and goals are
distant as targets. They are general and abstract. They are vague
and of long term duration.

General aims of teaching are:

1. To impact knowledge on the learner.

2. To transmit societal values to the pupils.
3. The government’s aim is to educate her citizens.
4. Teaching is done to bring about learning that is a desirable
change in behavior on the lives of the learners/students.

27
 b. Educational Goals

Educational goals are less general than aims. Goals are in

between aims and objectives. Goals are more directional,
orientation based and more specific than aims. Goals are taken
from aims and they are more specific and precise than aims.
Goals indicate what an institution is set to achieve. Goals are
taken from the needs of the people in the society. For example,
there is need for more production of teachers in the country so as
to solve the problem of over population in the class. Goals may
include the entire programme and subject area.

Educational Goals are at the middle or medium level. They

have wider scopes than educational objectives. Goals are
mediate and theoretical (based on principles and ideas). Goals
are broader and wider than objectives but narrower than aims.
Just like aims, goals are vague and one cannot definitely
determine its accomplishment. Goals cannot be quantified or
given a timeline to make them more effective.

c. Educational objectives

Educational Objectivesare at the lowest ebb. They refer to

outcome at the lowest point. Objectives are proximate (nearest in
time) and practical. Objectives are small and narrow. Attainment
of objectives can easily be [Link] objectives also
give directions like aims and objectives but they are specific and

28
of short term duration. Educational objectives are stated in
measurable, observable, achievable and behavioural terms.

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Esu, Enukoha and Umoren (2016) explained the major

taxonomies or classifications of educational objective which
werethat of Bloom (1956), Krathwohl (1964) and Sampson
(1966). Bloom’ majored on description of the categories in the
cognitive domain,Krathwohl majored on description of the major
categories in the affective domain while Sampson categorized the
psychomotor domain.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objective was created by

a committee under the leadership of Educational Psychologist
named Dr Benjamin Bloom in 1956. The taxonomy was created in
order to promote higher forms of thinking in education. The
taxonomy goes beyond just remembering facts (rote learning). It
involves analyzes and evaluations of concepts, process,
procedures and principles of designing educational training and
learning process.

1. Cognitive domain (Teaching to develop cognitive

power)
Cognition means intelligence. The cognitive domain
involves the development of intellectual skill such as recall of
specific fact, procedural pattern and concepts that serve in the
development of the intellectual abilities and skills. The teacher
gives the students factual information, knowledge and concepts

29
 about a specific topic. Cognitive domain is arranged in
hierarchically from simplest to the complex. It involves
knowledge or information, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.

a. Knowledge: Knowledge refers to memorizing and recalling facts.

Knowledge involves recalling of specific factual information and
remembering of previously learned materials from facts,
technology, procedure, basic concepts and principles. The skills
and verbs for development of knowledge include: arrange, define,
describe, identify, label, list, match, name, outline, recall,
recognize, reproduce, select and state.

b. Comprehension: The next level to knowledge is comprehension.

Comprehension is the ability to explain and interpret information
in one’s word. It goes beyond mere recall of facts. It is the ability
to grasp the contents of the material. It involves translation of the
materials from one form to another words or numbers, explaining
or summarizing, estimating or predicting future trends or effects,
describing what pupils should interpret (is it verbal material,
chart, graph or mathematical formulation) and justification
(comment, infer, rewrite, defend, explain, distinguish, extend and
paraphrase). The skills and verbs needed for developing
comprehension are: comprehend, convert, defend, distinguish,
estimate, explain, extend, generalize, give examples, infer,
interpret, paraphrase, predict, summarize, rewrite and translate.

30
c. Application:Application refers to the learners’ ability to use
learned materials in new and concrete situations. It involves
solving new problems applying the new knowledge in a given
situation. It involves the application of rules, methods, laws and
theories and practical situations. It involves application of what is
learnt in the classroom into novel situations in the work place. It
involves the ability to implement a material in a new and
concrete situation. Examples of the skills and verbs needed are:
change, discover, apply, predict, modify, relate, prepare,
manipulate, show, demonstrate, compute, operate, produce and
solve or use.
d. Analysis:This level is higher than ability to apply. Analysis
involves breaking into parts and identifying relationship. It
involves breaking down into components/parts in order to
understand the organization or structure of given material. The
skills and verbs include ability to analyze, separate, compare,
contrast, relate, breakdown, discriminate, infer, subdivide,
illustrate, outline, select and differentiate.

e. Synthesis:Synthesis is the ability to combine separate parts to

form a new whole in order to create a new meaning or
[Link] involves combining elements into a whole bringing
together its elements to form a new whole. Synthesis involves
building a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Students
are therefore exposed to tasks like categories, compose, explain,
organize, combine, create, generate, plan, relate, compile,
design, modify, rearrange, reconstruct, tell, write, reorganize,
revise, and summarize.

31
f. Evaluation:Evaluation is the most complex aspect of cognitive
domain. It refers to judging quality or worth. It involves assessing
and finding the outcome of input. It is the highest intellectual
level. It is concerned with assessment. It is the ability to judge
the value of a given material, event, object or person. Students
perform the following activities: appraise, compare, contrast,
discriminate, interpret, support, compare, criticize, critique,
defend, relate, interpret, conclude, describe and justify.

2. Psychomotor domain (Teaching to develop

psychomotor powers):

Psychomotor domain addresses skills development relating to

manual tasks and physical movement. It also covers modern day
business and social skills such as communication and operation
of Information Technology equipment like computer, telephone
etc. Psychomotor domain includes physical movement
coordination and use of the motor skills. Psychomotor signifies
motor skills which require constant practice and active
participation of the learners. It has gone beyond the original
traditionally imagined manual and physical skill.

Today, psychomotor is measured in terms of speed, precision,

distance, procedures or techniques execution. It involves body
movement and manual tasks such as the use of hands for writing,
hands for digging a ditch, hands for computing and browsing as
well as hands for washing a car. Legs and hands are used
sometimes such as in dancing, driving and operating of

32
machinery. Other examples are running, reading, typing,
painting, building, composition, piano playing, drawing and
solving mathematical [Link] domain is
categorized into seven segments. They are: perception, Set,
guided response, mechanism, complex overt response,
adaptation and origination. Each of them is developed below.

a. Perception: perception is the ability to use sensory cues to

guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation
through cue selection to translation. It is the ability to
decode non-verbal communication cues. For example, a
football player on the field is able to detect where a the ball
will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct
location to catch the ball. The skills and verbs needed for
perception are: choose, describe, detect, differentiate,
distinguish, identify, isolate, relate and select.

b. Set: Setrefers to ability to get ready for an [Link]

includes three sets which serve as disposition that
predetermine a person’s response to different situations
called mindset. The three sets are mental, physical and
emotional sets. It involves knowing something and acting
upon a sequence of steps to actualize it. A learner
recognizes his weaknesses and strength which motivates
him to learn a new thing. This sub-division is closely related
to responding to phenomena in affective domain. The skills
needed for developing set are: begin, display, explain,
proceed, react, show and state.

33
c. Guided Response:Guided Response is the early stage of
learning a complex skill which has to do with imitation and
trial and error. Practicing gives room for adequate
performance. For example, a learner is able to perform a
mathematical equation after watching and demonstrating
how it is done. Also, a learner is able to build a model after
watching and following instructions on how to build the
model. The skills needed are: copy, trace, draw, follow,
react, reproduce and respond.

d. Mechanism: Mechanism is the intermediate stage in

learning a complex skill. At this stage, response to the
learning stimuli has become habitual and the learner can
now perform the activities with some confidence and
proficiency. Examples are driving of cars, and use of
personal computer. The skills needed include assemble,
calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind,
manipulate, heat, mend, measure, mix, sketches and
organizes.

e. Complex Overt Response: Complex Overt Response This

is the skillful performance of motor acts that involve
complex movement patterns. The proficiency is indicated by
a quick, accurate and highly coordinated performance
requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes
performing without hesitation and automatic performance.

34
 Examples are: displaying competence while playing a piano,
maneuvering a car into a tight parallel parking spot and
operating a computer quickly and accurately. It is not
enough at this stage to perform alone but the performance
should be quicker, better and more accurate. The skills
needed include assemble, build, calibrate, construct,
dismantle, display, fasten, fix, mix, park, play and organize.

f. Adaptation: Adaptationmeans the process of responding

effectively to unexpected experiences. Through adaptation,
skills are well developed and the individual can modify
movement patterns to fit special requirements. For example
a student is asked to perform the task with a machine that
it was not originally intended to do. He is able to perform
the task without damaging the machine and he experiences
no danger in performing the new task. The skills and verbs
needed include: adapts, alter, change, rearrange, revise,
vary and reorganize.

g. Origination: Origination means creating new movement

patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem.
Based upon highly developed skills, the learning outcomes
emphasize creativity. The inventor is original and he does
not imitate or adapt any already made work. For example,
when someone constructs a new theory, develops a new
and comprehensive training programming or creates a new
gymnastic routine. The skills and verbs needed

35
 includearrange, build, combine, compose, construct, create,
design, initiate, make, produce and originate.

3. Affective domain (Teaching to develop affective

powers):Affective domain detail provides a framework for
teaching, training and lesson design. It involves feelings,
attitudes, interests, preference, values and emotion. Teachers
teach values for development of affective powers in terms of
receiving, responding, valuing, organizing and
characterization. Affective powers include norms, attitudes and
values. They include ability to differentiate between good or
bad, right or wrong as well as evil and virtuous, students are
taught by teachers good and bad behaviours, honesty,
patriotism, kindness, loyalty, friendship, obedience etc. such
teachings inculcate in the students the right attitudes to life.
The development of affective powers also involves habit
formation.
The teacher does not only verbalize right attitudes or
good habits but also acts for students to [Link] goes
beyond transmission of knowledge, values, skills, thinking,
good habits etc, it also develops in the students the ability to
appreciate and enjoy nature, an idea, an object, life itself etc.
Every teacher should devote some time on developing
appreciation and ability to enjoy a piece of music, well-
furnished and artistically decorated house, well designed dress
etc. Appreciation lesson can be taught incidentally e.g.
teaching to appreciate shapes, forms and colours is to work
with art materials, good music is participating in singing

36
together such as school choir or listening to music or
[Link] five major categories of affective domain are
discussed below.

a. Receiving: Receiving is the awareness, willingness to hear

and selected attention. Listening to others with respect and
listening for remembering the name of newly introduced
people are examples of receiving. The skills and verbs
needed include ask, choose, describe, follow, give, hold,
identify, locate, name, point to, select, sit, erect and reply.

b. Responding: Response to phenomena involves active

participation on the part of the learners. Other examples
are: attending and reacting to a particular phenomenon,
emphasizing compliance in responding to the phenomena,
willingness to respond to the phenomena and satisfaction in
responding to the phenomena. For instance, during
classroom presentation, learners ask questions on the new
ideas, models and concepts in order to fully
understandthem and know how to use them practically. The
skills and verbs needed include answer, assist, aid, comply,
conform, discuss, help, perform, practice, present, read,
recite, report, select, tell and write.
c. Valuing: Valuing has to do with the worth or value a person
attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or
[Link] ranges from simple acceptance to the more
complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the
internalization of a set of specified values are expressed in

37
 the learners’ overt behavior and they are often identifiable.
The skills and verbs needed include appreciate, complete,
demonstrate, differentiate, explain, follow, initiate, invite,
join, justify, propose, report, share, study and form.

d. Characterization: Characterization has to do with

internalized value system that controls one’s behavior. The
behavior is consistent, predictable, pervasive and
characteristic of the learner. Such characters have become
part of the learner. The teacher should always remember
that instructional objectives are concerned with the
students’ general patterns of personal, social and emotional
adjustment. For example, one is able to show self-reliance
when working independently, cooperates in group activities
such as team work or display and he uses an objective
approach in problem solving. He is able to display a
professional commitment to ethical practice on daily basis
and revise judgements and change behavior in light of new
evidence. He values people for what they are and not how
they look. He protects self-esteem and maintains his
integrity. The skills and verbs needed include act,
discriminate, display, influence, listen, modify, perform,
practice, propose, qualify, question, revise, serve, solve and
verify.

e. Organization: Organization means ability to organize

values into priorities by contrasting different values,

38
 resolving conflicts between them and creating a unique
value system. The organizer emphasizes cooperation,
relationshipsand value synthesis. For instance, an organizer
recognizes the need for balance between freedom and
responsible behaviours and accepts responsibility for one’s
behaviours. He accepts professional ethics standards and
moral guidelines. He creates a life plan in harmony with
abilities, interests and beliefs. He prioritizes time effectively
to meet the needs of the organization, family and self. The
skills and verbs needed include alter, adhere, arrange,
combine, compare, complete, defend, explain, formulate,
generalize, identify, integrate, modify, order, organize,
relate, prepare and synthesize.

Statement of learning objectives

The purpose of learning objective is to communicate.

Objective is the cornerstone of Educational Technology.
Educational Technology is objective oriented. It starts with
objective and end with objective. The skill of planning and writing
learning objectives is very vital to teaching-learning process. The
skill is not regarded by some educationists as a teaching skill
because it is not part of what actually goes on in the classroom in
terms of practice or activity but the classroom activities are
based on the learning objectives.

A well planned and written objective is equivalent to a

lesson half completed. As a result it is in-separable from other
aspects of lesson preparation and presentation. Many teachers
(especially the inexperienced and unqualified) fail in their

39
teaching art because they do not state the learning objectives
correctly. Once the objectives are wrongly stated, the
consequence is disastrous. This is because the correct statement
of objectives makes the success of a lesson. Therefore, student
teachers must take this aspect very seriously. Acquiring
statement of objective skill is something of a rite of passage in
the process of becoming a teacher. The skill requires practice,
feedback and experience.

Learning objectives are classified into two (2). They are:

instructional objective and behavioral objective. Objective comes
from aims. So, the broad aim must be adhered to while
developing instructional or behavioral objectives. The evaluation
of a lesson is deduced from the learning objectives.

Instructional objective: Instructional objective refers to what

the teacher intends to achieve at the end of the lesson. It
explains the teacher’s performance. The instructional objective
should contain a clearly stated verb that describes a definite
action. For example, the teacher can write this for a reading
lesson. ‘To guide or instruct or lead the pupils on how to read
fluently’.

Behavioral objective: Some teachers refer to behavioral

objective as performance or specific objective. Whatever name it
is given, an action word that connotes observable student
behavior should be used. This is the activity the teacher expects
his students to perform at the end of the lesson. It should be
stated in a measurable and observable term. It should state the

40
pupils’ performances. For example, the teacher can write, ‘At the
end of the lesson, pupils should read the passage fluently’.

Either for instructional or behavioral objectives, teachers

should not use verbs that are neither measurable nor observable.
Such verbs include: know, grasp, understand, think, enjoy, have
faith in, have knowledge of, value, love, believe, realize, like,
cope with, comprehend, appreciate, and familiarize. The
examples of verbs that are observable and measurable are:
identify, add, locate, read, choose, draw, explain, separate,
distinguish, operate, design, repair, mention, complete, analyse,
interpret, classify, describe, label, match, build, modify, replace,
select, construct, create, review, rewrite, translate, underline,
repeat, record, restate, count, touch, explain, elucidate and
illustrate.

Skills for stating learning objectives

While writing or stating learning objectives, there are four skills

the teacher has to demonstrate. They are: audience, behavior,
condition and degree.

Audience: The audience refers to the learners. Learners are

referred to as pupils in primary schools and students in
secondary and tertiary institutions. The characteristics of the
learners have to be put into consideration while stating learning
objectives. Their characteristics include age, mental ability, socio-
economic background, class, entry behavior/previous knowledge
and maturational level. Their characteristics have to be put into
account because they the targets of the instruction who are
expected to perform the set down objectives. Their performances
41
at the end of the lesson give a signal of success or failure of the
lesson. The task to be performed should not be too difficult or too
simple for their age and level.

Behavior: The teacher should state objectives in clear and

precise terms that are observable and measurable action or
product of the learners’ actions. It should indicate what the
learners will perform as proof of having achieved or attained the
objectives. The objectives must be taken from the subject matter
and should not be out of syllabus. This explains why action verbs
that are definite should be used.

Condition: The teacher should state his objectives to include the

conditions under which the learner will exhibit the specified
behavior. The circumstances under which the task is performed
should be described. He should state under what situation the
learning will take place such as space, time, duration, method,
techniques and instructional materials to be used. The stated
objective should be accomplished within a given period of time.

Degree: The level of performance expected should be specified

in the statement of objectives. This includes the degree of
quality, the time limit, the number, the rate, etc. the objective
stated should not be too few or too many. The objective should
specify the extent, standard or level of performance expected
from the learner at the end of the learning exposure. It should
state how well, how completely, how accurate and the degree of
time limit.

42
 Functions of learning objectives

Stating or writing of objectives in instructional process is not

for decoration; it serves a great role in teaching-learning process
which has made it indispensable in the process. The functions
are:

a. Objective provides teachers the direction for instruction.

b. Objective aids teachers in selecting appropriate content,
resources, methods and techniques.
c. Statement of objectives helps learners to learn faster and better.
This is because pupils understand the objectives of a given
course and has the outlines, resource materials and references to
allow them work towards the objectives and attain them.
d. The success of the classroom instruction is easily assessed and
evaluated.
e. Statement of objectives helps the teacher to translate the broad
aims into more attainable learning objectives.
f. Learners are provided the direction to channel their own efforts
towards attaining the objectives.
g. Objectives statement is a guide for decision making. The focus of
the lesson is revealed through the stated objectives. The stated
objectives serve as pointers to whether the outcomes have been
achieved or not.

Criteria for selecting and stating learning objectives

43
1. Analysis of culture: Selection should be based on societal
values habits, skills, culture, language and belief to make
learners become effective human being in their society.
2. Students’ status and entry behaviour: This refers to
previous knowledge. It deals with what they have, or what
they can perform due to their exposure to previous lessons.
This prepares them for the new task and it takes them get
ready for the task. The learners’ characteristics include their
ages, class, socio-economic background and maturational
level.

3. Teachers’ knowledge: The teachers’ capabilities should

be taken into consideration. Their knowledge can be
upgraded and updated through seminars, conferences
exhibitions and workshops.

4. Coverage: There should be coverage of the three domains

in the statement of objectives.

5. Clarity: There should be clarity in the stated objectives.

There should not be ambiguity. The learning objectives
should be done in the language and code that is
understandable by the users.

6. Observable: The stated objectives should be done in an

observable manner. The learning outcome should not be a
hidden event. It should be something that learners will

44
 perform and teachers will be able to observe their
performances.

7. Measurable: The stated learning objectives should be

measurable. The teacher should be able to attach scores
and grades to the learners’ performance such as 66%, Good
and position when the scores are compared.
8. Relevance to the school’s philosophy: The selection of
objectives depends on the type of the school, the audience
and the level of the audience. The objectives of the
curriculum for pre-primary are different from that of
primary, secondary and tertiary levels.

9. Relevance to the theory of learning: Theories of

learning are advocated by the psychologists. The theories
should guide the selection of objectives.

For the criteria above to be achieved, Jekayinfa (2012)

suggested that objectives should not be expressed using verbs
that are open to various interpretations. Such verbs are:

To know to understand to comprehend to love

to like to acquire to inculcate

to wonder

To grasp to believe to appreciate to value

To think to realize to familiarize to cope

with

45
 To enjoy to have faith in

The above mentioned verbs are passive and are not

measurable. Instead, the teacher should use active verbs that are
measurable, observable and are evidences of the learner’s
understanding, appreciation, acquisition, comprehension
andknowledge. Such active verbs are:

To write to choose to mention to read

To add to draw to complete to

separate

To locate to explain to analyze to

interpret

To construct to examine to recall

to recognize

To identify to describe to classify to

select

To isolate predict to infer to fill

To list to name to solve to

elucidate

Differences between instructional and behavioural

objectives

Instructional objective is what the teacher intends to impact

on the students. It should lead to behavioral objective as well as
evaluation. It refers to what the teacher intends to do to facilitate
46
and bring about learning. That explains while it is written: To
lead, or guide or instruct pupils on how to perform the activities
to be performed for learning to take place.

On the other hand, behavioral objectives are the expected

behavior of the learners after they have been exposed to
learning. They elicit the actions that need to be performed by
students after the lesson. It can be written as follows:

At the end of the lesson, students should………………………

Write locate describe Add Elucidate

SelectList read complete Draw Explain Choose
Mention speak analyze Define Identify Interpret

CHAPTER THREE

PANACEAS FOR PRODUCING A STAR

Learning objectives
At the end of chapter three, learners should perform the
following:
1. Explain the five factors that contribute to building of a child
to become a star
2. Differentiate types of learners
3. Describe ways by which children learn
4. Enumerate the stages of children’s socialization and
imitation
5. Explain types of children by attitude
47
 6. Discuss signs of indiscipline at home
7. Enumerate how to curb children’s excesses in the class
8. Elucidate different types of parents by personality
9. Write types of parenting styles
10. Discuss functions of parents for effective parenting
11. Describe types of teachers by personality
12. State the functions of teachers
13. Describe qualities of a good teacher
14. Give the meaning of peer group
15. Define peer pressure
16. Explain types of peer pressure
17. Enumerate the advantages of peer group (positive
attributes)
18. Write the disadvantages of peer group (negative
attributes)
19. Explain ways of handling negative peer groups’
influences
20. State ways by which parents should handle negative
peer
influence
21. Describe how schools and teachers should handle
negative peer influence
22. Discuss the roles of leaders in children’s up-bringing
23. Describe the functions of the governments in
producing vibrant and visionary future leaders.

Introduction

48
 This chapter deals with the factors that cooperate together
to build a child’s life and makes him to become productive,
vibrant, charismatic and asset to himself, his family and the
society both nationally and internationally. It is not easy to
produce a star but with the cooperation of the parents, learners,
teachers, society and peers it is possible to build a child to
become a star who serves as asset and productive to the socio-
economic development nationally and internationally.

Children are young citizens with valued contributions to

make in order to develop themselves, families and society at
large. They need to enjoy a fulfilling childhood, realize their
potentials and have fulfilled destinies. It is a known fact that non-
vibrant home cannot produce vibrant children, non-vibrant school
cannot produce vibrant graduates and non-vibrant society cannot
produce vibrant youngsters. Now that there is high demand or
hunt for talents who can contribute to national and international
economic development and sustainability, there is need for all
hands to be on deck for children’s upbringing.

49
Fig 1: Agents responsible for building a star

Learners

Learners are in the center of attraction when it comes to

education and methods of teaching. The curriculum is made for
them after considering their interest, age, abilities, needs and
aspiration. When one is talking of building a star, one is referring
to a child and not the teacher or the parent. All other factors in
the interaction service the learners. The star draws his energy
from all the factors and shines back to all his suppliers after he
has been built and made. Before the process continues, the

50
teacher needs to know more about the child that is to be built to
a star so as to know how to go about the building.

Types of Learners and how they learn

Numerically, there are two types of learners; adult and

children. Adult learners are matured and many of them combine
schooling with work. They are usually found in tertiary institutions
like Colleges of Education, University sandwich programs,
polytechnics and National Open University of Nigeria. Children
learners are usually found in primary, secondary and tertiary
institutions.

Every teacher stands up in front of the learners in order to

impact knowledge and to be understood by the learners in spite
of their differences and uniqueness. This is possible when
teachers are equipped with the knowledge of different types of
learners and how each category learn best no matter how small
or how large the audience. To achieve this aim, the teacher
needs to be equipped with how best to deliver the message
effectively to everyone in the [Link] and
Psychologists have developed a number of different models to
understand the different ways that people learn best generally.
One popular theory is the VERK Model which identified four
primary types of learners. They are: visual, auditory,
reading/writing and kinesthetic. Each learning type responds best
to a different method of teaching.

Visual Learners: Visual learners prefer to see information and

visualize the relationships between ideas. They benefit mostly
from diagrams, pictures, films, charts, real objects, models and
51
written notes and directions. They use words and phrases that
evoke visual images and tend to be fast talkers. Teachers need to
give them visual materials such as diagrams, models, cartoons,
real objects, charts and graphics to make his presentation
interesting. In addition, the teacher needs to make sure that the
presentation is highly visual and show the relationship between
his various points.

Auditory Learners: Auditory learners benefit mostly from

traditional teaching method such as discussion and lecture
methods. They prefer to hear information to seeing it displayed
visually. They remember information best after reciting it back to
the teacher. They succeed when directions are read aloud and
when information is presented verbally rather than reading or
displaying information. They are good listeners naturally and they
speak slowly. The teacher needs to give them chance to repeat
his points back to him by asking questions and calling for
audience answers. The teacher needs to be fluent, audible and
regulate his voice tone to maintain interest and attention.

Reading/Writing Learners: Reading/Writing Learners learn

best when reading and writing down the information. Their
interaction with text is more powerful than hearing and seeing
images. Teachers need to give such learners written quiz that
gives them a chance to write down what they have learned. The
teacher presents to them annotated handouts of the presentation
for them to read along with the teacher.

Kinesthetic Learners: Kinesthetic Learners learn best by doing

and use all their senses to engage in learning. They learn through

52
trial and error. They prefer touching, feeling and experiencing the
material at hand. They are mostly successful when totally
engaged with the learning activity. They acquire information
better when they participate in drama presentation,
experimenting in science laboratory, dance on the stage and
travel on field/study trip. They always want to engage in one
activity or the other. Theytend to be the slowest talkers of all the
groups and they are also slow in taking decisions in order to solve
real life problems. They enjoy standing in front of the audience in
order to demonstrate or express certain points. They like role
play and play away methods of teaching. They also enjoy writing
down points in order to remember.

Ways by which children learn

Children learn by observation, imitation and questioning. A

child could be described as a plain sheet or a plain board that is
clean and neat. Nothing is displayed in the mind of a child. It is
whatever an adult fills in the blank or plain sheet that the child
exhibits. This explains why children learn very fast from adults.

By observation

Children learn by observation. Children consider whatever

adults do to be right and correct especially parents and teachers.
This explains why adults should strive as much as possible to be
role models. Children would always practice what they watch,
observe and see adults doing.

By imitation

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 Children learn by imitation. Whatever a child hears, he
speaks out. Whatever he watches an adult doing, he does too.
This is why it is good for a child to be brought up in a conducive
[Link] are regarded as tabula rasa or plain sheet
that contains nothing. This does not mean that children are born
empty because they have sense organs and brain which make
them to react to their environment. For example, they cry when
they need food or when they want a change of their situations
such as weather. They are not born with any pattern of behaviour
either positive or negative. They observe adults and imitate them
to form their own patterns of behavior.

The first social institution is the home. There are stages of

child socialization which are preparatory stage, play stage, game
stage andgeneralized society stage. During the preparatory
stage, children imitate adults that are around them such as
parents and older siblings. At this stage, they do not have ability
to imagine things on their own. As a result, they copy the actions
of the people they interact with regularly.

The next stage is the play stage. At this stage, children

begin to imitate and take the roles that another person might
have such as acting like grown up father/mother. They practice
and behave the way their fathers/mothers behave such as talking
like daddy, walking like mummy, making phone calls with toy
phones like elderly siblings etc. game stage follows the play
stage. At game stage, children learn to interact with more people
of variety of purpose apart from family members. They now

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understand at this stage that role playing involves a consistent
set of rules and expectations.

After the game stage, the last stage of imitation is

generalized societal stage. At this stage, children learn the ideas
of generalized order. This refers to common behavioural
expectations of general society. A child now knows how he is
viewed. He guides his attitudes and actions according to
accepted general norms of the society. He now establish his
moral developments as he is able to decide whether a habit is
good or bad and accepted or unaccepted. He understands what is
right or wrong for the society. He prevents his actions on
unchecked urges and considers what is good for others and what
is right for the society. At this stage, if a child’s excesses are not
curtailed and checked, he continues misbehaving because he
thinks it is allowed and accepted

By performing activities

Children learn by performing activities. They are restless

and make sure they engage themselves in one activity or the
other. They use their senses in participating in activities they
have watched the adults doing. Practice leads to perfection.
Therefore, a child engages in practice what he has observed and
imitated from the adults. An enabling environment is provided so
as to allow the child to practice.

By asking questions

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 Children learn by asking questions. This is because children
are inquisitive. They ask questions from adults on things that
border them or things they do not understand about life. For
example, a child may ask an adult, ‘do you know your great,
great grandfather? If you say ‘no he died before I was born.’ The
next question will be ‘what or who killed him?’ Children’s
questions should be carefully, adequately and correctly answered
by the adults in the language they understand.

Children that are not given enough attention seek for

information from their mates and friends who may misinform
them. Adults should not be bored or tired of children’s questions
especially on social issues, sex education and family life. In the
classroom, many traditional teachers rebuke children of being
stubborn or as a noise maker instead of giving them satisfactory
answers and praise them for asking intelligent questions. Today’s
teachers need to tap such child at the back and praise him if
education is meant for sustainable development especially at the
21st century when the whole globe is conscious of Information
and Communication Technology.

Types of children by attitude

Every child differs in thinking, temperament, habit, rate of

learning, ability and nature. There are some differences even in
identical twins. A teacher needs to design and deploy the type of
training that will respect the individual differences of his pupils. It
is after he is successful in studying their attributes that he can
implement the program designed for them successfully. He
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teaches his learners the principles and practice of responsible
and productive living. He gives them directions on how to live a
profitable life of uprightness so as to become generational assets
and not liabilities to their society.

Pupils that are extremists in exhibition of anti-social

behaviours in the class are not to be written off. The teacher
should not label, cane, insult, nag nor neglect them. The teacher
should go down to their level and go deep to their roots. The
teacher should strive to go extra mile with them by giving them
more attention and showing them more love. These will allow the
teacher to elicit information from them which may help him to
know them better and provide solutions to their learning
difficulties. The behaviours the lazy, inattentive, extrovert, bully,
late comers, truants, untidyand other anti-social behaviors may
be more than physical. The root cause may be
psychologicalwhich emanate from home.

The extroverts

The extroverts are over active and talk most of the time.
They dominate discussions and hardly respect other people’s
views and opinions. They put up their hands in anticipation to
give answers to questions either right or wrong. They do things in
extreme and are over active. If the teacher is not careful, his
attention will always be diverted to them in negligence of other
pupils in the class. Therefore the teacher should find a way of
cutting their excesses. One way of doing this is by not calling on
them all times to answer questions so as to give room to other
people.

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The introverts

The introverts are the opposite of the extroverts. They are

shy and timid. Even when they have correct answers for
questions, they do not put up their hands or they are not eager to
talk in the class. The teacher should take note of them and
encourage them to participate in the class. This can be achieved
by calling on them even when they are not showing their
intention to give the answer.

The inattentive

This category of pupils does not pay attention to the

teacher in the class. They engage in some other activities that
are different from teacher’s expectations. They may be talking,
sleeping, singing, eating, cutting finger nails etc when the
teacher is teaching. The teacher can tackle this problem by
changing his teaching method to avoid monotony, use variety of
materials during a lesson, use examples, dramatization and
illustrations, involve the pupils in learning by doing method (do,
see and act) as well as make his lesson more interesting. He
should use questioning skill and distribute his questions evenly to
all the pupils. The teacher should allow them to sit in the front so
as to check their inattentiveness.

The fast learners

The fast learners learn quickly. They are so bright that they
are always ahead of others. They are so brilliant and highly
intelligent. The teacher should use group method in giving his

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pupils work to do in a group. By doing so, the fast learners can
help the slow ones to overcome their problems.

The slow learners

The slow learners find it very difficult to understand the

teacher’s lesson. They perform less than expectations. The root
of their problem is either that of low intelligence or lack of
readiness to learn. The teacher should not write them off because
they may change when they reach the actual maturational level.
The teacher should have personal discussion with them to
encourage them and boost their readiness. They can also be
referred to the school counselor.

The bully

The bully hurts, frightens and oppresses the weaker ones.

The causes of bullying are: size, age, sex and intelligence. The
big boys and girls oppress the smaller ones. Those that are old in
the class oppress the younger ones, the huge oppress the smaller
ones with their status, the rich bully the poor while the cleverer
spite the less intelligent. The teacher must always be on the look-
out and protect the weaker ones. The bully should be taught that
it is not good to use their advantages (either size or strength) to
harass the weaker ones. The teacher should appeal to their sense
of honor and dignity. If they refuse to change they should be
punished and the school should sensitize their parents. Also, they
can be referred to the school counselor. When all these fail, such
children should be advised to withdraw from that class and join
another school.

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The untidy pupils

Pupils may appear to be dirty as a result of poor socio-

economic background of the parents. The untidiness may also be
due to effect of broken homes and the pupils’ carelessness. It
means that children from good socio economic background can
also be untidy if care is not taken by the parents especially the
separated and divorced parents. This is because when the home
breaks, the children are taken care by either the father or mother
instead of by the two parents. The untidy tear and drop pieces of
paper, empty sachets of table water and leftover/crumbs snacks
on the floor.

In the case of lack of materials like uniforms, and writing

materials, the teacher can appeal to the parents to supply their
children with necessary school materials especially at the PTA
meetings. Teachers can also help the poor students. The dirty
ones should be made daily monitors who will take care of the
teacher’s books, furniture, windows and floors on regular basis.
Also, parents should try to maintain their homes and marriages
and bear with each other so as to savage the lives of their
children together. The untidy students should be attended to by
the school counselor.

The truants

The truants are the pupils that abscond from school. They don’t
come to school regularly. Pupils become truants as a result of
sickness, lack of school materials, dull and uninteresting
teaching, peer-group influence, uncondusive school environment,
failure to comply with school rules and regulations and emotional
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disturbance from home. The teacher needs to find out the causes
of his pupils’ truancy. If it is due to lack of materials, he should
appeal to the parents to cooperate with the school in making
provision for their children so that they will not seize the
opportunity to abscond from school.

The teacher should create a happy and interesting life in his

class so that his pupils would always like to be in the class. He
should treat the truants with sympathy and make them realize
the need for learning. Such pupils should be punished but if it
involves corporal punishment, it is more effective and better
done by the parents. The teacher should be faithful in marking
his class attendance register to take care of any uncertainty.
Truants also need the services of a school counselor.

The late-comers

The late-comers are the pupils that always come late to

school. Pupils become habitual late comers as a result of keeping
bad company, too much play and disturbance from home.
Sometimes, parents send their children on errands when they are
supposed to be in school. The first step the teacher should take is
to find out the causes of his pupils’ lateness. If it is due to home
problem, the teacher should appeal to and counsel the parents. If
it is due to bad company, the teacher should break it up. If it is
due to poor teaching method, the teacher should improve on his
teaching method.

The teacher can use instructional materials and illustrations

that would make his pupils to hate missing his lessons so that
late comers would regret when they miss such lessons. He should
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also give surprise tests that will motivate the pupils to come to
school very early. The late comers should be asked to clean the
school compound on daily basis. The teacher should take note of
the late comers and indicate in the pupils’ terminal reports for
parents to take note.

The lazy pupils

The lazy pupils dodge class and school work. They do not
participate in the class or school work like gardening and keeping
the compound clean. This may be due to their backgrounds or
lack of interest. Sometimes, such pupils pretend to be sick
whenever it is time for class or school work. Many times, such
pupils are not with their working materials. They should also be
given reasons why they need to participate, cooperate and work
together with their mates.

Parents/homes

Children are gotten from the association of a man and a

woman. The association starts from friendship to courtship and
from courtship to marriage which qualifies them to be husband
and wife. After the wedlock, they have children and become
parents. Parents refer to fathers and mothers that have offspring
(children). There are also grandparents and great grandparents.
Grandmothers refer to the mothers of one’s father or mother
while grandfathers refer to the fathers of one’s mother or father.
The paternal grandparents refer to the parents of one’s father

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while the maternal grandparents refer to the parents of one’s
mother.
In the family, there is the father (husband) who is referred
to as the head of the household both culturally and spiritually
whether he is the bread winner or not. The mother (wife) is
referred to as the helper who caters for both the children and her
husband. The father, mother and children constitute a nuclear
family. There also other members of the family such as uncles,
aunts, cousins, nieces, nephews and other relations that
constitutes the extended family.

As there are different plants with their types of fruits and

seeds, so also, parents produce their own kinds. An indecent
couple brings up indecent children. Children come from different
homes with different socio-economic, educational and cultural
backgrounds. These backgrounds determine the upbringing and
training of the children from such homes. At birth, the first social
institution a child comes in contact with is the home.A slacker or
lazy parent cannot produce hardworking children. Stagnant,
fearful, shortsighted and uninspiring parents cannot produce
youngsters that are imaginative, proactive, intrepid and
charismatic unless such children encounter development and
productivity in their schools through their teachers.

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Fig 2: Different plants with their fruits and seeds

Parents transmit or transfer their characters to their

offspring and also the children take the factors in the genes of
the parents. So before the children come to school, their minds
are neither plain nor empty. Their minds have been filled with
values, habits, ideas, attributes and the characters of the
parents. Whether the parents are honest or not, it reflects on the
children. This explains why a corrupt and dishonest couple finds it
difficult to raise a decent and honest child. With all these traits
and lifestyles (either positive or negative), they are enrolled into
pre-primary section of either private or public schools.

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 Parenting is a very tedious and crucial job which most
people are ill-prepared for. Parenting is very important in any
family setting. This is because parents are to teach, direct,
instruct, mode and inform for effective parenting. Effective
parenting does not mean success in one’s education, career,
profession or business. Parents may be successful educationally,
professionally, materially and resource wise but fail in parenting.
This is because parents spend most of their times in achieving all
these at the expense of given their children adequate attention.
Parents over stress themselves to gather money so as to buy
flashy cars to make their children happy, send their children to
best schools, feed them, buy them latest attires and make other
provisions for them. Still, they may fail in their parental
responsibilities if care is not taken.

Signs of indiscipline at home

1. Dressing shabbily and indecently by children and parents

2. Speaking rashly to visitors and the child’s teacher by
parents
3. Cursing, swearing and using of foul words by parents and
children
4. Children’s lack of respect for elders such as inability to
greet elders first or render helping hand to old people
5. Children’s lack of table manners and etiquettes such as
eating with their mouths widely opened
6. Bringing home and using items that are not bought by
parents unchecked.

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 7. Children talk back or even shout at their parents.
8. Children pointing their fingers in the eyes of their parents
or other people when they are corrected for misbehaviour
or when they have arguments with people.
9. Children begging for arms from visitors
10. Children sitting by the visitors when they are served
food or drinks
11. Children demanding for bribes to carry out their
domestic tasks or when they are sent on errands
12. Children’s inability toknock on closed doors
13. Children collecting things from elders and parents with
left hands
14. Children picking their noses with hands
15. Children’s inability to wash their hands after visiting
convenience/toilets
16. Children interrupting when parents are discussing with
other adults or visitors
17. Children exercising authorities on their home/domestic
staff such as nannies, drivers, cooks and laundry man
18. Children’s lack of appreciation when parents give
them something, buy them new clothes, render helping
hands in their school work, taking them out or even paying
their school fees.
19. Children’s inability to tolerate less privileged children
20. Children’s inability to tolerate their grand-parents
when they come for visit

Types of parents by personality

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 The types of parents include the workaholic, helicopter,
awkward, besties, party and ward and June cleaver parents. They
are discussed below.

1. The workaholic parents

The workaholic parents are too busy. They have endless to-
do lists. They leave home very early and come back late. Their
children do not notice details of the parents’ life. They are
strange to the children whenever they come around in the day.
They do not sacrifice their time and they hardly give their
children attention. The only thing their children gain from them is
the training on valuable work ethic that will serve them for life.

2. The helicopter parents

The helicopter parents are always over protective. They
want to know every bit of their children, their where about, what
they do, what they are and whom the associate with. Such
parents are very caring and loving. They make their children the
top most priority of their lives. They make phone calls, send
messages and pay visits where ever their children are. They
always talk about their children. They feel empty and the whole
place looks like a ghost city where their children are not
available. Children of such parents do not enjoy youthful
freedom.

3. The awkward parents

The awkward parents do things in extreme. For example
they discuss with people without break. They are not choosy and

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 limited in their discussion. They are basket mouth. They tell
embarrassing stories even at the presence of the children’s
friends. Their children do not want their friends to meet them.
Life is not boring to people around them.

4. The besties
The besties are their children’s best friends. They are
friendly with their children 24/7. Their children communicate with
them freely, confide in them and report all happenings around
them to such parents.

5. The party parents

The party parents are happening mothers and fathers. They
are very good at organising and attending parties.
6. The ward and June cleaver parents
The ward and June cleaver parents always have the perfect
pep-talk with their children to brighten their day. They always
teach their children life lessons which end up with hugs. Their
children love them.

Types of parenting styles

Parenting style is the emotional climate in which parents
raise their children. It is different from parenting practice.
Parenting styles are influenced by personalities, differential
inheritance, laws, societies, norms, values and era. Parenting
practice is specific behaviour that parents use to socialize their
children. Parents are responsible for raising their children in the
best way they know. They create their own style from

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combinations of factors. Couples need to cooperate as they
combine various elements of their unique parenting styles in
order to produce responsible, happy and charismatic children.
Parents do not use only one parenting style because they
are influenced by culture, religion, personality, family size,
parental background, educational level and socio-economic
background. There are four major types of parenting styles. The
different styles have different effects on the upbringing of their
children. The effects could be either positive or negative
outcomes. The parenting styles are: authoritarian, authoritative,
permissive and uninvolved parenting styles.

Authoritative parenting style

Authoritative parenting style is democratic. It is the widely
regarded as the most effective and beneficial parenting style for
normal children. Such parents support their children morally,
spiritually, socially and financially. To who much is given, much is
expected. Such parents are easy to recognize as they are marked
by the high expectations that they have of their children. It is
similar to authoritarian style in that rules and regulations are set
but different from authoritarian in the sense that the importance
of obeying the rules are stressed and reasons are given for the
set rules and regulations. Parents have a healthy and open live
and communication with their children. If a parent can foster the
ability to speak to their child without judgement or reprimand, he
will be more likely to have insight into the child’s life and
understanding. This provides the child with a deeper
understanding of the world around him.

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 Children are encouraged to obey the rules and form
disciplinary lifestyle. Such parents interact with their children,
listen to their questions, allow them to contribute and give
adequate answers to the children’s questions. The parents’
authority can be challenged by the children on certain issues but
parents still hold the authority. Parents do not establish authority
but groom children to become responsible social beings. Children
do not obey blindly.
Parents make use of supportive rather than punitive method
in their disciplinary actions. Children are encouraged to be
cooperative, assertive, socially responsible and develop right
intentions, do their best and have no reason to regret. This is
because they are allowed to think and figure out what to do
especially when parents are not around. They learn how to take
best decisions based on sound judgment and morality. They are
taught how to deal with problems, challenges and
difficult/unpleasant situations even at the absence of their
parents. Children from such homes are happy, successful,
capable, confident and achieve high. They develop strong self-
esteem and self- competence. It creates the healthiest
environment for a growing child and fosters productive
relationship between parents and their children. Authoritative
parenting style yield positive behaviours and outcomes in both
parents and children.
There are things a parent should do to qualify him to be an
authoritative parent. They are:
1. Create structure in your child’s day such as planned
bedtime, household rules and regulations and daily routine.

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 2. Set consequences for disrupting this structure or breaking
the household rules and regulations
3. Set reasonable expectations for your children and allow
them to understand the expectations that you have for their
behaviours
4. Create a healthy and open line of communication with your
children and allow them to speak to you about anything in
their lives without fear of negative consequence or harsh
judgement.
If a child is raised using authoritative style and still develop
mal-adjustment behaviours or behavioural problems especially
if he engages in vices, it is better the parents seek help from a
licensed therapist for counselling.

Authoritarian parenting style

Parents using authoritarian parenting style are always strict.
In the authoritarian parenting style, parents expect children to
follow strictly rules and regulations established by them. Children
must not derail or disobey the set down rules. Parents fail to
explain the importance of following the rules or reasons behind
such rules. When children ask them to explain reasons for setting
those rules parents sometimes say, ‘that was what my parents
taught me’ or ‘you should obey because the rules are set by us.’
Such parents have high demands and conditions that are very
difficult to satisfy. Children dear not challenge their authorities.
Failure to adhere strictly to the rules results to harsh punishment.
Children from such homes are unhappy, unsocial and
incompetent. They have less self-esteem but they are always

71
proficient and obedient. They are always fearful and lack
[Link] children possibly misbehave with every little
chance outside the parents’ view. The style is the most
unproductive, destructive and way closed way for parenting
patterns. There is not open relationship between the parents and
the children.
There are things a parent should do to qualify him to be an
authoritarian parent. They are:
1. Set very strict rules and regulations that must be followed
no matter how difficult and hard to obey them.
2. Do not explain reasons for the set rules and regulations but
they must be obeyed because you (parent) said it.
3. Be harsh on the child always for him to obey you.
4. Show your child no love or warmth at every mistake he
makes.
5. Make decisions for the child and do not give your him any
choice for decisions about his own life.
6. Utilize punishment as a means of getting your child to obey
your rules and regulations.

The permissive parenting style

The permissive parenting style is also known as indulgent
parenting style. In the permissive parenting style, parents are
indulgent and demand less from their children. This style is
directly opposite of authoritarian styles as both exhibit extremity.
Anything goes in such home. Parents are too lenient and weak in
the attempt to avoid confrontation. No rules, no regulations and
no disciplinary actions. Parents have low expectations, maturity

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and self–control/regulation from their children because parents
are lenient.
The permissive parents interact and communicate freely
with their children and they are the best friends of their children.
Such child is denied the opportunity to establish good
relationship with the parents from whom the child could explore
the world around him and outside his environment. This affect his
relationship with other individuals outside the home especially his
age grades. Such parenting style could damage the child’s future.
Children from such homes have no limit.
As a result, childrenfrom permissive homes perform poorly
academically because they always clash with school authorities.
They find it difficult to obey the school rules and regulations since
they are not prepared to do so at home. Such children lack
respect, they have poor social skills (relating skills), they are self-
centered and they are poor academically due to their arrogance
and lack of respect for rules and regulations. There are things a
parent should do to qualify him to be a permissive parent. They
are:
1. Set no limit, boundary or rules and regulations for your
child.
2. When you set limit, compromise your rules to accommodate
your child’s mood.
3. Fear your child and be afraid to confront him on his
mistakes.
4. Make provisions for necessary and unnecessary wants and
not needs of the child.
5. Be your child’s best friend rather than his parent at all times

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 6. Bribe your child to do things for you
A parent operating at this level is raising a child who will
constitute nuisance to the society because their children break
the societal rules and regulations easily.

The uninvolved parenting style

Uninvolved parenting style is also referred to as hands-off,
neglectful or dismissive parenting style. The parents demand
very low expectations from their children. They do not interact or
communicate with their children. It is not that they treat their
children like orphans because they provide for the basic
necessities of life of such children but there is no emotional
attachment. The parents detach from their children’s lives.
Parental responsibility, guidance and warmth are not there.
Parents are less concerned about the children’s failure or
success. Many parents that follow this style today do so as a
result of busy schedules of work and hustle with bustle of
lifestyle. Parents hardly get time to spend with their children.
Such children suffer rejection and negligence. They lack self-
control and self-esteem. They are always broken hearted,
helpless and immature.
Children from uninvolving homes are socially and emotionally
isolated and imbalance because they do not enjoy parental love.
This parenting strategy is the worst as parents can hardly
produce loving, caring, self-fulfilled and life accomplished
children. Such children are easily manipulated by others as a
result of their want for personal relationship and succour for their

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loneliness. There are things parents do that make them to be
identified as uninvolved or neglectful parents. Such parents;
1. Do not care for their child’s needs emotionally, physically,
socially, spiritually and financially.
2. Develop thick skin and unconcerned attitude to what go on
in their children’s lives
3. Denny their child attention by spending long periods of time
away from home leaving their children alone
4. Denny their children attention by interacting with their
phones and television always without talking to them when
at home.
5. Make excuses for not being there for their children.
6. Do not care to know their children’s friends.
7. Do not involve in their children’s lives outside the home e.g.
school.
8. Have no information about the progress or failure of their
children.
9. Fail to identify with their children in all situations of life.
10. Do not have information on where their children live.

A parent operating at level of uninvolved parenting style tends

towards lonely, unpeaceful, unsuccessful, frustrated and bitter
old age. This is because the love and attention he has failed to
show the child at the childhood cannot be given to him (parent)
at old age. He has never been there for the child at any moment
of his life. The child has no good memory of the parental love and
attention for him and so will find it difficult to reciprocate. He is
emotionally dead to parental care, attention and love. Old age is

75
 very important because no matter how rich the parent or how
energetic the parent, when he is old, there will be no power to
cater for himself. At that level, he needs a child to cater for him.
Apart from the parents’ old age, such parents raise
unloving, unkind, unpredictable, questionable and emotionally
unbalance/unstable children. Such children do not have feelings
for others. It will not be difficult to find such children in vices like
raping, robbery, kidnapping and ritual killings. They dupe people
because they have no cogent permanent home addresses, so,
they are difficult to trace. Where ever they find themselves, they
do not have the feeling of seeing their parents and even send to
them.

Functions of parents for effective parenting

Homes are the first social institutions children have contact
with. Parents are not just children producers or baby machines,
they have a lot of functions to produce charismatic, vibrant,
reliable and God fearing children. Functions of the parents do not
rest only on the mother or the father alone; they are joint
responsibilities of both parents. Parental investment starts from
pregnancy till they become physically, socially, psychologically
and economically matured. Some of the effective parental roles
include:

1. Role models

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 Good manners are instilled in children by usually doing right
[Link] are role models to their offspring. Parental
characteristics are very important as the children look onto them
for all things. Children are the replicates of their parents
physically, emotionally, socially and psychologically. Parents are
to show good examples so as to shape the lives of their children.
They should be open, honest and transparent knowing fully that
lives have been entrusted on them to nurture and shape. Parents
should be role models in dressing, speaking, eating, hospitality,
spending etc.

2. Moral instruction
It is the function of parents to give their children sound
good up-bringing in the fear of God. This can only be done when
parents are of good moral and spiritual standing. Some of the
attributes parents need to inculcate in their children are
truthfulness, honesty, hard-work, obedience, respect/humility,
law abiding, loyalty and peace making. Parents should training
their children time schedule and management. This is because
life is bound with time. There should be focus on what to do every
hour, day, week, month and year.
Children should not be left for watching films throughout
the day and parents should give caution on the types of films
children watch. For instance, blue films promote immorality and
war films introduce children to violence. They should not be idle
but be contributors to the home development in form of giving
helping hands such as cleaning the environment, washing
clothes/plates, running errands and some other domestic work

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 but should not be over stressed. Moral instruction can also be
strengthened by religious activities and teaching in schools,
homes, churches and mosques. Children are to be given sound
home training that will make them fit well into the larger society
if parents want to produce responsible and God fearing leaders of
tomorrow.

3. Formal education
Apart from the moral education given by parents in form of
informal education, they need to send their children to schools for
formal trainings. Sending them to schools has additional
responsibilities which include regular payment of school fees,
provision of school and writing materials, checking their
children’s school work and assignments, visitation to their
children’s schools, attention of Parents Teachers Association
(PTA) meetings, making useful suggestions to the schools and
making donations to the schools when necessary. Other school
activities like end of the year party, prize- given day, inter-house
sport and visiting days should be attended to by parents to
support their children. Their Morales are boosted when their
parents are around and they perform better.
Parents are counselors especially in the area of choice of
live careers but they should not force their interests on the
children. Their choices should be done in consideration of their
interests and abilities. Children that cannot go beyond basic
education or senior secondary schools should be allowed to go for
apprenticeship or trade that are profiting and can make them
contribute to the society positively.

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4. Communication
It is not all things that children do that should attract cane;
they should be given opportunities to express their frustration
verbally. Parents need to talk to their children about the
frustrations they face create an atmosphere that allows dialogue.
If this is done, parents are able to curb many problems that
engulf their children. Adults need to instill in children the power
of words. It is the duty of the parents to create avenues for the
children to interact with them and give them enough attention.
Parents need to give their children enough information.
Parents should inform their children on their family
backgrounds, origins (compound, village, LGA and state), tribes,
dialets, culture and lineages. Children learn by asking
questions because they are inquisitive.
Parents need to create enough time to answer the
questions adequately. Parents should also ask their children
questions, tell them stories and allow them to air their opinions. If
parents fail to give their children the needed information in the
language they understand, they stand the chance of being
misinformed and mislead by friends, classmates and peer-groups.

5. Security
Children are to be given enough security at home. Parents
should not entrust their children to people carelessly when they
are young. It is better for parents to be in charge of their children
but where work or business does not allow them, they should
seek for the help of responsible people. That does not mean they

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 have to leave all the parental responsibilities for those people.
There have cases of children that are left carelessly for rapists
and kidnappers. They should be given information on how to
keep safe at home and when they go out. Training on simple
precautions to guide against home accidents should be given to
the children by parents.
Children should be informed on how to use public utilities
such as crossing roads, boarding of public vehicles, use of public
toilets etc. Houses should be free from oppression/depression,
electric exposure, reptiles, kidnappers etc. drugs and poison
should not be kept at the children’s reach because they would
like to play with them and taste them if possible due to their
inquisitiveness. Also sharp objects should be kept away from
them so as not to hurt themselves. Suck-away, gutter, drainage
and pit toilets should be properly covered in the living
environment. While constructing buildings, children should be
given adequate consideration. For example, slippery floor tiles
should not be used in the children’s living and bedrooms. In fact,
children should be protected and kept away from risky,
dangerous and deadly environment.

6. Attention
Children are to be given attention by parents. For example,
parents should watch and check the young ones to know when
they are sick so as to give them immediate medical attention.
Complaints by children that boarder on health should be taken
with seriousness and prompt attention. Another example is that
parents should attend to their children to know the types of

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 friends, companies and associates they keep. This helps for the
approval or disapproval of such relationship. Children should be
discouraged from keeping bad/evil companies that can cause
bitterness to the family.

7. Feeding
Children are to be well fed by parents: It is the
responsibility of the parents to provide adequate feeding for their
children. Children need types of food that are reach in all classes
of nutrition such as protein, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrate and
water for intellectual and physical development as well as
healthy living. While trying to provide adequately for the children,
parents should look inward to local food stuff rather than using
imported tinned food that have gone through different processing
and have expired in the process of transportation. Many of them
are also preserved with chemicals that are not edible or that are
dangerous for one’s health. Nigeria is blessed with a lot of
cereals, grains, tubers, fruits and vegetables that are healthy for
children and adults.

8. Clothing
Parents are to make provision for their children’s clothes.
The clothing includes underwear, pants, sucks,
cardigans,occasional wears etc. children are to dress according to
the weather and the occasion they are going for. Care should be
taken when clothes are provided taking into consideration the

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 Nigerian culture that minds integrity and modesty. As a result,
children should not be introduced to cloth that are indecent
especially those that expose their privates.

9. Shelter
Shelter is very important. Parents should provide the
children with houses which are conducive with necessary
facilities such as water, toilets, electricity and playing ground in
safe environment. Children should be kept safe in houses that are
free from accidents. Also parents need to make provision for toys
and game tools that can keep children busy and happy. Their
rooms should be furnished with bed, book shelves and reading
tables/chairs. Parents should know their neighbours very well
especially in cities where criminal activities are reported daily.

10. Love and appreciation

Children need love especially when they do not deserve it.
Parents should love and appreciate their children. Children need
parents’ commendations at all times to boost their morale.
Parents should give good comments on their children, praise
them and pray for them. Love and appreciation can also be
shown by taking children out to gardens, zoos, weddings etc.
parents can also do these by buying gifts for them on special
occasions like their birth days. If there have been failures in some
areas that do not mean that where they have done well they
should not be acknowledged. Parents are still the children friends
and mentors. Whatever their shortcomings and challenges,

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 parents and other members of the families should accept them
with love (including those with physical and mental challenges).

11. Discipline
Loving and appreciating children should not mean that when
they go wrong, they should not be checked. Home is the first
training ground for children. Home is the place where people are
made. For parents to be a disciplinarian, they too must be
disciplined. This is because children watch and observe their
parents. When children misbehave, parents should deal with
them accordingly. If children need to be punished for vices and
misbehaviors, the punishment should commensurate with the
gravity of their offences. It is not the matter of ‘I beg you in the
name of God’ neither is it the matter of saying ‘this child, don’t
kill me’ but it is the matter of telling them the truth with your red
eyes to let them know the gravity of such mal-adjustment
behaviors.
Parents should not keep quiet. They should stop shifting
their responsibilities teachers. What families and the society at
large harvest today is as a result of they have put into it since
output is determined by input in System Approach to Instruction
(SAI). When children go to school and come back homes with
other peoples’ belongings, parents welcome them and have
nothing to say or do about it. When they grow up and take up
employments they lute societal pulse and convert the resources
to their personal pulses unlawfully. Such people come back to
their homes and make huge contributions to the families,
communities and religious gatherings without people challenging

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them of their sources of wealth. To encourage them more,
communities dash them chieftaincy titles.

Teachers

Teachers serve as the guiding force in learners’ lives. One

cannot deny the influence of teachers in his life because every
learner’s life revolves around his teachers. Teachers can be
described as students’ constant companions. The joy of the class
often depends entirely on the teacher. They are responsible for
molding students’ personality and shaping their mental
orientation.

The teacher serves as a role model in giving corrections to

the wrong values, habits and lifestyle inherited by the children
from their parents. In doing this, a teacher lays good examples
for the children to copy because examples are the greatest
weapons in influencing children’s lifestyle. The teacher’s
reasoning, teaching, wise commands, counseling and corrections
serve as their training grounds. The most effective method of
teaching is impartation of models of practical skills and
knowledge.

Mentoring entails going before his learners and ask or urge

them to follow him. He performs some activities while he asks
them to do the same. He does not only say something without
putting it into action for his pupils to follow and perform. Through
this method, he is able to successfully teach his learners
courtesy, endurance, perseverance, pure love, hospitality,
respect for other people’s views/opinions, temperance, kindness,

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goodness, joy, purity, mercy, hard work, honesty and
contentment. Mentoring method of teaching will nail the lesson to
the learners when all other methods fail.

A teacher is the chief implementer of the curriculum. He

could be described as the governor, director, motivator, guide,
thermostat and counselor of his classroom. He creates the
necessary condition that makes learning meaningful and
pleasurable. The teacher searches and utilizes information in the
process of impacting and transmitting knowledge to the learner.
He initiates learning process, facilitates learning skills,
coordinates efficiency. He is the pivotal element in the entire
educational programme.

The teacher undergoes professional training where he

acquires the following abilities; ability to search for new ideas and
approaches to the problems of life, ability to care and love
children, ability to maintain law, order and discipline in the
classroom, ability to coordinate the learning materials, ability to
use appropriate materials and ability to improvise instructional
materials. Others are: ability to use variety to teaching
techniques, ability to communicate effectively with his pupils,
ability to be visible to the students, parents and other people in
the community at all ties and ability to develop maintenance
culture of the available learning facilities.

For successful and effective teaching and learning process,

the teacher should understand both the theory and practical of
methodology. He should use the method to teach according to
the nature of the topic, the subject, and the pupils, the available

85
resources in the school and the situation in the environment. He
considers individual differences and uniqueness among his pupils.
He should know his pupils personally by name, strength, ability,
weakness and temperament. In doing this, a teacher needs to
use his knowledge of child psychology and personality
development to determine the teaching procedure and
evaluation technique.

Learners of the 21st century are computer children/adults.

Therefore, there are changes between the teachers’ roles
traditionally and the current situation. Traditionally, teachers
were the knowledge transmitters, the primary sources of
information, controllers of all aspects of learning and answers to
all classroom problems. Today, teachers are learning facilitators,
mentors, coaches, collaborators, co-learners and knowledge
navigators.

Learners are now given more options and responsibilities by

teachers to learn on their own. This can be done through
Computer Assisted Instruction, Programmed Instruction, Projects,
Assignments and Tutorials. Traditionally, learners were passive
recipients of information and reproducers of knowledge. Today,
learners are active participants in the learning process, producers
and sharers of knowledge and learning collaborators with one
another.

Types of Teachers by qualification and competence

There are different types of teachers in educational system.

Teachers can be classified in terms of their qualifications and
personality. Teachers by qualification include the competent and
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qualified teachers, the qualified and incompetent teachers as well
as the unqualified teachers.

Competent and qualified teachers

The competent and qualified teachers are the teachers who

have interest in teaching. They have job satisfaction and are
diligent, devoted and hard-working. They always strive to up-date
their knowledge by attending seminars, conferences and
workshops. They are interested in contributing to knowledge and
are always happy to identify with teaching at all times. They
either have NCE, [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link] or PGDE or have
registered with Teachers Registration Council.

Qualified incompetent teachers

To some educators, all trained teachers are competent.

These educators base their claims on paper qualifications and not
on ability to deliver. To others, it is not all trained and certificated
teachers that are competent. They have their teaching
qualifications and register with TRCN. The qualified and
incompetent teachers are trained teachers who have no interest
in teaching job. They don’t contribute to promotion of teaching
profession or teachers. They always complain about their jobs
and are never satisfied. They find themselves in teaching
because their prerequisites could not take them to other careers
of their interest. They abscond from work and do nothing to
develop the profession.

Unqualified teachers

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 This category of teachers may be competent and
hardworking but they do not have teaching qualification. They do
not have interest in becoming teachers but they become
teachers as their last resort. It is true they might have been
teaching for donkey years even with post-graduate degrees but
they have not been trained to teach. They don’t have teaching
certificate to register with TRC as teachers. They are not teachers
but quacks.

Types of teachers by personality

There are different types of teachers by personality and attitude.

These are take-it easy or permissive, authoritarian/autocratic and
democratic teachers.

The Take-it-easy/permissive Teacher

The take-it-easy teacher maintains little or no discipline. He

is lazy and has no interest in what happens in his class. He
neither discourages nor encourages his pupils. He is always
confused and finds it difficult to make tangible decision. Pupils in
his class are lawless and difficult to control because the pupils
are not guided by any rule or regulation. The assertive pupils
have room to become aggressive, bully and ruthless which
results to insecurity since the bully becomes heroes in the class.
The introverts withdraw further from class participation. Everyone
does what he likes and there is dearth of group work. Faults are
found, blames are shifted and the morale of the class is generally
low.

The Authoritarian/Autocratic Teacher

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 The authoritarian teacher has rules and regulations in the
class which the pupils must adhere to strictly. There is excessive
control of the pupils in the class. Pupils in his class must comply
with his rules without any complain. His forms of punishment are
harsh and many. He keeps constant watch on his pupils and
easily finds faults with them. He hardly praises his pupils because
he thinks that this will make them lazy. Pupils could be irritable
and unwilling to cooperate with the teacher. Pupils lose
confidence, lack initiatives/creativity and are inactive in the class
because the classroom environment or climate is always a
repressed one and tension is always present.

The autocratic teacher insists that things must be done in

his own way. He hardly respects other people’s views and
opinions and he does not take to other people’s advice. He is of
the opinion that everybody must dance to his tune and conform
to his standards in their work, talk, thought and general
behaviour in the school and in his class. At any debate or
argument, he is not ready to lose but struggles to win always. His
ways of doing thing things are always considered to be the best.
Pupils may like him personally but may hate his methods of doing
things.

The Democratic Teacher

The democratic teacher gives help, guidance and assistance to

his pupils any time they need his assistance but at the same time
keeps them busy. He cooperates with his pupils and shares with
them in planning and decision making. He encourages and
believes in group participation in his class. He is impartial and

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highly objective in dealing with his pupils. He praise, rewards and
encourages them for any good performance to foster learning.

A democratic teacher rebukes them and discourages vices

and mal-adjustment behaviours in his pupils. He is generous and
kind but firm. Due to his personality, his pupils are friendly,
cooperative, talk freely and more independently. Pupils build
more confidence in the teacher and build self-confidence in them-
selves which encourage creativity. All these result to effective
teaching-learning process and high morale in the class.

Teachers and Physical teaching-learning environment

Teaching environment refers to a place where teaching and

learning take place. Conducive learning environment facilitates
and support instructional system and learning. The size, physical
facilities and adequate materials in the classroom are very
important. Provision of facilities like light, ventilation materials
and well-arranged isolated and free from distraction classroom
maintains that the environment focuses on learning. The
classroom must be spacious enough to accommodate the
students and learners conveniently. A situation where students
do not have enough seats and some are hanging on the windows
is not an ideal learning environment.

Teacher’s Behaviours and classroom environment

The classroom environment is very important for learning

and attainment of the set objectives. Conducive learning
environment encourages positive self concept and motivates

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 learners to achieve. Un-conducive environment discourages
learners from achieving the set objectives. Longbap (2007)
identifies eight classes or typologies of teachers’ behaviours and
learning environment. This he explains with an aid of the diagram
bellow.

Fig 3: Typology of Teachers’ Behaviour Style

1) Directive

The teacher has very little interest in the students’ personal

wishes and needs. He corrects students always. His behaviour is
not prominent even when he behaves in a friendly,

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 accommodating and understanding way. He tasks students and
he arrests their attention.

2) Authoritative

The teacher structures his lesson well that the atmosphere is

pleasant. Rules and regulations are made clear and students are
reminded of these rules regularly. He arrests students’ attention
and spends less time correcting his students unlike the teacher in
the directive class. He is highly interested in his students’ needs
and wishes. He has personal interest in the students and his
students consider him very good.

3) Tolerant and Authoritative

The teacher in this category resembles the authoritative teacher

but he has closer relationship with his students than authoritative
teacher. He does not enforce his rules and regulations than the
authoritative. He involves his pupils in his lessons and they enjoy
him. He uses a variety of teaching strategies and technique
especially practical work, lecturing, discussion, project and group
work. His students follow his unwritten rules automatically and
they like the teacher and enjoy his lesson very well.

4) Tolerant

The teacher that is tolerant has a pleasant and supportive

atmosphere during his lesson. His students do not miss his lesson
because they always enjoy it. His students are free to influence
lesson procedure and content. He fits in with his students wishes
and he impacts the subject matter successfully. His students
work at their own pace that suits their capabilities. He cares for

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 his students; personal interest but his permissive attitude causes
a lot of disorder atmosphere.

5) Uncertain/ Tolerant

There is always a kind of disobedience in this class because the

environment is unstructured. The teacher is greatly concern with
his students and he explains concepts again and again even
when his students are not paying attention.. his students engage
in all kinds of activities other than concentrating on the subject
matter. He is able to arrest the attention of only the students that
sit in front of the class. He faces the chalkboard severally and
faces his students occasionally. The class is always noisy and
unsettled. He talks loudly and quickly and he is always busy
explaining the subject matter. He is not provoked with the
students’ misbehaviors. So he ignores the disorder in the class.
Learning is not smooth in such an environment.

6) Uncertain/Aggressive

There is always aggressive kind of disorder in the class. Both the

teacher and his students face one another as opponents. Both
waste their time and energy on conflicts with one another. The
students take every opportunity to disturb the lesson even when
the teacher tries to explain things to them. He students lack
concentration and loose their attention spans. They get up from
their seats, laugh, shout and snatch other students’ property. The
teacher reacts violently to the disturbance. The students blame
the teacher for the disorder due to his unbalanced and
unpredictable reactions. After his reactions, students always
increase their disruptive efforts to disturb. Both teacher and
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 students create chaotic and un-conducive environment where
lesson is uninteresting and it is difficult for learning to take place.

7) Repressive

In this learning environment, students’ initiatives are repressed.

Students behave in a very docile way but are not involved in the
lesson. The students always follow the teacher’s instruction.
There is tight control of the class and students are afraid of the
teacher. The teacher reacts very angrily to minor and small
mistakes made by the students especially by giving his students
failing marks. High percentage of his students fails his tests and
examinations. The classroom environment is unpleasant, strain
and stressful. He does not help the students that do not
understand the lesson because he has no respect for individual
differences and uniqueness. His lessons are content and teacher-
centered as against learner –centered. He does not use role
playing, demonstration, experimental and project methods.
Learning in the environment is difficult.

8) Drudging

The teacher in this environment varies his classroom

atmosphere. Sometimes he resembles aggressive disorder while
sometimes he is like the teacher in tolerant disorder. The teacher
struggles to maintain discipline which he succeeds in most
lessons. He enforces rules only to correct students’ behaviours
frequently. His students pay attention to him as long as he tries
to sustain their attention. He uses routine way of teaching. He
does not use new innovations. There is no enthusiasm, support
and competition in his class and lesson. He spends much time
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 and uses great energy to control students’ behaviours in other to
prevent disorder.

Teacher’s Functions

1. The teacher informs and explains to pupils the available

educational facilities and opportunities around them. He too
should be well informed and knowledgeable in his area of
specialization and should be able to communicate such
knowledge to his students.
2. He stimulates, directs and guides learner’s needs. He creates
learning avenues in and out of the classroom and makes sure
that no pupil is disturbed from learning.
3. The teacher plays the roles of a model. A model is anything or
anybody that is worth emulating in terms of behaviours,
character and personality. He should realize that pupils are
watching and he is being emulated by them in many ways such
as talking, walking and in every manner one can think of. He
should therefore desist from acts of indiscipline such as truancy,
lateness, absenteeism, drunkenness, laziness, dishonesty,
quarreling, fighting, dirty appearance, sex abuse and partiality.
4. A teacher identifies and interprets materials to be learnt as
embedded in the syllabus. He identifies and solves the pupils’
learning problems by asking questions which help to expose
learning problems in pupils.
5. The teacher evaluates make reports and records pupils’
performances. He does this in and out of school activities. He
examines the pupils and marks assignments regularly. He records
to show progress or otherwise.

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6. The teacher encourages the learners to develop their different
areas of interest by organizing challenging activities among
pupils such as discussions, debates and competitions in and out
of the school.
7. Teacher keeps different kinds of records for effective
administration such as admission register, attendance registers,
scheme of work, assignment record and continuous assessment
record.
8. The teacher establishes the proper and conducive environment
for learning to take place.
9. The teacher becomes a preacher without ordination in the class.
He teaches moral values and encourages students to act
accordingly. The teacher maintains some contact with the home
of the learners and even with the large community. He shows
interest in appreciating the social circumstances of children
placed in his care.
10. He serves as a motivator of learning. The pupils’ ability to
learn depends on what the teacher does to appreciate the
importance of education as a human activity.
11. The teacher is a counselor. He gives advice on academic
(students who have problems in some subjects), vocational
(choice of career) and personal matters (confidential).
12. He should keep pace with the daily expansion in knowledge
in various schools disciplines so as to teach successfully. To
achieve this, he must organize and attend workshops, seminars
and conferences in addition to acquiring higher professional
certificates.

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13. It is the teacher’s work to recognize the major cogs in the
wheel of successful implementation of education scheme which
have emerged from military dictatorship that gave birth to
violence, corruption and anarchy as a national culture. These
results to cultism, drug and sex abuse, violence, exam
malpractice etc in education sector. He should find ways of
curbing the vices.
14. He should embark upon textbook writing to add to
knowledge and solve the problem of shortage of textual
materials. This can be done in subject association, individually or
at union level.
15. Conduction of research studies is a teacher’s work so as to
find ways of improving on his teaching methods and contribute to
knowledge. His findings should be published adequately.
16. A teacher undergoes approval professional training in
[Link] registers with the Teachers Registration Council
(TRC) and pays his dues.
17. He is capable of imparting knowledge, values, attitude,
habits and skills to the learners.
18. He has confidence in his ability to teach his pupils, listens to
his pupils’ questions, answers the pupils’ questions and
encourage them.
He masters his subject matter and he is able to disseminate the
information correctly.
19. He has ability to maintain discipline in his classroom.
20. He gathers local materials for improvisation of instructional
materials which he uses adequately and correctly so as to
make his lesson meaningful and interesting.

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21. He manages, maintains keeps and coordinates the available
instructional resources.
22. He makes himself visible and available to his pupils, parents
and community members (when they are on visit to the
school).

Qualities of a good teacher

There are some characteristics and attributes to search for in a

teacher before he can be addressed as a good teacher with high
qualities. The qualities are:
1. Sense of humility: a good teacher buries his ego, learn
something new from his students and respect the students’
opinions and views.
2. Accountability: a good teacher is accountable in the office
of responsibility he occupies.
3. Adaptability: a good teacher should be flexible so as to
adapt and adjust to any situation he finds himself. For
instance while using a method for teaching he should be
able to change the method if it cannot lead to success.
4. Caring: a good teacher cares about his students. He finds
out the interest, needs, strengths and weaknesses of his
students so as to be able to support them to succeed.
5. Compassion: a good teacher takes into considerations the
outside factors that can hinder effective teaching-learning
process such as death in the family, sickness, accidents etc.

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6. Cooperation: a good teacher cooperates with school
administrators, colleagues and students. He builds strong
and healthy relationship with other teachers and students
7. Creativity: a good teacher is creative. He uses his
creativity to plan and deliver a good, unique, engaging and
interesting lesson.
8. Dedication: a good teacher is dedicated to his work and
profession. He is hardworking and discharges his duties with
enthusiasms.
9. Evolving: a good teacher always improves himself which
results to professional growth and development. He does
this by attending seminars, conferences and workshops so
as to update himself in his field.
10. Fearlessness and brave: a good teacher is not
afraid of trying new approach no matter the criticism he
may exposed to. He defends his approach and tries
anything within the parameters of school policy to reach his
students.
11. Resourcefulness: a good teacher is resourceful. He
always finds a way of making things happen. He looks for
ways of supplying his students with materials even when
the funding is unavailable from the school purse or
government.
12. Trustworthy: a good teacher is transparent and
honest. He is not having shady behaviours. His colleagues,
students and parents trust him and belief in what he is
doing.

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13. Patience: a good teacher is patient. He is not in a
hurry to jump to conclusions. He possesses ability to see
the whole picture and understands the whole issue before
reacting.
14. Resilience: a good teacher is resilient. He doesnot
allow adversity to stop him from accomplishing his goals.
He overcomes many obstacles that present themselves as
barriers to his success.
15. Organization: a good teacher is organized. He has
the ability of keeping things neat and tidy. He keeps things
in order which makes access to his materials very quickly
and easily. Teaching encompasses a lot of complex issues
and materials and norganized teachers may not find it easy.
16. Grit: a good teacher determines to overcome any
obstacle confronting him to achieve a long term goal. He
possesses the grit necessary to make personal sacrifices
necessary to make success out of the obstacles.
17. Generosity: a good teacher is generous and kind. He
takes money from his pocket for individual student’s and
classroom needs. With his merger income, he donates
money to help out in areas where a need is recognized.
18. Joyous: a good teacher is always full of joy but not
lousy. He is happy doing his job and he has job satisfaction.
He is delighted in making his students happy.

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 Teacher’s professional attitudes and understanding of
learners

A profession is an occupation that requires specialized

training and techniques as well as the elements of profession and
licensing. There is a long list of occupation throughout the world.
They include teaching, medicine, law, nursing, engineering,
pharmacy etc. For any career to be regarded as a profession, it
must have some characteristics such as; a unique, definite and
essential social service, Knowledge or intellectual skills, long
period of specialized training, autonomy and decision making
authority, high degree of responsibility, service orientation, code
of conduct, in-service and professional growth, difficult, esoteric
knowledge and high social status.

Ethics of Teaching Profession

Ethics can be defined as a set of principles, rules and

regulations guiding the conduct of members of an organization. It
can also be called code of conduct. It spells out what one should
do or should not do as a professional.

There are five principles of ethics of teaching profession;

1. Commitment to the students

2. Commitment to the parents
3. Commitment to the community
4. Commitment to the employer
5. Commitment to the profession

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 Commitment to the students

A teacher has some fulfilling obligations to the students in his

relationship. His commitments to the students are:

1. Teachers should be impartial with pupils regardless of their

physical, mental, emotional, economic, social, racial or religious
characteristics.

2. Teachers should recognize and respect individual differences and

uniqueness among pupils and they should try to meet the
students’ individual educational needs and should not ridicule
any person in his class.

3. Teachers should not enter into any indecent relationship with the
pupils in their schools. They should not use their offices to
humiliate, threaten, intimidate, harass or blackmail any student
to have canal knowledge of them. They should not engage in
sexual misconduct with their pupils or any related abuse of their
office.

4. Teachers should not release confidential information about their

pupils or homes carelessly except that such information is
released to authorized agencies or it is required by law.

5. Teachers should use the confidential information about their

students for the students’ educational development.

6. Teachers should not make damaging or defamatory comments on

their students/homes.

7. Teachers should let the students understand the privileges and

benefits/opportunities.

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8. Teachers should have good commitments to teaching and
adequate care and love for their pupils.

9. Teachers should attend their lessons regularly and functionally.

10. Teachers must teach according to their syllabus

11. Teachers must enforce the right discipline on the pupils.

12. Teachers should not take part in corrupt practice. They

should not ask or receive gifts or gratification for themselves or
for others in any kind what so ever for selfish motive.

13. Teachers should not use their positions to spread their

political and religious ideologies among the students.

14. Teachers should not engage in examination malpractice.

They should keep all examination records and knowledge at their
disposal with adequate secrecy. They should not aid and abet
examination malpractice. by any learner. All cases of examination
malpractice they have the knowledge about should be reported
to the appropriate authorities promptly.

1. Parents should continue to have significant concern and

influence on their children even during adolescence stage of
their lives. Effective parenthood does not end in childhood,
it is continuous.
2. Parents should continue to have significant concern and
influence on their children even during adolescence stage of
their lives. Effective parenthood does not end in childhood,
it is continuous.

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Peer groups

Meanings of peer groups

Home is the first social institution of any child. Families

socialize their children. The socio-economic backgrounds,
parents’ occupation and ethnic identity affect how families
socialize their children. When children move from out from their
families to schools, they start to form attachments and
friendships. They make friendships through their play. The
friendship’s influence their behaviours which have a more lasting
influence on them. Children discover that others can share their
feelings and interests. Therefore, peers’ influence becomes more
dominant. As time goes on, peer groups have stronger and
powerful influence than that of parents and siblings.

Peer groups occupy extreme positions in the lives of

adolescents. Sometimes, adolescents consider their peers more
important than their parents. Peer group is an agency
socialization and social control. A peer group is a social and
primary group of people who have common interest. Peering is
normally done by children themselves and not by parents or
teachers. Children develop a sense of self from their perceptions
of important people around them such as teachers, relatives and
peers. Peers can be friends, schoolmates, roommates, classmates
or street gangs. Children self-perception and socializing skills are

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influenced by how their peers view them. Peer group is an
important pressure throughout one’s life. The groups are critical
during developmental stage of childhood and are more critical at
adolescence when a child is crossing the bridge from childhood to
adulthood.

Peer group pressure is real. Nearly all teenagers are

affected by peer pressure either positively or negatively at some
points in their lives. Peering is normally done by children
themselves and not by parents or teachers. Children join peer
groups that accept them whether their activities are positive and
legal or negative and evil. If they are not accepted in a group that
involves in positive activities, they do not waste time to join the
evil ones. The acceptance depends on age, socio-economic
background, social status, conformity, common interests and
same academics and risk behaviors. A member stands the
chance of rejection if he does not conform to the group’s culture
(whether good or evil). Members influence one another’s beliefs,
habits, characters, values and general behavior. All members can
be males, females or unisex.

Peer’s influence on a child depends on a child’s socio-

economic background, family relationship, personality of the
child, nature of the group and group’s interests. Paton (2007)
claimed that no matter the family background of a child, parents
have only a small effect on his long-term development. This is
because the need to survive at school and mix with friends has a
more significant impact on a child’s behavior than lessons
learned in the home. A child who grows up in a disciplined

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household is just as likely to turn into a tear-away as those raised
in chaotic homes, if he mixes with unruly classmates at a younger
age. It can also be concluded that peers have greater influence
on children than genetic make-up and family life.

The peers influence children’s development of social skills.

Children learn how to negotiate and relate to others including
their parents and siblings. Children grasp negotiating skills and
learn how to deal with hostility. They also learn how to solve
problems in a social context. Children learn how to cooperate and
socialize according to group’s norms and modes of behavior.
Children’s values, wears, eating habits, accents, speech patterns,
attitudes and total ways of learning are influenced by the peers.
Children blind obedience to peers’ norms can result in socially
alienated gangs with pathological outlooks.

Peer groups provide a sense of autonomy, secure social

environment and over-all well-being of children. Members escape
the direct supervisions of adults. Children on their own learn to
form relationships and have chance to discuss interests that
adults may not permit or share such as popular music, drugs and
sex.

Cognitive, social and emotional development of a child is

affected by peers. Peers influence intellectual, personal
development and scholastic achievement of a child. This means
that the peer group’s attitudes and values are essential elements
in learning. Those who are surrounded with academically focused
peers are more likely to internalize the achievers’ behavior while
those that surround themselves with peer groups of dubious

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character who lack focus engage in mal-adjustment behaviours
who become drop-outs, liabilities and unproductive.

Advantages of Peer Groups (positive attributes)

Peer groups can have positive influence on a child’s

academic motivation and general positive behavior. This is
because peer group’s pressure and influence are key events
during the adolescence stage of psychosocial development.
However, peer groups have the following merits:

1. Gender roles: peer group members teach one another

gender roles through role playing and gender role
socialization. Through this, members learn about sex
differences and social cultural expectations.
2. Source of information: peer group members inform one
another on issues that are outside individuals’ viewpoints.
The information may be academics, social or personal.
Members become important social referents for teaching
others social norms, different ideologies and customs.
3. Adulthood practice: peer groups serve as practicing
venue to adulthood. This is done by providing support as
teens assimilate into adulthood. At this stage, the major
changes are: increasing feelings of self- sufficiency,
decreasing dependence on parents and connecting with a
larger social network.
4. Unity and collective behavior: peer groups teach
members unity and collective behaviour in life. This is
because they provide influential social setting in which
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 group norms are developed and enforced through
socialization which promotes in-group similarities. In
promoting unity among members, factors like group
communication, group conformity of attitude and group
consensus are very important. Members agree on
normative codes such as in behavior, clothing, attire and
colours. Any member that deviates from the strict
normative code stands the chance of rejection from the
group.
5. Pro-social behavior: Pro-social behavior can be described
as a social behavior that benefits other people or society at
large. It includes sharing, helping, donating, cooperating
and volunteering. Pro-active behaviour is concern with the
rights and welfares of others. Peer groups develop in
members desirable traits that foster positive attitudes so as
to be beneficial for other children and society. Peers’
behaviours aer shaped positively to become assets and
productive.
6. Identity formation: peer groups help individuals to form
his identity. Identity formation is a developmental process
where a person acquires the sense of self. Normative
regulation and a staging ground for the practice of social
behaviours are provided by peer groups. However,
individual is able to experiment with roles and discovers his
identity.

Disadvantages of Peer Groups (negative influence)

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 With all the advantages of positive peer groups’ behaviours,
peer groups are not free from drawbacks that are illegal and
evil. Negative Peer group influence can rightly be described as
the cancan worm that has eaten deep into the lives of
adolescents. Negative groups often engage in self-destructive
and anti-social behavior. Crossing the bridge from adolescence
stage to adulthood is not a child’s play. This is because teens
desire to be famous and liked by others. Peer group influence
may have negative influence on a child’s behavior. The
drawbacks are discussed below.

1. Peer’s pressure: Peers’ pressure refers to when a person

does something he would not do normally so as s to fit into
a group of peers. This is done in order to impress the peer
group members. Peer’s pressure is most common in
adolescence stage. This is because members spend a lot of
time with their peers in social contexts like schools and
neighborhood. Members of peer group feel indirectly
pressured into changing their individual behavior to match
that of his peers. Peer’s Pressure can be described as the
hallmark of adolescents’ experience. The peer group
members compel one another to go along with certain
habits and beliefs. The group can pressurize members to do
things that are vices, evils and illegal. Examples of such
social evils are: cultism, examination malpractice, use of
tobacco, drug abuse, pre-marital sex, rape, armed robbery,
violence, vandalism, alcoholism, suicide and murder.

Types of peers’ pressure

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a. Pressure to be fashion conscious: dressing, make-up and
hair-do. Children may wear clothes that make them
uncomfortable but just because they want to feel among,
they wear such types of clothes, colours and styles.
b. Pressure changes in attitude: children change their attitude
by picking up some attitudes of their friends. They no longer
care about their school activities, such as lectures, tests,
examinations, grades etc. They skip classes to follow the
leader not because it is right but because they want to feel
among.
c. Pressure of social activities: children would always want to
be where their friends are. They would always want to hang
out with their peers whether the place is right or wrong.
d. Pressure of dating and sex: Adolescents feel among when
they are linked with those hanging on their arms. This
presses them to have sex with their opposite gender just
because they want to fit in and it is what every member of
the group does.
e. Pressure of drugs and alcoholism: This gets students into
big trouble. This is because they are illegal and dangerous
to their health. Under the influence of drugs and alcohol,
others take advantage of them such as cases of rape. Apart
from rape, they engage in other vices which they would not
do normally.

2. Risk behavior: at adolescence stage, peer groups are

powerful agents of risk behaviours. This is because teens
typically replace family (parents and siblings) with friends

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 and group members regarding social and leisure activities.
In the context of such relationship, much problematic
behaviour occurs.
3. Aggression: Aggression can be described as often harmful,
overt social interaction with the intention of inflicting
wound, damages and other unpleasantness upon another
individual. It may be expressed physically and
communicated either verbally or non-verbally. Aggression
may develop due to retaliation, provocation and frustration
due to blocked goals. Aggression is susceptible to peer’s
influence. Teens that join aggressive group increase the
levels of their aggression.
4. Anti-social behavior: Anti-social behaviours are opposite of
pro-social behaviours. Pro-social behaviours are developed
by positive peer groups while anti-social behaviours are
developed by negative peer groups. For a child to be pro-
social or anti-social therefore depends on the peer group he
belongs to. Peers’ behaviours are shaped negatively to
reflect the social evils of such groups. The consequence is
disastrous to the members, their families and the society at
large in future. This is because such teens grow up to be
hostile, liabilities and unproductive to the socio-economic
development of the nation.
5. Sexual promiscuity: At adolescence stage, there are
physical changes, new emotions and sexual urges. This
means that adolescents are likely to participate in sexual
activities especially at this age of technology. Teens engage
in sexual behaviours such as strategies to attract opposite

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 sex, personal indecent interactions with opposite gender,
sex drive, indecent languages, masturbation pre-marital sex
etc. effects of such sexual activities and promiscuity among
teens are of great importance to child upbringing. This is
because they result to unwanted pregnancy, abortion,
sexual transmitted diseases (syphilis, HIV/AIDS, gonorrhea
etc) and death.

Ways of handling negative peer groups’ influence

The ways and strategies of overcoming negative peer groups’

influence cannot be carried out by the adolescents themselves
alone. They need the help of parents and teachers. In this
section, the children and adolescents’ parents’ and teachers’
strategies are suggested.

Children and Adolescents

1. Children and Adolescents should develop strong personal

identity which will be very difficult to be eroded right from
childhood. This lowers rates of risk behaviours.
2. They should build their self-esteems and confidence. They
should always be themselves and not trying to be someone
else. They should stand up for themselves and what they
belief in.
3. They should always maintain their integrity wherever they
are. This will not make them acceptable to social evil peer
groups.
4. They should choose their peers and friends wisely.

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 5. They should avoid friends who will make them feel
uncomfortable or belittle their self-esteem.
6. They should develop strong attachment and connections
with their parents and siblings right from childhood
7. They should feel free to ask questions from their parents
and discuss issues with them.
8. They should surround themselves with those who share the
same positive interests with them. Friends that like them
would take them as they are and not forcing or compelling
them on negative activities.

Parents/homes

Parents need to learn how to understand and learn how to

handle their children in wrong peers.

1. Creation of conducive environment: When it comes to

peers’ influence, parents need to lay a very solid foundation
for their children for character built-up with love. This
makes the children to feel secured at home. On the other
hand, parents should not make arbitrary rules about peer
groups. This may increase children’s anticipation in tasting
what it is. If this is done, parents consider such children as
disobedient and hatred sets in. When children are not
accepted at home, definitely they turn to somewhere else.
Parents should continue to have significant concern and
influence on their children even during adolescence stage of
their lives. Effective parenthood does not end in childhood,

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 it is continuous. Parents need to learn how to understand
and learn how to handle their children in wrong peers.
2. Understanding developmental stages: Parents should
understand the developmental stages of childhood,
adolescence and adulthood. They should understand the
fact that their children’s changes in respect of taste,
attitudes, habits, ideologies, styles, appearance and values
are due to peer groups’ influence. It is with this
understanding; parents can help their children out of the
calamity.
3. High knowledge of ones’ children: Parents should strive
to know more about their children and the type of friends
they keep. While doing this, parents should not be
judgemental. They should gather information from other
siblings and even outsiders to know more about such
people.
4. Strong family connection: Parents should continue to
have significant concern and influence on their children
even during adolescence stage of their lives. Effective
parenthood does not end in childhood, it is continuous.
Parents should be very close and supportive to their
children. This is because group becomes stronger on
children that do not have parental attention. This may be
due to the fact that parents work extra hours to earn more
and they are unavailable when their children need them.
Their children therefore turn their to their peer groups for
emotional support.

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5. Parental responsibilities: these days, parents abandon
their duties for teachers. The discipline they cannot give
their children, they want teachers to give such discipline.
On the other hand, when teachers discipline their children,
they come to school to retaliate. Parents need to wake up to
their responsibilities and stop shifting blames on teachers
for their own (parents) inadequacies.
6. Re-solving conflicts in the family: parents should re-
solve the conflicts between them and their children due to
peer group negative behaviours. The conflicts between the
children and parents on misbehavior may make the children
to feel pushed away and seeks closeness elsewhere. Such
children do not discriminate between good and bad peers.
They settle wherever they are accepted even if the group is
involved in illegal activities. If parents neglect their children
totally to evil influence, then, there cannot be remedy.
Efforts should be made by parents to win back their children
from evil groups.
7. Re-direction of children’s activities: children activities
can be re-directed by the parents to more positive and pro-
social peers and events. For example, children and
adolescents should be encouraged to join clubs and
societies that can build them positively e.g. Scout, Boys
Brigade, Girls Guide etc. these groups are led by trusted
and respected elders, coaches and adults who are trained to
shape positively the lives of young children.

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 8. Communication: Parents should communicate freely with
their children’s teachers so as to build the children and help
them out of the calamity of negative peer influence.
9. Family therapy: family therapy can be organized for
nuclear family members. This is to identify and treat family
problems that can cause dysfunctional and disunity in the
family. This will also reduce the rate of divorce in the
society which is one of the causes of antisocial behaviours
in children today.

Schools and teachers

Schools and teachers have a lot to do in finding remedies to

negative peer groups’ influence on students. This is because
schools are often the site of negative peer interactions. As a
result, schools’ personnel have a special opportunity for effective
intervention. The strategies that can be taken by the school and
teachers include:

1. Schools need peers’ mediation programmes which

encourage students to resolve conflicts on their own without
the use of violence or aggression.
2. All schools should have Guidance and Counseling Units
where Counselors organize groups within the school to
handle various problems. Such programmes are social skills
and empathy training. Social Skills Training is a form of
therapy used by teachers to help persons who have
difficulties relating to other people. The major goal is to
train students on verbal and non-verbal behaviours that are
involved in social interaction.

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 3. Teachers and schools should communicate with the parents
of their students any noticed change in behavior so that the
parents and the teachers will be able to help the students.
4. Where the peer groups are so strong in a school and their
activities are disrupting the school programme and serve as
threat and insecurity to other students, parents of the
concerned students should be invited by the school
administration or by PTA. If there is no positive change in
the students, they should be expelled from the school.

Society
Society is very important when it comes to bringing up
children that can compete favourably with their counterparts
locally, nationally and internationally. The curriculum is taken
from the society for the students that will study in that very
society and come back to the society as productive members to
economic development of such society. The societal inputs
determine the outputs to be rolled back to the [Link] is
the sum total of social relationships among its constituent
members.
A society can be described as a group of people that are
share same geographical or social territory, economy, same
political leadership/authority, same religions, same language and
common social interaction. A society may be homogenous or
heterogeneous. A society is homogenous if they have one
language, religion and one common interest. It is heterogeneous
where we have diversified languages, tribes, culture, religion and
interests such as Nigeria. Members enjoy benefits in ways that
would not be possible on an individual basis.

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 A society consists of people with common destiny and like-
minded people who are governed by their own norms and values.
This means that members determine their ways of operation and
leadership. A society that wants to build a place that is free of
corruption needs teachers that are ready to do the work
diligently. This is because every tree is known by its own fruit;
there are fig, grapes, oranges, guava, banana etc trees that bring
forth their fruits.

History has established many types of societies such as

hunting and gathering societies, pastoral societies, horticultural
societies, agricultural societies, feudal societies and industrial
societies. Hunting and gathering societies survive by hunting
animals, fishing and gathering plants members depend on their
immediate environment for survival. Pastoral societies pasture
domesticating animals for food and for transportation. The next
one is horticultural societies which rely on cultivating fruits,
vegetables and plants.

Another type of society is agricultural societies which uses

modern technology tools to cultivate land, Plants and harvest.
Feudal society is another type of society who relies on ownership
of land. Members have landlords that they work for who in turn
provide them with military protection. The next type of society is
the industrial society. The society basically uses machines to
produce goods. Factories are established and masses are
employed to work there. The last society is the post-industrial
society which is dominated by technology. Whatever type of
society a country has, there are elders, leaders and governments.

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Leaders

A leader is anybody who has been assigned the

responsibilities of guiding his or her followers or subordinates.
The leadership can be in the home, extended family setting,
schools, classroom groups, offices, departments, religious
organizations, political organizations, social clubs/associations
etc. In short, a leader is someone that the subordinates look up to
for guidance and directives in any facet of life. Leader has been
found to be one of the factors that work cooperatively for
children’s upbringing in one way or the other. In preparing
youngsters to become stars and vibrant leaders of tomorrow,
leaders have a lot of roles to play.

Roles of Leaders

Leaders need to perform some roles in order to complement

the efforts of the parents and teachers in producing vibrant
future leaders who can be referred to as assets (stars) and not
liabilities in future. Such children can compete favourably in the
globe with their counterparts academically, socially, spiritually,
morally and economically. It is such children that are needed for
political and economic development and sustainability. The roles
of leaders include:

1. Role models
2. Enhancers of positive attitudes
3. Supporters of pro-social behaviours
4. Encouragers of good work

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 5. Moral instruction
6. Corrections of evils

Governments

In Nigeria, the political leaders are politicians and there are

three tiers of government; Federal, States and Local
Governments. One needs to be aware of the roles of government
in making contributions in a child’s life positively. It is not easy to
create assets and turn children to stars that can affect their lives
and the society positively. Governments need to perform some
roles in order to complement the efforts of the parents and
teachers in producing vibrant future leaders who can be referred
to as assets and not liabilities.

1. Creation of enabling environment: Governments should

Provide enabling environment for children and youth in
order to encourage them to identify with their nation. They
should be encouraged to have national identity, loyalty and
patriotism. If this is done, there will be no case of brain
drain where people always prefer to go outside the country
to work.
2. Opportunities: Government should open opportunities for
children in all areas of their lives. This is because there is
need to remember that children will need to compete and
succeed not only in academics and sports but in all the
facets of life. This reduces the rate of crimes especially
suicide.
3. Fund allocation: It is the duty of the government to
allocate fund for educational purposes. This depends on the

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 economy of a country but UNESCO recommended that 26%
of the total budget of a nation should go for education.
4. Functional educational programmes and Policies: The
government is in charge of making educational policies in
form of curriculum planning and development. In Nigeria,
NERDC is in charge of curriculum planning and development
for primary and secondary schools, NCCE is in charge of
Colleges of Education while NUC is in charge of Universities.
Educational policies should be consistent, functional and
should be made in considering the learners’ characteristics
(age, maturational level, interest and needs).
5. Youths empowerment and employment: Children
cannot be turned to stars if they have no job of their own at
matured age. They are trained in schools, colleges and
universities to perform and be productive. This is how their
functionalism can be measured but in the situation where
they graduate from universities and serve their fatherland
for one year, after that they roam the streets for years
without jobs, no star can be made out of them. If they
cannot be employed into white collar jobs, they need to be
empowered to establish on their own. Lack of
empowerment and employment has increased greatly the
rate of crimes in Nigeria.
6. Eradication of corruption: To produce vibrant leaders of
tomorrow and turn children to stars that can affect the
national development and sustainability positively, the
leaders in Nigeria should be purged of corruption. Leaders
that are wicked, corrupt, dishonest, partial, injustice and

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 looters of public cannot produce vibrant leaders and stars
that will light the path of the society. They will always strive
to produce their own kinds who affect the economy and the
society negatively. Youths imitate and emulate adults. In a
situation where children see drop outs that become
politicians and have become billionaires within a very short
time, they do not see reasons for education or schooling.
Leaders need to handover to children good virtues that will
make them to become vibrant future leaders.
7. Provision of infrastructural facilities: It is the duty of
the political leaders and government to make provision for
adequate infrastructural facilities. These include good
fencing, spacious and conducive classrooms, lecture halls,
laboratories, libraries, electricity supply, adequate sources
of water, conveniences, habitable hostels, office
accommodation, good road network, internet network, ICT
Centers equipped with hardware and software, well
equipped clinic and canteen, bookshops, cybercafés etc.
8. Provision of instructional material: The government
should provide instructional material for schools. At this era
of technology, children need learning materials that will
make them compete favourably with their counterparts
globally. There needs to be provision for hardware and
software, printed and non-printed materials, projected and
non-projected materials, high and low technologies as well
as electric and non-electric materials. Teachers should also
be encouraged to improvise by including in their salaries
Instructional Materials Allowances

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9. Provision of human resources: Apart from students, the
human resources needed in schools are teaching and non-
teaching staff. In recruiting personnel to serve students,
government should consider people that really competent
and happy to work with children. Recruitments should be on
merit especially on practical such as demonstration of
teaching skills, ability to operate successfully in the
laboratories, computer literacy etc.
10. Security: The governments should provide securities
for children, youths and teachers. Where the lives of
teachers and pupils are not safe, learning can hardly take
place. Schools should be provided with security men to be
on guide in order to keep teachers and students from
kidnappers, rapists, armed robbers and ritualists.
11. Improvement of the economy: Governments need
to improve the economy of the country. Children that are
hungry and lack basic necessities of life cannot be turned to
vibrant future leaders. In developmental psychology, there
is time for children’s brain development which is
unattainable due to poverty. Many children die in poverty
due to malnutrition, ill-health and non-accessibility to health
facilities.

In conclusion, if children are to be prepared to take places

of responsible adults, they need supports of their parents,
extended families, peers, neighbours, communities, leaders
and governments. Before, children can be turned to vibrant
adults, they should be given provisions to enjoy their childhood
to the fullest. Adults need to help children realize their

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 potentials, recognize their present challenges and design
strategies to face the future for progress. There needs to be a
way where by these supporters can work cooperatively to
complement one another’s’ efforts in producing vibrant stars
that can take up the leadership of the nation. Their working
cooperatively is to ensure that children thrive in today’s world
in order to contribute to the nation in future. There needs to be
smooth transition from home to school and from school to a
wider society.

CHAPTER FOUR

TEACHING AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

At the end of chapter four, learners should be able to perform the

following:
1. Give the meaning of instructional media
2. Elucidate the functions of instructional media
3. Classify instructional media using human sense organ
model
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 4. Choose a class of instructional media and explain their
rationales for preferring them to others
5. Compare the use of audio materials with visual materials
6. Compare the utilization of audio materials with audio visual
materials
7. Discuss the advantages of audiovisual materials over visual
materials
8. Explain the criteria for selection of instructional media
9. Describe the preparation a teacher should make before
using instructional media
10. Assess the adequacy of instructional materials in
Nigerian primary and secondary schools

Introduction (Meaning of Media in instruction)

Instructional media is a broad –range of resources that can

be used to facilitate effective communication in teaching-learning
process. They are information carrying technologies that are used
for instructional purposes. They are the materials that are
designed and produced for teaching and learning. They include
electronics (projected media), and print materials (textbooks,
newspapers, newsletter, workbook, journals, fliers, leaflets etc).
Others are charts, diagrams, maps, globes, realia, etc.
Educational media refer to all things that can be seen, heard,
read, touched or manipulated for facilitating instructional process
and achievement of learning objectives. In the 1960s, learning
facilitators were named apparatus which were renamed as
teaching aids in the 1970s. Today, they are neither called

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apparatus nor teaching aids. They are referred to as educational
or instructional media.

Teaching aids are different from educational media because

the former serves as ‘aids’ to teachers. Teaching aids have their
orientation towards terms like audio-visual aids, audio-visual
instructions, audio-visual services and audio-visual methods.
They supplement the effort of teachers and are controlled and
managed by teachers. They cannot bring teaching-learning
process into fruition on their own because they are teacher-
centred.

Educational media on the other hand can instruct learners

on their own to attain the learning objectives. They do not
supplement the effort of teachers but can bring about learning in
the absence of the human teacher. The learning objectives can
be attained using educational media because they are learners
centred. They have their orientation towards terms like Learning
Resource Centre, Media Centres, Community Resources Centre,
Instructional System and Media Technology.

Instructional media refer to channels through which ideas,

knowledge, message and information are transmitted, conveyed
and disseminated. Some authors, teachers and educators refer to
them as instructional materials/media/resources while others
name them educational resources/materials/media. They are
seen as collection of materials and equipment that can be used
effectively for communication in the classroom. They are
materials that can be seen, heard, touched and manipulated for
teaching and learning process. Educational media have their

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orientation towards terms like Learning Resource Centre,
Community Resources Centre, Media Centre, Instructional System
and Media Technology.

The design of instructional media facilitates effective and

efficient teaching-learning process and guarantees or promotes
the quality of education. Instructional media should be
systematically designed, produced and efficiently utilised for
qualitative education. The teacher arranges the learning
environment that encourages productive interaction between the
teacher and his pupils. A teacher should be in a position to design
and produce aids to be used in his class.

Instructional media refer to a broad –range of resources that

can be used to facilitate effective communication in teaching-
learning process. They are information carrying technologies that
are used for instructional purposes. They are the materials that
are designed and produced for teaching and learning. They
include electronics (projected media), and print materials
(textbooks, newspapers, newsletter, workbook, journals, fliers,
leaflets etc). Others are charts, diagrams, maps, globes and
realia.

Functions of instructional media in instructional process

1. Instructional media provide concrete experiences to

learners. The provision of concrete experiences facilitates
the acquisition, retention, recall and usability of abstract

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 symbols. The abstract concepts are visualised and prior
experiences are integrated with current new learning.
2. Instructional media make learning meaningful. The learners
are able to understand the meaning and perform the
actions they have been set to perform by learning
objectives with the use of educational media. This is
because they are able to see, hear, touch, smell or even
manipulate.
3. Instructional media make teaching-learning process very
interesting. Pupils’ interests are aroused and sustained
throughout the lesson. The interest they have in the lesson
aids their retention. There is no boredom during the lesson.
4. Instructional media arrest the attention of the pupils. The
use of media captures the pupils’ attention and sustains it
till the end of the lesson. While using media, pupils have
interest in participating in the lesson and so, they are
attentive.
5. Instructional media help to support teacher’s instruction.
Teachers use them to introduce the lesson as set induction
to highlight strong points, to elicit responses, to provoke
learners’ curiosity and to generate learners’ attention. They
are used to prepare the learners mind towards receiving
instruction.
6. Instructional media reduce teacher’s burnout as he is free
from routine exercise. This is because teachers’ tasks are
reduced. He has the opportunity of focusing on important
tasks as he plays the role of a manager and facilitator of
learning. The media dispense information while the teacher

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 attends to individual student, diagnose and correct their
mistakes as well as making provision for conducive and
stimulating learning environment.
7. Instructional media give room for individualized instruction
and distance learning. Learners are provided with materials
that are specially designed to suit their individual needs,
interests, abilities and experiences. Individual student goes
at his pace and rate. Different groups are taken care of by
the use of educational media; the slow learners, the
children etc.
8. Instructional media facilitate pupils’ practice and drill.
Students are able to practice the drill on spelling, writing,
mathematics, speech and listening through the use of audio
tapes, DVD, and other gadgets in the language laboratory.
9. Instructional media make learning and instruction possible
anywhere and anytime. They have taken instruction to non-
formal setting outside the school such as homes, business
premises, factories and market places. This has broken the
barriers to education by less privileged people without
cultural, physical, environmental, socio-economic
background or demographic biases. This explains why
distance learning relies heavily on instructional media.

Taxonomy or classification of instructional media:

Instructional media are classified in different ways. Some authors,
educationists, teachers and writers use human sense organs
while others use other forms like the use of hardware/software,
electronic/non-electronic, projection/non projection, print/non-

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print as well as high/low technology to classify instructional
media.

Human sense organs model

The sense organs that are referred to here are the sense of
hearing; audio, sense of sight; visual and combination of hearing
and sight; audio-visual.

Audio: Audio educational media are those that appeal to the

sense of hearing alone. Ears are used to take the information
needed for learning. The list includes drum, human noise, public
address system, gramophone, microphone, reel-to-reel-recording,
land phone, whistle, radio, mobile voice recorder, tape recorder
and audio discs. Audio materials provide information through the
use of sound waves that are picked by ears. They are not suitable
for those that are hearing impaired. It is not only good for
students to hear information, it is better they listen. Audio
materials help to develop acquisition of listening skills in students
so as to detect areas of emphasis in the lesson presentation.

Visual: Visual educational media are those that appeal to the

sense of sight alone. Eyes are used to take the information
needed for learning. They are: realia (real objects), models,
globe, specimens, pictures, printed materials (handouts, posters,
leaflets, books, journals, newsletters, workbook modules,
newspaper etc), charts, graphic arts (cartoon, graph and
diagram), illustrations, photographs. Of all the educational media
that use the sense of sight, the use of realia (real object) is the
best. But where real objects are unavailable or inaccessible,
teachers can use other materials like models, pictures etc.
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Realia (real objects): presentation of a lesson with real object
is the best. This is because the learner is able to see the objects
in their natural phenomenal such as features, characteristics,
colours etcetera. Examples of realia are animals, tools, currency,
plants and etcetera. It is not also situations that is possible for a
teacher to bring in real objects to the classroom. This is because
they may be dangerous (e.g. snakes) or too big for classroom
situation. This explains why real objects are represented using
models, drawings and pictures.

Models: Models are representations of real objects, scenes and

situations. They can be in two or three dimensional. The two
dimensional has only length and breadth. It is a flat material
while the three dimensional has thickness that is made up of
length, breadth and height or depth. Models can be toys,
puppets, teddy bear and etcetera. They may be smaller, bigger,
larger or wider and they may be same size of the real objects
that they represent. They can be made with cloth, wood, spread,
metals, plastics, clay soil, plaster or paper mashie.

Advantages of models

1. They appeal to the senses and give direct purposeful learning

experiences.
2. They promote creativity, inquiry and discovery in the learners.
3. They aid learners’ retention, recalling and reciting.
4. They can be easily produced by both the teacher and the
pupils.

Disadvantages of models

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1. Models take time for production.
2. It may be difficult to get accurate information and the
information may be misleading.
3. The materials for production may be scarce and expensive.

Audio-Visual: Audio-visual educational media are the materials

that use the combination of both sight and hearing. The eyes
take the information by seeing while the air waves pass the
information through the ear at the same time. Examples are
teachers, projected slides, film strips, projected videos, television,
DVD, computer, GSM, closed circuit television etc. Audio-visual
media are better than audio or visual because they provide the
learners the opportunity of using both sense for instructional
purpose. Examples are given below.

Audio Visual Audio-visual

Drum Realia (real objects)

Television

Piano Specimen Camera

Trumpet Text books Overhead

projectors journals GSM Phone

Microphone Posters/Graphs Computer

Equalizer Newspaper/Magazine Drama

Radio Charts/Diagram Video

Tape recorder Fliers/Leaflets 16mm

Amplifier Models 32mm

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Loud speaker Pictures/Photograph 88mm

Head phones Symbols Demonstration

Gramophones 2-Dimonsion Objects Slides with

sound

Tapes/cassette 3-Dimonsion Objects Power point

Memory cards Cartoons Drama

Criteria for selection of instructional media

All the criteria to be considered while selecting materials for

instructional purpose are grouped under the factors affecting
media selection. The factors are learners, objectives of the
lesson, cost, practical factors and human factors.

1. Instructional objectives: Objectives as the cornerstone of

Educational Technology has to be considered before selecting
media. Instructional objective refers to what a teacher has set
out to achieve for teaching exposure. The instructional
objective may be to transmit cognitive, affective or
psychomotor skills. If it is cognitive, it has to do with
acquisition of facts, principles and knowledge which may need
any form of audio media like radio. Where the instructional
objective deals with psychomotor, pictorial materials and
photographs showing actions may be used.

2. Availability The teacher has to consider the availability of the

media to be used before selection is made. He has to ascertain

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 and confirm whether the materials exist or not. It will be
unwise for a teacher to select any form of media that are out
of his reach. He has to consider the raw materials if they are
locally available or if it is possible for his
school to borrow from neighbouring school or buying.

3. Suitability to the learners’ characteristics: The teacher

has to select the materials that contain information that are
suitable and appropriate to the learners’ age, ability, class,
maturational level, entry behaviour, socio-economic
background and interest. The teacher has to find out whether
such media have been used for the learners before or not. The
teacher should not allow his personal interest, bias and
judgement to prevail.
4. Content accuracy: The information contained in the media
should be considered by the teacher. He needs to find out
whether the information given in the media are correct or not.
The information should be valid, authentic and current (latest
ideas). For example, a picture containing Chief Obasanjo as
the president of Nigeria or Soludo as the CBN Governor of
Nigeria is obsolete.
5. Cost: The cost of the material has to be considered. The cost
should commeasurable with its benefits. The teacher should
consider his purse or that of the school. An expensive media
will do the work that the cheaper one will do. If they are too
expensive, the teacher should think of improvising locally.
6. Teacher’s capability: The teacher’s capability needs to be
considered while selecting educational media. He should have

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 the knowledge of manipulating the media to be selected for
instruction. He does not choose a material because it is
attractive or sophisticated without having the ability to operate
and utilize it. He should know the operational techniques of the
media to be selected.
7. Media interactivity:The media to be selected should allow
free interaction from teacher to learner, learner to learner and
learner to teacher. There should be no inhibition or barrier in
the interaction of the teacher and his pupils. This is to allow
quality feedback from the pupils to the learners which can
serve as points of correction, revision and modification of the
lesson by the teacher.
8. Class size: The teacher needs to consider the number of the
learners in his class. This will determine the type of media to
be chosen and utilized. Bold visuals or projectors are suitable
for a large class while Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) can be
used for a small class.
9. Technical quality: The teacher ensures that the media to be
selected have operating facilities. There should be manual for
operating the media. The media should have technical quality
in terms of tone-fidelity, clarity, intelligibility and
synchronization of picture and sound. Every part of the media
should be functional.
10. Motivational value: The teacher should select media that
have abilities to motivate and encourage learners to learn and
study harder and longer. The media should be able to sustain
the learners’ interest throughout the lesson.

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11. Media characteristics: The teacher should consider the
flexibility of the media to be selected in terms of easy
operation, handling, repairing, maintenance and storage. He
should also note its durability and portability.
12. Infrastructural amenities: The amenities like good
access road, security service, electricity supply,
accommodation, and pipe-borne water contribute to smooth
utilization of media. For example, a medium that uses only
electricity (without batteries and generator) may not be
suitable where there is no electricity supply.
13. Personnel: The teacher has to consider the presence and
availability of the supporting staff before choosing a medium
for instruction. He has to consider whether the supporting staff
are qualified, knowledgeable and experienced about the
medium. In case it breaks down, are there experts to repair it?
Are the experts easily accessible nearby for immediate
possible assistance?
14. Government policy and support: The media to be
selected by the teacher should have moral, political and
financial approval of the government. If the government in
power does not favour the media like sensitive books, plays,
albums, music and comics, the teacher should not select them
for instruction.
15. Durability: the materials to be selected for use must be
durable. The students that will use the materials are children.
They need things that are strong and durable and not things
that are fragile. Remember they are always curious and may
even want to dismantle the materials.

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Utilization of instructional media

After the production of instructional media, they are utilized

by instructional purposed. The use of instructional material is not
only meant for the teacher. The student should take part in the
utilization in form of observation, manipulation as well as
answering and questioning of question. Omojuwa (1997) in Peter
and Atakpa (2010) enumerate some guidelines for teacher in the
effective utilization of instructional media.

1. The teacher must have his audience in term of identifying the

learners need, maturity, intellectual capacity, socio-economic
background and entry behavior.
2. The teacher must know the learning objectives and the specific
tasks to be performed by the pupils at the end of their
exposure to the use of the media.
3. Learning objectives should be specific and stated in
operational term with references to content method, sequence
and techniques of instruction.
In using media, the teacher needs to design basic plan for
his utilization. The principles he needs to follow for planning to
use instructional media as recommended by Ajelabi (2005),
Chike- Okoli and Ezeanolue (2005),Adewoyin (2007) and
Aggarwal (2007) are:

Prepare yourself: The teacher prepares himself physically,

mentally and psychologically. He prepares himself by making a
preview of the materials he wants to use. He listens to or looks at
the material chosen. He reads the manual or guides of the
materials. He organises himself on how he will introduce the

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materials, what activities he will engage in, what he will expose
the learners to, what the learners will perform and how the
learners experience will be related to what he has learnt.

Prepare the environment: The teacher prepares the

environment and sees that the equipment is functioning. He
needs to set up the stage and arrange the materials for proper
hearing and viewing. He checks the equipment for proper
functioning and he makes sure that all facilities like light, seats
and ventilation are available.

Prepare the class/audience: The audience may be children or

adult. The teacher introduces the materials by arousing the
learners’ interest. He makes the description of what the material
covers and stresses or emphasises what is important to be learnt
from the material. He also makes the learners to realise what is
expected from them in terms of activities and performances after
using the material.

Presentation of the material: the teacher uses the material

putting in his expertise skills. He manipulates the materials and
students do the same thing too. The teacher should not use any
material that he is not capable of operating. Where he has
shallow knowledge of the material, he needs to up-grade his
knowledge by making efforts in gaining deep knowledge of it so
as not to disgrace cheap off his self-esteem and integrity.

The display of the material has no specific time of

utilization. The material can be used at the beginning of the
lesson for set induction, at the middle of the lesson to illustrate
some points and at the end of the lesson to summarise the topic
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and give closure. When the material is not in use the teacher
should keep it aside to avoid distractions. It is wrong to paste a
material especially graphic material on the chalkboard right from
the beginning of the lesson to the end.

Follow-up: the teacher invites and answers questions on the

topic he had taught with the media at the end of the lesson. He
needs to give room for discussion. He receives with the learners
their experiences and gives them assignments and tests. The
feedback on the success or failure of the lesson and the material
is established through follow –up.

CHAPTER FIVE

TEACHING METHODS OR STRATEGIES

Learning objectives

At the end of chapter five, learners should perform the following:

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 1. Describe the meaning of teaching methods
2. Differentiate between teaching methods and teaching
techniques
3. Write the classifications of teaching methods
4. State the advantages and disadvantages of each teaching
method
5. Discuss the methods that are suitable for pre-primary,
primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education in
Nigeria
6. Explain the criteria for selecting teaching methods

Introduction (meaning of teaching methods)

An instructional or teaching method could be regarded as

the basic approach to instruction. It can be described as all
principles, strategies and ways of giving instruction to be
implemented by the teacher in order to achieve the desired
learning. Method is a formal structure of the sequence of acts
commonly denoted by instruction. The term method involves the
choice of what is to be taught as well as strategy and tactics of
teaching. Method includes strategies and techniques of teaching.
Different techniques may be used within the same strategy or
method. The term method involves the choice of what is to be
taught as well as strategy and tactics of teaching.

No method of instruction is superior or inferior to others.

The choice of an instructional method depends on the
instructional objectives, subject matter to be taught (it is
supposed to bring about), the target population (natural
characteristics of learners), the instructional staff (teachers and

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non-teaching staff), and physical or infrastructural facilities
(classrooms, conveniences, electricity supply, water, internet,
access road etc), cost and time of instruction.

Differences between teaching methods and teaching

techniques

Teaching methods are different from teaching techniques.

Teaching methods are the ways and strategies of teaching while
teaching techniques are the skills of teaching which a teacher
employs during teaching.

METHODS TECHNIQUES

Demonstration method Statement of objectives/writing

of lesson plan

Discussion method Set induction skill

Lecture method Reinforcement skill

Group method Explanation skill

Individualized method Recognising learners’

behaviour skill

Team teaching method Stimulus variation skill

Project method Use of instructional materials

skill

Case study method Questioning skill

Role playing method Communication skill

Dramatization method Planned repetition skill

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Games/Simulation method Examples and illustration skill

Assignment method Evaluation skill

Activity method Closure skill

Field trip/study trip use of chalkboard skill

Classification of teaching methods

All teaching methods can be categorized into four broad

classes. They are: teacher centered methods, learner centered
methods, content-focused methods and interactive/participatory
methods.

a. Teacher Centered Methods

In teacher centered approach, the teacher is the master and
authority figure of the subject matter. He is in total control of
knowledge while learners are passive and inactive. Learners look
on the teacher as the expert and authority. Learners are
copiousrecipients of knowledge from the teacher. The methods
require little or no involvement of the learners. Learners hardly
perform any other function than listening to the instruction.
Learners passively receive information through direct instruction
and lectures.
The methods in this category are referred to as ‘closed-
ended’. Such lesson is uninteresting and encourages boredom,
inattentiveness and noise. The end goal is to test and assess the
learners to determine their performance or to determine whether

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learning has taken place or not. Examples of such methods are
lecture and expository methods.

b. Learner Centered Methods

Learner centered approach refers to child centered
approach. In the learner centered approach, the teacher turns to
an instructor and a learner at the same time. He is a resource
and not an authority. This implies that he has to be highly
resourceful if he is to be efficient and effective. The teacher plays
the dual role of teaching and learning which extends rather than
constricts his intellectual horizons. The teacher learns new things
everyday which he might not be able to learn in the process of
teaching. The teacher’s primary role is to facilitate learners’
learning. Learners’ learning is measured using both formal and
informal forms of assessment such as group projects, students;
portfolios, class participation and character.
Students’ learning is measured continuously during
teacher’s instruction because teaching and assessments are
connected in the model. The strategies of teaching that are
commonly used in child center are demonstration, recitation,
memorization, experimentation or combination of these. The
approach is result oriented because learners participate actively.
The lesson is interesting and every student is carried along.
Examples of child-centered approach methods are discussion and
discovery/inquiry methods

c. Content-Focused Methods

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 In the content-focused methods, the content determines the
roles of both the teacher and the learners. Content refers to the
subject matter which has been arranged in topics. Both have to
fit into the content that is taught. The skills to be acquired and
information to be given are very important. A lot of emphasis is
laid on the clarity and careful analyses of content which cannot
be altered by both the teacher and the learners. In this approach,
the teacher and learners are subordinates to the content.
Example of teaching method in this category is Programmed
Learning Approach.

d. Interactive/participative methods
Interactive/participative methods borrow a bit from the
three other classes (teacher centered, child centered and
content-focused) without laying emphasis on either the teacher
or the learner. Both the teacher and the learners interact on the
content. Both of them participate fully in teaching-learning
process. Examples are demonstration, activity, role playing and
project methods.

Types of Teaching Methods

Provision of adequate instructional materials with correct

content cannot lead to effective teaching-learning without
appropriate methods of teaching. All other provisions in the
system approach to instruction have to be combined with correct
application of appropriate methods for effective lesson delivery.
Choosing a method of teaching is the teacher’s job. The choice is

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based on many criteria such as learning objectives, class,
teacher, learners’ characteristics etc. No method is fool-proof. All
methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, it
is not good for a teacher to use a method of teaching but a
complementary combination of methods.

Abimbade (2006) considered seven teaching methods and

techniques while Okam (2014) identified fourteen teaching
methods. There are different techniques that can be used for
different methods. For example; Questioning technique for
Discovery method, Programmed learning technique for
Group/individual method, Micro-teaching technique for Project
method, Team-teaching technique for Demonstration method,
Field-trips technique for discussion method, Mathematics
laboratory technique for Lecture method and Language
laboratory technique for Problem solving method.

Aggarwal (2007) made a long list of teaching methods to

include lecturing, demonstration, individual practical work and
individual’s work in workshop, field trips/excursion, projects,
discussion, conference/seminar, class/home assignments,
tutorial, programmed instruction and teaching machines. In his
own contribution, Ajelabi (2005) gave fourteen types of
instructional methods. They include lecture method, discussion
method, demonstration method, discovery method, project
method, group/individual, problem-solving, field trip, team
teaching and micro-teaching. Others are questioning,
programmed learning, computer assisted instruction, activity

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method, role-playing, demonstration, project, group work,
individual’s work and case study methods of giving instruction.

Lesson plan and classroom teaching are closely related but

they are different operations. After planning the lesson, the
teacher has to think of how to deliver the lesson. This is where
teaching methods come in. Teaching Methods are different from
teaching techniques. A teaching or instructional method is a
systematic, orderly procedure in teaching and learning. It is the
strategy of giving instructions while a teaching or instructional
technique refers to the skill of giving instructions. In principles of
good teaching some authors refer to teaching methods as
teaching strategies. Methods of teaching with their advantages
and disadvantages are discussed below.

Activity method

Activity method is learning by practical work. The method

entails learners’ full participation in the lesson. The attention
span of children is small and limited when they listen to teachers
but learn better when they take part in the activities in the class
by actually doing some pieces of work. Activity method
introduces elements of joy into part of the handwork that are
uninteresting to learn by children.

Advantages of Activity method

1. The class work is practical. Pupils perform activities

themselves instead of reading about the activities in books.

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 Books can only be relevant in giving directions, guidelines
and procedure on what to do step by step.
2. Pupils learn lessons that are real, meaningful and
interesting using activity method. This discourages rote
learning and encourages retention and recalling.
3. Activity method respects individual differences and
uniqueness. The method encourages healthy rivalry and
self-education. It encourages self-discipline and respects for
one another in the class. Each pupil work at his own rate,
pace and form.
4. The teacher acts as facilitator and not a monopolist of skills
and knowledge. This reduces his burn-out since he talks
less.
5. Activity method encourages cooperation among the
learners. Each learner has the spirit of helping one another.
It also develops in them the sense of responsibility.
6. The activity classroom is turned to educational environment
that does not give room to inattentiveness, fatigue, quarrel
and lack of interest. This is because all pupils are fully
engaged.

Disadvantages of Activity Method

1. The use of activity method requires adequate equipment

and materials in the classroom for individual participation.
2. The method requires plenty space which may be difficult to
provide by the school.

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 3. Activity method requires skilled, dedicated and experience
teachers. The method cannot be used by lazy teachers.
4. The method is costly. It requires a lot of money.

Dialogue/Discussion method

Discussion or dialogue method is a two way or dualized

communication between the participants who are usually the
teacher and the learners in the classroom situation. The method
demands that the teacher is good listener while the learners
spend sometimes talking. The method encourages active
participation and involvement of the learners. The method can be
used in lesson development, application of what the learners can
perform after learning or monitoring the learners’ learning by
giving feedback to the teacher.

Furthermore, discussion method can be used where the

learners already have some knowledge or experience. The
discussion can be used to develop the main points to be covered
in a lesson. Discussion method may give room to differences of
opinions and different points of view can be clarified. The learners
are motivated to contribute because they are aware that some
importance is attached to their contributions.

Discussion method can also be used during or after lecture,

demonstration, role playing and experimental methods. The
method is a good way of monitoring learners’ achievement. The
answers provided by learners and questions they ask after
discussion reveal the quality and extent of learning that has

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taken place. This feedback can help the teacher by using the
information gathered to modify an explanation in order to
improve learning.

In discussion or dialogue method, the teacher deduces

information and knowledge through questions and discussions.
The teacher discusses while the students contribute and the
teacher asks relevant questions to bring out the ideas of the
learners. The method makes knowledge acquisition a cooperative
venture between the teacher and the learners. This method is
effective at higher level of education because it is for learners
who are mature enough to hold independent opinions.

How to conduct a Discussion

1. The goal should be to meet the learning objectives. It is the

responsibility of the teacher to see that objectives are met.
2. Discussion should be led by the teacher
3. The discussion should be guided by the teacher if it is in
group
4. Learners should contribute their personal opinions
5. Learners should express what they have learned
6. Learners should apply what they learn to familiar situations.

Uses of Discussion Method

1. Discussion method is used to develop imaginative solutions

to life problems

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 2. Discussion method is used to emphasize main key points in
teaching
3. Discussion method is used to prepare students for
application of theory of procedure.
4. Discussion method is used to supplement reading, lecturing
and laboratory exercises
5. Discussion method is used to summarize, clarify points or
make a review.

Advantages of Discussion Method

1. Discussion method results in permanent learning because of

high degree of students’ participation
2. Discussion method makes use of students’ knowledge and
experience
3. Discussion method increases students’ interest and
motivation to participate
4. Discussion method increases students commitments to
learning

Disadvantages of Discussion Method

1. Discussion method requires highly skilled instructor

2. Discussion method consumes time
3. Discussion method requires students’ preparation before
lesson
4. Discussion method limits content as there is limit on the
topics and subject matter to cover

Lecture method

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 Lecture method is the traditional ‘chalk and talk’ method of
teaching that has been used for hundreds of years. The method
now acquires inferior results when compared with the more
modern and revolutionary teaching methods that are available
for use in schools today. In this strategy, a lecturer teaches by
telling or employing verbal behavior with questions. Lecture
method is a verbal or oral presentation of information by the
teacher, lecturer or instructor. Here, students are passive
participants. The lecturer gives verbal instruction of information
while the students listen and jot down points. The information
may include theoretical knowledge about a given topic, ideas,
concepts and principles. The lecturer relates, describes, tells and
explains the information to the learners. The lecturer must be a
good communicator and a good organizer of the content. He
should use appropriate words and examples while the students
should be good listeners and fast writers.

A student whose hearing is impaired may not retain much

while a slow writer may not get down points correctly. The
strategy is employed when the teacher is faced with a very large
group of students especially at the tertiary level of education. The
teacher talks most of the time while expressing an opinion or
view, giving learners new information or ideas and explaining a
point. He writes occasionally on the chalkboard. For an effective
teaching-learning process, the teacher breaks the subject content
into smaller units and makes his lesson short. He presents the
lesson systematically to the learner from simple to complex and
from known to unknown. He uses set induction that arises,
arrests and sustains his learners’ interest and attention. He

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purses at intervals to observe and invite his pupils’ reactions in
form of questions.

In Nigeria, lecture method is used extensively. It is very

popular but lack active involvement of learners. In order to use
lecture method effectively, it has to be combined with discussion
and question and answer period for active learners’ participation
so as to promote learning.

Qualities of a good Lecture

1. A good lecture should be short and not be too long because

of short attention span of learners
2. A good lecture should address a single theme
3. A good lecture should explain carefully technical terms
4. A good lecture contain familiar illustrations and examples
5. A good lecture should have good communication strategies.
The lecturer should be a good communicator
6. A good knowledge should build on the existing knowledge
7. A good lecture should enable the use of instructional
materials
8. A good lecture should employ a variety of approaches
9. A good lecture should give room for questions and answers
10. A good lecture should encourage learners’
contributions
11. A good lecture should apply instructional principles;
proceed from known to unknown, simple to complex, parts
to whole and concrete to abstract
12. A good lecture’s content should be well organized
according to priorities and logical connections

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 13. A good lecture should establish relationships between
various items

Uses of Lecture Methods

1. Lecture method is used for orientation

2. Lecture method is used to introduce a subject
3. Lecture method is used for presentation of materials
4. Lecture method is used to introduce demonstration,
performance and discussion
5. Lecture method is used to illustrate application of principles,
rules and concepts

Advantages of Lecture Method

1. It isa fast method. The class covers the syllabus within a very
short time easily.
2. It is suitable for a large class. Population explosion today has
made teaching so tedious from primary level to university level.
3. Learners’ listening skill is developed and impaired. They are
taught how to listen critically.
4. It is economical in terms of effort or energy
5. It permits flexibility

Disadvantages of lecture method

1. It does not give room for individualized instruction. Slow writers,

slow learners and weak students find it difficult to cope with the
fast speed of the teacher. Note taking is difficult for them.
2. Learners are passive because it does not give room for their
participation. So, the class is frustrating, bored and uninteresting.
3. Students’ creativity and initiative are not developed.

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4. It promotes rote learning which results to examination
malpractice. This is because the lesson is not meaningful,
retention is impossible and recalling or reciting is difficult. So,
learners struggle to engage in ‘back to sender’ during
examinations in order to satisfy the teacher.
5. Students find it very difficult to apply or relate the learning to
their life’s experiences, to solve life problems and take
meaningful decisions.
6. Students that lack listening skill can no enjoy the lesson.
7. Lecture method is in appropriate for teaching at the primary and
secondary school levels of education. This is because teacher-
pupil interaction is necessary at these levels of education.
8. Lecture method is teacher-centered. The teacher maintains his
monopoly to knowledge and he is accepted by his students as the
final authority.
9. Lecture method does not give room for the use of instructional
materials.
10. It does not guarantee much learning. According to the
research findings of Alcorn, Kindler and Schunert (1970) in
Achuonye and Ajoku (2003), people generally remember

10% 0f what they read

20% of what they hear

30% of what they see

50% of what they hear and see

70% of what they say

90% 0f what they say and do at the same time.

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Individualized method

Individualized method is a self-instructional program which

has been designed to enhance learning. There is a personal
interaction between the learner and the teacher and the learner
learns without difficulty as he learns at his own pace. The learner
is actively involved in the lesson and there is immediate feedback
from the learner for evaluation. With the use of technology today,
distance learning and correspondence education are possible for
individualized learning through the use of manuals, journals,
newsletter, magazine, radio, voice recorder, tape recorder, GSM
phones, CD-ROM, flash drive, internet, satellite disc, computer
etc. This is the method of teaching that is employed for distance,
online and correspondence courses.

A good example is the degree and post graduate degree

courses that are run by National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN). Individualized method of teaching is where the learners
are given materials to interact with. The materials are usually
prepared by qualified teachers, lecturers, professors and
educators. Such lessons are prepared and recorded in print
materials, CD-ROM, internet, discs tape recorders, and voice
recorders etcetera. The lessons can come in form of radio and
television broadcasting. Students only come for tutorials when
they have questions and problems.

Story- Telling Method

Story telling method is one of the best methods of teaching

the teacher can employ in any lesson presentation. A story is
either a real life or frictional event narrated in order to arouse
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 learners’ interest or illustrate something. The teacher talks and
addresses his learners verbally while the learners are expected to
listen, receive and assimilate information. The teacher tells a
short story but meaningful and captivating story that portray
good moral (good morals are rewarded while evils and bad
morals are punished).

The story must be excited and dramatic. The stories can be

about religions, ethnic, adventures, giants, fairies or about
animals, birds, parents, school and children. Story telling could be
combined with the use for pictures, actions, puppets, models
(non-verbal cues) and other apparatus. The language used should
be within the vocabulary and understanding of the children. The
story must be precise to the point and not complicated or
ambiguous to the children’s cognitive conscience. Weird stories
which may frighten children should be avoided at all cost to
promote a conducive environment. The children should be able to
retell the story in their own words at the end of the lesson. The
story should have good moral values where good behaviours are
rewarded and evils are punished.

Advantages of story telling

1. Learners derive enjoyment from story-telling.

2. Story telling develops and improves the children’s oral
expression. This happens when they tell their own stories.
3. Story telling gives children a sense of value, train their habits and
character and transmits knowledge to them.
4. Story telling gives children new information, interpretation and
explanations that relates to their people’s way of life.

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5. Story telling involves many mediums of communication such as
use of songs, dance and gestures which provide enjoyment to
learners.
6. Story telling establishes good relationship among pupils and the
teacher.

Disadvantages of story telling

1. Children may not decode the meanings of stories well if the

teacher’s language is unsuitable.
2. Stories with evil or bad morals may influence the children’s ways
of life negatively.
3. Pupils are passive and not active participants in the lesson
because the method is teacher centered.

Role playing/dramatization methods

Role playing and dramatization are similar methods of
teaching. In role playing, students act using their feelings in a
creative way to act the roles of some personalities in the society.
Role-playing is used to study social behaviors and values. It deals
with problems through actions. The problem is acted out and
discussed. While some students are role players, others observe.
In role playing a person puts himself or herself in the position of
another person. It is useful in social based subjects but does not
allow one’s [Link] is a form of unprepared spontaneous and
informal dramatization. It requires no script writing or
memorization of any part. Dramatization on the other hand is

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 where the students act out what has been written by an author, a
writer or a teacher. It involves script writing and memorization.

Advantages of role playing/dramatization

1. Role playing and dramatization develop creativity in students.

2. Students learn values and discover their individual weaknesses
and strengths.
3. Students develop abilities in critical thinking and problem solving.
4. Both promote retention as students remember better the
identities of personalities they acted than those they simply read
or heard about.
5. Students are able to express their emotion.
6. Enables immediate learning evaluation
7. Builds confidence in learners
8. The learners actively participate in the lesson.
9. Students develop good language skills.
10. Role playing method encourages creativity in learning

Disadvantages of role playing and dramatization

1. It is time consuming.
2. It cannot be used in a class where the teacher lacks imagination,
skill and organizational competence.
3. Requires tools and equipment

Assignment Method

Assignment method is used when learners are given home

work to take home. The method is good especially at the primary
school level so that parents will complement the efforts of the

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teachers of their children. It is a way of keeping the pupils busy at
home. The teacher assigns reading of books, journals, periodicals,
projects or research paper for the practice.

Uses of Assignment Method

1. Assignment method orient students to a topic prior to

classroom or laboratory work
2. Assignment method is used to set the stage for a lecture,
demonstration or discussion
3. Assignment method provides avenue for review of materials
covered in the class

Advantages of Assignment Method

1. Assignment method increases coverage of materials

2. Assignment method saves time as it reduces the time spent
in the classroom
3. Assignment method takes care of individual differences and
uniqueness since the teacher will attend to individual
learners at the point of submission and marking

Disadvantages of Assignment Method

1. Assignment method requires careful planning and follow-up

2. Assignment method poses evaluation problem as it is
difficult for the teacher to discover the actual person that
did the assignment at home for the learner
3. Assignment method does not produce standard results

Group Teaching Method

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 The teacher divides the learners into smaller units within
the class to give room for more meaningful interactions. It is used
for practical classes. The groups should be relatively small so as
to create room for learners’ participation. Each group is led by a
leader whose leadership should be changed randomly. The group
members interact within themselves and brainstorm over the
problem in order to find solution.

Group instruction is viewed by Amoo, Ayodele and Egbowon

(2000) as an act of dividing the learners into smaller units within
the class. This is to give room for more interactions. Group
method can be used to give students project or practical work.
The group method can be used in practical activities like
Mathematics, English Language, Sciences, farm, garden,
assignment, laboratory experience and sport. This method is
necessary now than ever before at this time of overpopulation
and large class. The group should not be too large or else some
of the students will not participate.

Chike-Okoli and Ezeanolue (2005) opined that grouping of

students in a class is expected to give due consideration to
possible factors that contribute to learners’ differences in
abilities. The factors include age, level of intelligence and
motivation for study, interest, home/environment background
(determinants of either intellectually stimulating or non-
stimulating). The students’ previous knowledge of subject matter
should also be considered.

Class grouping

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 A class can be divided into three groups: the able students
(small group), the weak pupils (small group) and an average
group (large group)

While grouping students in a class, the teacher should

ensure that:

1. The group is not too large so as to give every member the

opportunity to participate.
2. Students are grouped according to their academic ability.
3. The teacher should cater for different abilities normally found in
the class.
4. The teacher should secure some of the emulation stimulus and
cooperation within the groups and the class.
5. The teacher should keep each group fully occupied when they are
not being taught.
6. The teacher should discover the kind of work and assignment for
each group according to their abilities.
7. The teacher should divide his attention equally to each group or
give more attention to the background group.
8. The teacher should provide enough materials for each group.
9. The teacher should be alert to the activities of the extroverts in
the class who can mask the introverts.
10. The teacher should call on volunteers in the group to
answer questions or do any activity. Where the introverts are not
responding to the teacher, she should call them by names to
respond.
11. The teacher should avoid chorus answers from the students
of each group.

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12. The teacher should give each group a real life or relevant
subject matter or question to discuss.
13. The learners’ new knowledge, skill and insights should be
based on their past experiences, attitudes and values.

When a group finishes one assignment, the teacher allows them

to move on to the next one based on the level of difficulty. Each
group moves from simple to complex task and not vice-versa.

Procedure of group method

1. Teacher gives clear instruction about the task or activity to be

performed by each group.
2. Teacher specifies time and form of presentation.
3. Teacher divides the large group into smaller groups.
4. Teacher gives different tasks to different groups.
5. Each group discusses or performs the given activity at the
stipulated time.
6. Teacher goes round to supervise and correct students’ mistakes.
The teacher finds out each group’s problems and difficulties. She
oversees their activities and encourages them to work harder
together as a team.
7. All groups reassemble into a large group.
8. One or two individuals from each group present their group work
to the large group.
9. The large group makes comments and corrects each group’s
mistakes by adding any relevant points that have been left out or
deleting irrelevant points that are included.
10. The teacher evaluates each group and award marks based
on each group’s performances.

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 Advantages of Group Method

1. Group method reduces the teacher’s work. Since the teaching

and instruction will not be done by the teacher alone, her work is
reduced, but she needs to supervise, clarify issues and
encourage the students to move forward. Using group method
does not mean “relaxation period” for her. She needs to move
round the groups and assist them where necessary.
2. Students are able to learn at their pace and level. This is because
students are grouped according to their level of attainment and
academic ability. The fast ones will grow at their own rate and
pace without being retarded while the slow ones get encouraged
from satisfactory performances. The learners control their pace,
content and focus. The fast learners are better challenged while
the slow ones are not ignored.
3. Group method can be used for variety of lessons in the classroom
teaching, field project, hand work, practical demonstration
lessons, sports and etcetera.
4. Students are encouraged to bring to the class materials that will
be useful in teaching and learning of the new topic. Enough
provision needs to be made for instructional materials and
resources but where provision can not be made; students should
be allowed to use their own resources.
5. Group method allows students to learn through the help of their
mates rather than through the class teacher’s instruction only. In
their group, they are free and able to make contributions. They
learn faster in group method because they are actively involved

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 in the learning process. The students are able to contribute to the
group’s work.
6. Group method enhances adequate diffusion of ideas among
students with development of leadership qualities. Each group
chooses its own leader which should be changed randomly until it
gets to the turn of every member.
7. Group method fosters a sense of belonging in a group. All group
members therefore strive to contribute to the success of the
group. Researchers found out that the weak groups have been
found to benefit greatly in group method. This is because the
method has empowered them since they realize their own ability
for critical thinking and change through grouping.
8. Group method provides opportunity for the strong students to
help the weak ones. This is because children have no fear of
confessing their ignorance and weakness to other children. Every
child’s temperament, attitude and behavior are checked within
the group. For example, the introverts are encouraged while the
extroverts are checked for their extraneous contributions.
9. Group method gives the teacher clear record of every student’s
progress. In a large class, it may be difficult for the teacher to
monitor the progress of every student. He is able to monitor their
progress in group as there is no room for any student to hide or
pretend. He is able to have guidance program for the students
that are not coping while the strong ones are motivated to move
on.
10. Group method afford the whole class the opportunity of
keeping together through having one syllabus. No group gets far
ahead of another.

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11. The students are able to validate their knowledge and skills
through the use of group method. They are able to evaluate their
performances since they know where they are able to contribute
to the group discussion and the areas they lack ideas.
12. Group method afford the students the opportunity of
expressing themselves while contributing in their groups, they
improve in their communication skill. They are able to express
themselves and communicate fluently in the group. At the end of
their Junior Secondary School, their spoken English is improved
which serves as an aid to their writing and reading skills.

Disadvantages of Group Method

1. Group method is time consuming. The time spent by the teacher

on grouping, resources distribution, supervision and correction is
more than that of other methods of teaching.
2. Group method requires more space than a lecture. In the lecture
method, students sit in a normal class. Grouping requires more
space to accommodate all the groups since the discussion in a
group should not distract the attention of other groups.
3. Group method encourages sharp disparity in the class. This is
because children in the slow learning group may feel inferior
while fast learning group may exhibit superiority complex.
4. Group method is undemocratic. This is because ability grouping is
carried to extreme if it may eliminate mixing between children of
varying abilities. The slow learning group may not be able to
catch up with the fast learning group. As a result of this, the slow
learners may not have an opportunity to be stimulated by the
faster learners.

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5. In group method, peers may teach one another wrong concepts.
Some of the students may not have the opportunity of learning
directly from the teacher. Students may learn wrong approaches
from their mates.
6. The quality of the discussion may be affected in group method.
This is because members of the group may not be serious. The
teacher has to be very vigilant; otherwise, students may turn the
whole exercise into playtime.

Seminar Method

Seminar method is in form of tutorial arrangement involving the

teacher and groups rather than teacher and individual.

Uses of Seminar Method

1. Seminar method is used to provide general guidance for a

group working on an advanced study or research work
2. Seminar method is used to exchange information on
techniques and approaches being explored by members of
a study or research group
3. Seminar method is used to develop new and imaginative
solutions to problems under study by a group.

Advantages of Seminar Method

1. Seminar method provides motivation to learners

2. Seminar method stimulates active participation of learners

Disadvantages of Seminar Method

1. Seminar method demands and requires highly skilled and

competent instructor

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 2. Seminar method creates evaluation problems
3. Seminar method is costly than most other methods

Programme Instruction Method

Programme Instruction Method makes use of Information

and Communication Technology (ICT). The components of ICT
that are used in this method are computer, internet, storyboard
and email address. The method is self-instructional. All contents
and subject matter are embedded in the programme which has
been developed by experts.

Uses of Programme Instruction Method

1. Programme Instruction Methods provides remedial

instruction for learers
2. Programme Instruction Method provides ‘wake up’
instruction for late arrivals, absentees and truants
3. Programme Instruction Method maintains previously learned
skills which are not performed frequently enough
4. Programme Instruction Method provides retraining on
equipment and procedures which have become old and
obsolete
5. Programme Instruction Method is used for upgrading of
production
6. Programme Instruction Method makes enough provision for
common background among students
7. Programme Instruction Method enables individual to work at
his pace

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 8. Programme Instruction Method provides the review and
practice of knowledge and skills
9. Programme Instruction Method enables students to cope
with global demand of computer literacy.

Advantages of Programme Instruction Method

1. Programme Instruction Method reduces failure rate among

students
2. Programme Instruction Method improves ‘end-of-discourse
proficiency
3. Programme Instruction Method saves time
4. Programme Instruction Method provides self-instruction

Disadvantages of programme instruction Method

1. Programme Instruction Method needs computer, electricity

supply and some other gadgets which may not be
accessible by learners
2. Programme Instruction Method requires local and or
commercial preparation
3. Programme Instruction Method requires experts for
educational development
4. Programme Instruction Method requires lengthy programme
training
5. Programme Instruction Method increases expensive
because it is costly
6. Programme Instruction Method requires a lot of time

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Project method

Project method is a practical approach to learning new concepts.

Project method means using learning activities that involve
investigation and solving of problems by an individual or a small
group. Amoo, Ayodele and Egbowon (2000) defined a project “as
a practical task which is useful for most of the school subjects”.
Project method aims at finding out the basic facts about
contemporary issues. It also deals with learning how to perform
specific tasks by a class, group or an individual.

Project method is a pupil-centered method. The method

assists the learners to be actively involved in the lesson. It helps
to acquire motor skills in the psychomotor domain such as
writing, drawing, driving etc. It fosters the spirit of cooperation
among students. The father of project method is an American
Psychologist and philosopher; John Dewey. Ajelabi (2005)
explains that the students should be under the supervision,
guidance and control of the teacher while using project method.
A project that is carried out by an individual requires that
individual to carry out the project alone. The project that is
carried out by two or more students is referred to as group
project. An entire class may carry out a project.

Examples of project works are manipulation of materials,

embarking on field trip, production and designing of certain
things or searching for information from books, internet,
community or people. The project may be short or long term
duration. That of short time lasts for a few lessons and it is easier
to control and direct while that of long term lasts for several

169
 weeks, months or the entire session. The long term project is
more complex than the short term project. It is very interesting to
note that project method is suitable for students because
students learn from one another. The selected projects are
usually those that can be of measurable benefit to the students.
Such projects must be beneficial and relevant to the students’
needs, curriculum and society.

Characteristics of Good Projects

Abimbade (1999), Ajelabi (2005) and Chike Okoli and

Ezeanolue (2005) agreed on five characteristics of a good project.
They are:

1. A good project should motivate the students. The project must

create a desire for activity and mastery on the part of the
students. The students must have the zeal and interest in the
project.
2. A good project provides for initiative and imaginative skills. The
project to be embarked on must provide for the expression of
initiative and judgment which good teaching requires. The
students must have initiative on how to carry out the project. It is
the students’ responsibility to carry out the project. Therefore,
the teacher should give them maximum opportunity for
continuous self-expression of initiative. However, they are to be
guided and encouraging the teacher.

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3. A good project should be beneficial to the participant. The
students must derive certain advantages in embarking on the
project. The students must be able to apply the project
experiences to new situations, new knowledge and new skills.
4. A good project must provide for self-discipline. The students are
given sense of responsibility through project work. They try their
best to see to the success of the project as it reflects either his
individual integrity or that of his group. Hence, project can be
described as an excellent instrument for maintaining self-
discipline.
5. A good project involves organized thought. The project starts as a
unit of activity which multiplies with the progress of the
programme. It adds to the students’ life experiences.

Procedure of Project Method

Procedure refers to steps or processes of project method.

The teacher determines the type of the project. Project method is

of three types:

Individual project: Individual in the class carries out the project.

He does all operations connected with the project and takes
guidance, directive and advice from the teacher.

Group: The class is divided into different groups according to

their lines of interest. A project is given to a group at a time.
Students cooperate and associate with one another in their
groups.

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Management Project: Students are given different types of
plan or project to manage. It may be in the area of designing,
construction, production, cultivation, building or business. In the
case of business, the students monitor the purchase and
execution of some projects. They handle the business and report
whatever difficulty they encounter to the teacher.

The teacher makes lists of projects to be embarked on while

students make their choice either individually or in groups.
Students choose or select the projects that are of interest to
them. Such project must be relevant to the students’ needs,
curriculum and the society at large.

The teacher and the students make the cost implications and find
out the availability of resources to use. They also consider the
time to be spent on the project.

The teacher supervises the students’ work step by step. He

encourages them at every stage of the project and guides them
when they have difficulties. He commends their efforts where and
when necessary and he also criticizes their mistakes to bring
about appropriate corrections. The students destroy and
reconstruct if there are too many mistakes as they aspire to
perfection.

The final procedure or step of any project is evaluation. The

teacher assigns marks for each project. It is the end product of
the project that needs to be evaluated. The students’ spirit of
cooperation, planning, organization, construction, beauty and
durability of the project and how effective the project is in
teaching-learning process should be evaluated.
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Value of Project Method

Choosing the best strategy (for subjects and topics) that will
enhance effective teaching-learning process has been the bane of
classroom instruction in Nigerian schools. According to Ayogu
(2002) in Ajileye (2009), one of the problems that face all levels
of education is the strategy that will enhance effective learning
and improve learning habits, skills, outcomes and achievement in
school subjects.

It is believed that discussion and lecture methods are

inadequate to enhance effective teaching at this age of
technology and globalization. As a result, in the National Policy on
Education (2004), section 4, sub-section 19d, it was stated that
“teaching shall be by practical, exploratory and experimental
methods”. There is need to expose the learners to appropriate
task, activities and practical work that they can react to and fulfill
the stated objectives for all levels. One of the UBE objectives is to
provide education that will make the learners to keep abreast
with the changing environmental condition and emerging issues
locally, nationally and globally. These objectives are attained by
using project method.

Field/study trips/educational visit: Many people erroneously

refer to study/field trip as excursion erroneously. Excursion is
done for sight-seeing, recreation, relaxation and pleasure. It can
be organized by friends, family members, churches, mosques and
any other organization. There is neither syllabus nor any course
outline. They are not responsible to any authority after the
excursion. Study/field trip on the other hand is done for

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 educational program. It is an educational visit. Students do not
just go for study trip. Such trips are done based on the
requirements in their syllabus and course outline.

The trips are related to the subject matter. The school and
the parents are responsible for the funding of such trip. The
school authority makes arrangement for such trips while the
students go with their teachers and report to the school authority
when they return. Students go with their writing materials and
write what they see and learn during the trip. The teachers also
test them through assignment, project, test and examination
after the study trip.

Advantages of field/study trip/educational visit

1. It provides direct learning experiences as learners are able to see

and practice what they are learning.
2. It establishes an enabling environment for effective teaching and
learning.
3. It gives first-hand information to the learners.
4. Learning is made more concrete, meaningful and effective.
5. Learners’ spirit is refreshed as they recreate and relax from
normal classroom daily routine.
6. It encourages exploration, motivation and self-reliance attitude of
learning.

Disadvantages or limitations of field/study trip

1. Planning and organization of field trip are time consuming.
2. Field trip is expensive.

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3. It is risky because learners and teachers are exposed to the risk
of armed robbers’ attack, vehicle breakdown and accidents.

Demonstration Teaching Method

Demonstration leads to imitation. A child learns by

imitation. The teacher needs to plan and execute his plans
adequately. It is an effective method in sports, science and
technical education. Many times, teachers rely on demonstration
to help their students comprehend materials. Demonstration is
done by showing instead of telling, by way of computer-based
displays and by experiments. The teacher can use projectors to
display graphs and visual presentations. The instruction using
demonstration method requires performance under controlled
conditions such as skills, operations and movement.

Uses of Demonstration Method

1. Demonstration method is used to teach manipulative
operations or process
2. Demonstration method is used to illustrate principles
3. Demonstration method is used to teach operations or
functioning of equipment
4. Demonstration method is used for teaching team work.
5. Demonstration method is used to set standard for
workmanship
6. Demonstration method is used to teach safety and
procedures.i

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Advantages of Demonstration Method

1. Demonstration method builds confidence in the instructional

system
2. Demonstration method enables learning evaluation
3. Demonstration method promotes safety
4. Demonstration method reduces damages and waste.

Disadvantages of Demonstration Method

1. Demonstration methodrequires tools and equipment.

2. Demonstration method requires more instructors
3. Demonstration method requires careful planning by experts

Criteria for Selecting a Teaching Method

No method is superior or inferior to the other. The teaching-

learning process will be more effective if there is appropriate
teaching method selection. The choice of a method needs to be
based on nature of content to be taught, students’ ability level,
objectives, teacher’s abilities, interest and knowledge of subject
matter, time and place of the teaching, time available for the
lesson, available resources and the number of students in a class.
How well a teaching method works depends on the above
mentioned factors. Therefore, a teacher’s choice of teaching
method should be based on the factors.

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Nature of content to be taught

The content to be taught determines the manner and

methods the information is transmitted to the learner. The
teacher has to consider the teaching event or method that best
brings about learning in a particular situation. The end justifies
the means. So, the outcome of the lesson should justify the
method used.

Students’ Characteristics

The choice of method to be used should be based on the

learner’s characteristics. This includes his age, maturational level
as well as his cognitive, affective and psychomotor development
levels. Are the students mature enough to carry out a project or
engage in meaningful discussion? Are they matured enough for
demonstration of an experiment or is it role-play that they can
engage in? Since then, their characteristics should be considered.

Objectives of the Lesson

Any teaching encounter must have both instructional and

behavioral objectives. The objective determines the methods to
be used. What skills do you want the students to acquire and
perform at the end of the lesson? Is it how to acquire a skill or
you are transmitting knowledge or teaching a value? For
example, if you want to teach the students how to read, there

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should be provision for opportunities for them to read. If it is
writing, there must be opportunities provided by the chosen
method to teach them how to write.

Teaching situation in terms of time and space

Teachers should choose the method that involves students

and capture their attention span. A method to be used for the
students in the afternoon or when they are tired or eager to go
close for the day or go home; should not require them to sit and
listen attentively. This is because their moods have changed
towards closing and should not be expected to have 100%
attention.

Teacher’s capability (abilities, interest, and knowledge of

subject matter)

Teaching method requires special training for proper

handling in teaching profession. The teacher is the ‘’governor’’ of
his class He must be a master of the subject matter and has
ability in using the chosen method. He should be competent in
the chosen method so as not to fumble or expose himself to
embarrassment .This is why he has to enrich and update his
knowledge by reading at length and attending workshops,
seminars and conferences.

Available time for the lesson

A teacher needs to consider the time and duration of his

lesson before choosing a method. A lesson that has double

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periods could not be taught within a period. Also if he wants to
teach the pupils experimentation of an unfamiliar skill, he needs
to engage in demonstration. If he has limited time and the
content is much, he may resort to giving the students projects or
use Dalton (assignment) method. This is to enable the students
to do some reading and learning at home. The students also have
the opportunity of seeking for their parents or siblings’ help for
more understanding of the content.

Available resources

A teacher chooses his method of teaching based on the

available materials. For example, if a teacher wants to teach
reading of a passage or new words and he has limited copies of
the textual materials, he may group his students and engage
them in group work. This enables all the students to benefit from
the reading since he has not enough for every one of them.

Class size or students’ population

Students’ population refers to the number of students in

the class or school. Today in nearly all the levels of education
especially with the introduction of UBE, there is population
explosion. The number of students in each class is more than the
UNESCO recommendation of one teacher to forty students (1:
40). Still, he has to consider the students’ individual differences
and uniqueness. Therefore, the suitable method for him to use
are project and group methods for practical activities for effective
monitoring. Individual method of learning cannot be used by him
as a result of his large class.

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 CHAPTER SIX

MICROTEACHING AND TEACHING TECHNIQUES

ORSKILLS

Learning objectives
At the end of chapter six, learners should perform the following:
1. Give the definitions of microteaching
2. Explain the phases of microteaching
3. State the objectives of microteaching
4. Enumerate the merits of microteaching
5. Describe the limitations of microteaching
6. Mention the skills that are used in microteaching
7. Write historical development of microteaching globally and
in Nigeria
8. Discuss the relevance of microteaching to teacher
education
9. Describe skill of planning and writing of lesson plan
10. Choose a skill and practice it one after the other
before teaching practice using yhe provided rating scales

Definitions of Microteaching

Many educators have defined microteaching in many ways.

In the attempt to define the concept of Micro-teaching, Abifarin
(2004) examined the two words involved: Micro and teaching.

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Micro means something that is small while teaching means the
art of giving instruction. When the two words are joined together,
it becomes micro-teaching, which means giving instruction on a
smaller scale. Ajayi (2006) described micro-teaching as a system
of controlled practice that makes it possible for student teachers
to concentrate on specific teaching behaviors.
Yusuf (2006) described microteaching as the practical
training technique which gives the students and the teacher the
opportunity to master the skills inherent in teaching in a
laboratory environment before actual class [Link]
(2007) defined micro-teaching as an instructional method
employed in the professional training of [Link]
(2007) described microteaching as a training procedure that aims
at simplifying the complexities of the regular teaching procedure.
The student teacher engages in a scaled down teaching situation
in terms of time, class size, content of the subject matter and
teaching tasks.
In addition, Teg (2007) defined microteaching as a process
whereby teacher training learns to acquire the rudiments of
teaching in the classroom. Microteaching prepares teacher
trainees on what they need to master before going to the field for
teaching practice. Microteaching is a course or practical
experience which prepares the teacher trainees ahead of the
challenges that await them in their future teaching carrier as
educators. Patel and Mohasina (2011) described microteaching as
an organized practice teaching which aims at giving instructors
confidence, support and feedback. It is a quick, proven and fun

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way of helping teachers get off to a strong start. It is designed for
the training of both of both pre-service and in-service teachers.
Egunjobi, Nwaboku and Salawu (2011) described
microteaching as a program that prepares teacher trainees for
the main teaching practice. They explained that microteaching is
an indispensable course for teacher trainees. This is because they
need to observe and acquire for teaching tasks. Isa and Jusoff
(2011) considered microteaching as the ultimate sessions where
the undergraduates put into practice theories. Also, Singh (2011)
described microteaching as a safe practice, a vehicle for
continuous training and a new approach to supervision.
Konstantinos (2012) defined microteaching as a method of
teacher training that current and effect for acquisition of specific
teaching skills. It is considered as a training technique for
prospective teachers in Universities and Colleges of Education. It
is considered as a precondition for the improvement of the
quality of school education. In addition, Saxena and Khajanchee
(2012) explained that microteaching is a teacher training
technique which helps the teacher trainees to master the skills of
teaching. Tidwell (2013) viewed microteaching as a session of
practice teaching that is videotaped for the teacher to watch.
Microteaching is suitable for potential, new and existing
teachers to review their teaching techniques and receive
feedback from fellow teachers and administrators. The feedback
received is used for making corrections to their teaching style
accordingly. As every human activity or behavior is geared
towards achieving a purpose so also, microteaching has aim,
goals and objectives. Microteaching as an innovation in education

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has intention of training pre-service teachers in skills acquisition
so as to make them effective and professional.

Historical Development of Microteaching

All human endeavors are traceable to their origins. The
historical development of microteaching started from
demonstration lessons. Ijaiya (2013) narrated that between
1950s and 1960s, there was low, unsatisfactory and poor
performance of pupils in America. Teachers were held responsible
and accountable for the poor condition of education by the
society. Teachers were blamed for poor teaching methods and
they too claimed that they were not properly equipped with the
necessary teaching skills to perform to societal expectations. This
called for experiments on the experiences which might be
relevant for teaching in terms of innovative teacher education
program by educators through series of innovations which were
supported by substantial funding from Foundations and
Governments. Examples of such foundations were Ford and
Kettering.
Furthermore, one of the beneficiaries of such financial aid
was the University of Stanford group which developed
microteaching in 1961. Prior to the development of
microteaching, demonstration teaching was used traditionally. It
was the immediate predecessor of microteaching in Stanford
University. During the time of demonstration teaching for
teachers’ training, a teacher trainee presented a lesson to a small
group of fellow students while the rest of the class looked on. It

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was the demonstration lesson that developed and resulted to
microteaching in 1963.
Fayaz (2011) gave a full record of microteaching historical
development. Microteaching was named for the first time at
Stanford University in United States of America when an
experimental project on the identification of teaching skills was in
progress under the guidance and supervision of the Faculty
members in persons of Bush, Allen, McDonald and Acheson. The
team of experts was assigned the development of testing and
evaluation of tools to measure the attainment of teaching
experiences which might be relevant to teaching interns in an
innovative teacher education program. They launched a new
laboratory experience and approach in the preparation of
teachers under the auspices of the Secondary Teacher Education
Program (STEP). The program was initially referred to as
‘Demonstration Teaching’.
While developing the approach, those things that could
make an effective teacher were identified through field activities
and research work by Allen and his team as well as other group
of individuals over the years. Those things identified were
considered teachable, learnable and could bring desired change
in behavior. That was how the concept of ‘Teaching Skills’
evolved. The problem and the search to find better ways of
teaching these identified skills and making the teachers imbibe
them with the objects of enhancing teacher competence and
effectiveness brought about the whole idea of micro-teaching.
In the process, Keith Acheson who was a Doctoral student
and a Researcher discovered a newspaper article about a

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German Scientist who invented a portable video tape recorder.
Acheson was investigating the utility of the video tape recorder in
technical teaching skills’ development. With the support of Allen,
Bush and McDonald, Acheson explained several different uses of
the portable videotape recorder and its potential and modifying
channeling interns’ behaviors toward desired objectives and for
examining alternative approaches for students’ teaching
experiences. It was detected that videotape recorder could be
used for recording the class interaction accurately. This led to the
development of systematic and accurate method of giving
student teachers feedback. As a result, there was formulation and
development of microteaching technique of Plan----Teach----
Feedback----Re-plan----Re-teach-----Re-feedback.

Figure…. Microteaching Processes; Source: Maheshwari (2011)

During planning stage, the student teacher is mentored by
an expert or an educator who serves as supervisor. The
educator/supervisor demonstrates a skill at a time which the
student teacher would like to watch, learn and uses in his lesson.
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The educator gives a model lesson and uses all the
characteristics of the skill. After watching the educator, the
student teacher plans his lesson on the particular skill. The
student teacher selects the content, objectives, methods and
materials and writes the lesson plan to be used for the lesson.
The student teacher teaches using the skill he has watched
and prepared for. The student teacher’s lesson is observed by the
educator and the audience who take note of his strengths and
weaknesses. The recording of his performances could be done
using printed materials, tape recorder or camcorder. The
feedback is given by the supervisor and the audience. The
student teacher can also do self-assessment of his teaching after
reading the comments made by the assessors or after watching
the payback machine. If he has minimal corrections and
successful he goes to the next level and does not go for re-teach.
He then prepares for another skill to be acquired.
The above implies that it is not all student teachers that go
for re-teach. If he has too many errors, he re-plans his lesson. He
may change his audience, methods and strategies. He prepares a
new lesson plan and re-teaches. The supervisor and the audience
watch him again and criticize his teaching. He is given re-
feedback. If he is successful, he goes for another skill acquisition
but if not, he re-plans again until perfection is reached ( Ajibade
(2009), Fayaz (2011) and Saxena and Khajanchee (2012).
About 60 teacher trainees in the Intern Program were
randomly divided into two equal groups during the summer of
1963. A group named experimental group got microteaching
training while the other half had the standard student teaching

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experience in local cooperating schools. Video tape was first used
in microteaching during that summer. It was discovered that the
marriage between microteaching technique of training teachers
and videotape was a happy association.
In addition, Egunjobi, Nwoboku and Salawu (2011) traced
the genesis of microteaching globally to the evolution of the
video technology in Germany. They recorded that microteaching
was traced to the handwork of Keith Acheson, N.B. Robert and W.
Allen Dwight of the Stanford University in 1961. They also agreed
with Fayaz (2011) that the development of microteaching was
boosted and supported by Ford Foundation. They documented
the fact that microteaching was initially named demonstration
teaching in agreement with Ijaiya (2013).
Later microteaching was found and recognized as an
effective teacher training technique especially at the pre-service
level. Between 1970s and 1980s, microteaching like harmattan
fire spread from USA to countries like Malaysia, United Kingdom
and Australia. Microteaching was universally accepted as an
indispensable strategy and a panacea for effective teachers’
training in 1990s. Nigeria was not left behind in the innovation.
The use of the concept of micro-teaching started in Nigeria
in 1974. It was the effort of UNESCO at Alvan Ikoku College of
Education Owerri that ushered in micro-teaching in Nigeria. From
there, micro-teaching spread to other tertiary institutions like
College of Education Abraka now Delta State University and
College of Education Awka. Microteaching was not only found
effective for training teachers in Nigerian Colleges of Education
but also in Nigerian Universities and Institutes of Education. Some

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scholars in University of Ilorin, Obafemi Awolowo University Ife
and University of Ibadan studied and examined the effectiveness
of microteaching on the teacher trainees’ performances in
teaching practice exercise in 1980s. The findings were
encouraging and it was recommended for Nigerian Universities,
Colleges of Education and Institutes of Education as the training
technique in teachers’ preparation.
In 1990s, the National Commission for Colleges of
Education (NCCE) in Nigeria made mandated microteaching a
part of accreditation requirements that must be properly put in
place under Educational Technology Centre. Similarly, the
National University Commission (NUC) has recommended
microteaching as compulsory course for all Teachers Trainees in
all Institutes and Faculties of Education. Virtually all tertiary
institutions running teacher education program today adopt the
concept of micro-teaching. The institutions are Federal, State and
private Colleges of Education, Faculties of Education in
Universities, Department of Education in Polytechnics and
Institutes of Education such as National Teachers’ Institute,
Kaduna. Micro-teaching is one of the compulsory courses in the
NCCE guidelines for minimum standard for NCE graduates.
All student teachers at the end of their training are
expected not only to pass certain prescribed set of written
examinations but also to attain level of competency in the task of
teaching. Micro-teaching has become the most effective strategy
for ensuring the attainment of the expected level of competency
in teacher education. As a matter of fact, student teachers are

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 expected to offer and pass micro-teaching before they are posted
out for teaching practice in Nigerian Colleges of Education.

Three phases of Microteaching

Teacher education is the special training that is meant for
teachers and teaching profession. One of the components of
teacher education program is practice. Before student teachers
are thrown to the normal classroom for teaching practice, they
undergo microteaching which equips them for acquisition of
teaching skills. According to Ijaiya (2013), one of the recurring
problems in teacher education is skill acquisition in teaching. The
pre-service teacher trainees are exposed to rudiments of
teaching through microteaching. Saxena and Khajanchee (2012)
and Ambili (2013) identified three phases of microteaching. They
are: knowledge acquisition phase, skill acquisition phase and
transfer phase.
1. The knowledge acquisition phase is described as pre-active
phase. During knowledge acquisition, teacher trainees learn
about the skills and their components through orientation,
lectures, discussions, tutorials, illustrations and demonstration of
the skills given by the experts. They learn about the purpose of
the skill and condition under which it proves useful in the
teaching-learning process. They learn a lot about the skills from
the demonstration given by the experts.
2. The second phase is the skill acquisition phase. It is the
interactive phase when the teacher trainees are expected to plan
micro-lesson on the basis of the demonstration presented by the
experts. The student teachers practice the skills through the

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 microteaching cycle and continue their efforts till they attain
mastery level. The feedback component of microteaching
contributes significantly towards the mastery level. The feedback
is given on the purpose of behavioral change of the teacher
trainees in the desired direction.
3. The last phase is the transfer stage of microteaching which can
be referred to as the post-active phase. After attaining the
mastery level and command over each of the skills, the teacher
trainees integrate all these skills and transfer to actual classroom
teaching.

Objectives of Microteaching
1. The major objective of microteaching as enumerated by Aggarwal
(2008) and Jason and Tiffany (2010) is to enable student teachers
to learn and assimilate new teaching skills under controlled
conditions or environment.
2. Microteaching as an innovation in education has intention of
training pre-service teachers in skills acquisition so as to make
them effective and professional.
3. Microteaching is to enable teacher trainees to master a number
of teaching skills which empower them to gain confidence in
teaching. One time- honored adage says, ‘You cannot learn to
swim if you do not get in the water’.
4. Microteaching is geared towards equipping teacher trainees to
gain confidence in teaching. This it does by making the teacher
trainees to master a number of skills on a small group of
students.

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5. Microteaching aimed at helping teacher trainees to gain
confidence and research skills. Through microteaching, teacher
trainees can gain pre-service and in-service teaching experiences
and academic self-confidence.

Characteristics of Microteaching
Microteaching is made up of some characteristics. The
teacher trainees are required to teach a single concept, use a
specified teaching skill, use a specified teaching skill for a short
time and use the skill on a very small number of pupils. The
reduction is done in terms of class size (population), time
(duration) and content (task to be accomplished). The student
teachers who are regarded as the micro-teachers teach between
5-10 pupils who are likely to be their classmates, colleagues and
friends instead of facing the real classroom situation of about fifty
(50) pupils. Instead of teaching for forty (40) minutes as it is in
the real classroom situation, the micro-teachers prepare their
lesson plan and teach for maximum of ten (10) minutes.
In addition, since there is reduction in population and time,
the task to be accomplished is also reduced to one or two
instructional objectives. Microteaching affords the teacher
trainees to have first-hand teaching experience in the fear-free
atmosphere. They practice the teaching skill in terms of
definable, observable, measurable and controllable form with
repeated cycles till they attain mastery in the use of skill.

Merits of microteaching

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 Microteaching has a lot of advantages over traditional
technique of training professional. This does not mean that it has
no drawbacks which act as its limitations. In spite of this, teacher
trainers, educators and educationists consider microteaching as
an indispensable tool in producing effective teachers.
Microteaching is widely used in various forms of education today.
Microteaching is used in nursing, pharmacy, health sciences, life
sciences, mathematics and languages. This is due to its
functions, roles and merits in various fields. Ambili (2013)
confirmed that microteaching has a pivotal role to play in all
educational training programs because it improves learning.
Some of its merits and limitations are discussed below.
1. Microteaching provides a training opportunity for teacher trainees
who benefit or profit from all of the advantages of the situation.
Such advantages are: teacher trainees are able to act as pupils
and as teachers, as sources of feedback, as organizers of
microteaching session and as video operators. Slabbert (2013)
explained that if video equipment is used to make records of the
microteaching lessons and to provide feedback, the teacher
trainees have to be able to handle the equipment during the
recording and replay. The teacher trainees are expected to
engage in only the most elementary operations that can be easily
carried out by inexperienced person after training. The operations
include following the subject (teacher trainee) with a video
camera, focusing on the subject, zooming in and out on the
feedback, inserting and ejecting video cassette, making a
recording (audio and video), playing back a recording and the
playback.

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2. Another advantage of microteaching is that it emphasizes
training for mastery of teaching activities such as skills, teaching
methods and curriculum selection. Microteaching makes teacher
trainees concentrate on specific teaching behaviors. They choose
and master a skill at a time. It is after mastering a skill that they
choose another one until they are able to master and integrate all
the microteaching skills. There is opportunity for a teacher
trainee that is unable to master a skill adequately to re-teach the
lesson until perfection is achieved.
3. There is immediate feedback using microteaching. Microteaching
enables the student teacher to view and hear his own
performance which allows him make self-criticism. The teacher
trainee is given the opportunity of self- analysis of his own
behavior while teaching. Microteaching minimizes delay in
feedback.
4. Microteaching provides the teacher trainees with a much less
complex learning than normal school practice. Microteaching
lessons the complexities of the normal classroom teaching by
‘scaling down teaching’ in terms of time, population, content and
skill. Microteaching exposes the teacher trainees to laboratory
training procedure that is geared towards simplification of the
complexities of regular teaching learning process. Afolabi (2010)
argued that teacher trainees can learn teaching skills better as
the complexities of a conventional lesson are reduced. The
complexities are in terms of number of students (class size),
duration (time) and content (objectives).
5. Microteaching offers the teacher trainees the opportunity to
easily practice teaching skills during the microteaching lessons’

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 presentation. Oguntunde (2009) and Yusuf (2009) opined that
microteaching is a laboratory approach to training pre-service
teachers. It helps the teacher trainees to develop and improve
their teaching skills. The teacher trainees are offered the
opportunity of practicing particular teaching skills until they are
mastered. Microteaching allows teacher trainees to accomplish a
specific skill at a time and later integrate all the acquired skills for
use. Achuonye (2007) opined that microteaching equips teacher
trainees with acquisition of vital teaching skills in examination
free environment. According to Al- Methan (2003), concentration
on specific teaching skill provides teacher trainees with rich
experiences which make them to develop professionally.
6. Furthermore, microteaching afford the student teachers the
opportunity for self-evaluation. There is availability of feedback
from different sources. During microteaching, the trainee’s
performance is recorded by his supervisor and colleagues. The
records provided by the video and tape recordings are also there.
He watches the video and listens to the audio recording to
evaluate him and compare his assessment with that of his
supervisor and peers. By doing this, he makes meaningful
contributions to his development and to the improvement of his
peers when he gives them feedback too. Afolabi (2010) argued
that the use of video tape, audiotape and evaluation card ensures
that student teachers do self-evaluation for improvement of their
teaching skills’ acquisition.
7. Micro-lessons prepare the way for macro lessons. Microteaching
is a preparatory ground for teaching practice. Afolabi (2010)
opined that microteaching provides teacher trainees with

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 teaching encounters before the actual teaching practice.
Microteaching is properly carried out, the teaching practice
exercise is likely to be a more rewarding and successful exercise.
Microteaching promotes real-time teaching experience to student
teachers.
8. Microteaching closes the gap between theory and practice by
systematic practice of teaching skills. Microteaching is a training
technique in real teaching. Theoretically, teacher trainees read
books about teaching methods attend lectures and take courses
on teaching. What they read in books makes teaching simple
than practice. This is because it is not easy to get in front of
students for the first time. It is a trying experience for teacher
trainees. It is not easy to transform the theory into practice.
Instead of facing learners in the real classroom situation,
microteaching gives the student teachers the opportunity of
practicing with a small number of students (preferably peers and
colleagues) for a short period of 5-10 minutes.
9. Microteaching creates a training ground for other disciplines and
fields. Afolabi (2010) noted that microteaching as a course in
teacher education program adds versatility, integrity and
credibility to teaching profession. This is because fields and
professions like nursing, law, medicine, engineering, languages
and architecture use the feature of microteaching for their
academic and practical training.
10. Microteaching affords the student teachers the opportunity
of detecting and correcting their mistakes early under the
supervision and guidance of supervisors. In the normal class, the
teacher pays attention to the learners’ characteristics such as

195
 age, developmental level, maturational level and socio-economic
background. The teacher trainees do not pay attention to such
variables because they teach their colleagues. As a result, they
are able to correct their mistakes easily. Microteaching permits
senior teachers to assist the younger or potential teachers to
identify their strengths and weaknesses in a practical manner
and hence set guidelines for improvement.
11. Microteaching provides ‘low risk’ for the student teacher
and his learners. Instead of teaching children that are less
matured wrong concepts, he teaches his colleagues who may
have more knowledge of the subject matter than him. Afolabi
(2010) claimed that any mistakes committed by the teacher
trainee could cause permanent damage to the life of the learners
in a macro-lesson during teaching practice. It is better for a
teacher trainee to first experiment with his colleagues, friends
and peers where mistakes can be harmless and non- destructive.
Adeyanju (2004) argued that teaching experiment should not be
allowed on children who are supposed to be taught skillfully in
school and not be practiced on.
12. In addition, microteaching is a new research tool. There are
many studies, investigations and examinations on microteaching.
Researchers had compared its effectiveness with that of
traditional teaching. Educators have studied the correlation
between microteaching and teaching practice and they have
investigated the effectiveness of videotape, audio tape and
printed materials on microteaching.
13. Microteaching creates opportunity for the in-service
teachers to practice new instructional skills or behaviors. Some

196
 researchers have gone into the study of microteaching and in-
service teachers. Through microteaching, the in-service teachers
discover new teaching approaches of various subjects and
courses. Microteaching is used effectively by in-service teachers
to practice new instructional skills and behavior. Through
microteaching, the in-service teachers can up-date their
knowledge.
14. Microteaching makes peer teaching possible. According to
Egunjobi, Nwabuoku and Salawu (2011) classmates are readily
available than real students. Many Colleges of Education and
Universities may not have Demonstration schools where teacher
trainees can source for students to teach during microteaching.
Even where Demonstration schools are available, the
microteaching session may disrupt the school program.
Microteaching provides opportunity for peer teaching which the
situation is where the teacher trainee teaches his classmates,
friends and colleagues. In using peers, the supervisor needs to
check and curb the excesses of the peer group members
especially in the area of overreaction during the critique session.
15. Furthermore, student teachers are helped by
microteaching to build their self-confidence for teaching. Student
teachers are given opportunity to overcome mannerism,
nervousness and other semantic barriers which can hinder the
performance before the audience and supervisors. This leads to
greater teachers’ effectiveness that is essential for better
learning.

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 Limitations of Microteaching
The numerous merits or advantages of microteaching do
not mean that it has no limitations; the limitations are minimal
compared to its merits in teacher education.
1. Microteaching is skill oriented at the expense of content
orientation. Since there is reduction in time, there is also
reduction in objectives of the subject matter.
2. Microteaching does not pay attention to broad-based patterns of
behaviors in the classroom. Since there is reduction in time, little
or no attention is paid to classroom management. It does not
take into consideration the overall environment of teaching.
Kumar (2008) noted that microteaching applies only to
observable, demonstrated and quantifiable skills. Other skills like
keeping of students’ records are not taken care of by
microteaching.
3. Microteaching is costly and expensive. It is not easy for all the
Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education in Nigerian
Universities to establish modern Educational Technology Centers
and equip the microteaching laboratories adequately due to poor
funding of education. The software and hardware like the digital
video camera, audio and video tape recorders, Closed Circuit
Television (CCTV) and television monitor as well as play back
machine may be too expensive to purchase and maintain by
educational institutions.
4. The erratic power supply and constant power failure may hinder
proper recording during microteaching sessions. This makes the
evaluation which is an essential feature of feedback of

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 microteaching impossible and renders the whole exercise to
become a mirage.
5. Microteaching does not take into consideration the overall
environment of teaching. According to Kumar (2008),
microteaching is conducted under controlled environment where
different audio-visual media are provided. The consciousness of
the audio and visual recordings may be a burden to the student
teachers and may create fear and anxiety in them. Some of them
focus of their eyes on the camera instead of their audience. The
recordings may merely have cosmetic effects on the entire
training scheme as student teachers may pay more attention to
their appearance on the camera than on skills’ acquisition. The
student teachers can pretend and may not behave exactly the
same way when they get to the field.
6. Microteaching class is artificial. The ‘surrogate pupils’ taught in
micro-lessons gain little or nothing from the teaching. This is
because the exercise aims at mastering skills which is for
professional development of the teacher trainees rather than the
content acquisition of the pupils. The skills are mastered and
acquired one after the other and they are integrated by the
student teachers before going for teaching practice.
7. Microteaching is time consuming. This is because the idea of 5-10
minutes per trainee for each skill may sound short but it is
stressful for the supervisor who has to observe, criticize, correct,
encourage and evaluate especially at this time of population
explosion. For each teacher trainee to repeat presentations of
plan---teach--- feedback--- re-plan--- re-teach and re-feedback
cycle until each skill is mastered takes a long time.

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8. The non-challant attitude of student teachers may have negative
impacts on them. Student teachers do not attach much
importance to the course. Many teacher trainees do not bother to
turn up for microteaching. This hinders microteaching
effectiveness in Nigerian teacher producing institutions. Apart
from that, student teachers do not easily accept negative
comments made about their presentations. This makes learning
difficult for them as they tend to repeat the same mistakes often
and often. There have been cases when microteaching sessions
end with quarrels, misunderstanding and misconception. The
comments, commendations and criticism may be misleading. This
is because many of them may fail to make the true comments
about their friends, mates and colleagues’ performance during
micro-lesson. Whether their feedback is oral or written (filling of
questionnaires or evaluation cards), the peers erroneously
believe that scores and comments made by them may affect the
overall score assigned by the supervisor. As a result, they
pretend not to see the errors committed by their mates.
Therefore, they make fantastic comments on their peers and give
them high marks even when they have poor performance.
Different types of Microteaching skills and their
acquisition
No teaching can actually take place without a
demonstration of one skill or the other. A successful teacher in
his teaching task might have been helped by the instrumentality
of a host of skills at his disposal. The unsuccessful teacher in his
teaching tasks dissipates energy and time but still, he constantly
meets stone wall as the pupils fail to demonstrate desired

200
learning outcomes. His failure is not as a result of the knowledge
of the subject matter but as a result of lack of skills to transmit
the knowledge or impart the knowledge to his [Link] skills
are used for training student teachers and they are referred to as
microteaching skills.
Teaching skills are the behaviours and actions that
teachers acquire through practice and experiences which are
used during lesson presentation of the contents in other to make
lessons easily understandable. No teaching can actually take
place without a demonstration of one skill or the other. A
successful teacher in his teaching task might have been helped
by the instrumentality of a host of skills at his disposal. The
unsuccessful teacher in his teaching tasks dissipates energy and
time but still, he constantly meets stone wall as the pupils fail to
demonstrate desired learning outcomes. His failure is not as a
result of the knowledge of the subject matter but as a result of
lack of skills to transmit the knowledge or impart the knowledge
to his pupils.
The numbers of microteaching skills depend on the authors
or educators. For example, Achuonye (2007) gave a list of twelve,
Ajibade (2009) identified ten, Shar and Mansur (2011) identified
eight, while NCCE (2012) identified eight microteaching skills. The
summary are: Skills of planning and writing instructional
objectives/lesson note, skill of set induction, skill of variety and
variation, skill of communication, skill of reinforcement, skill of
example and illustration, skill of explanation, skill of recognizing
attending behavior. Others are: skill of planned repetition, skill of
questioning, skill of instructional media utilization skill of the use

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of chalkboard, skill of classroom management, skill of feedback
and skill of closure. Some are pre-instructional skills, some are
instructional skills while others are post-instructional skills.
The microteaching skills can be divided into three bodies:
the pre-instructional skill, instructional skills and post-
instructional skills. The pre-instructional skill is planning skill
(writing of lesson plan and stating of objectives). Instructional or
presentation skills include set induction, communication,
explanation, illustration with examples, reinforcement,
questioning, attending to learners’ behaviors, stimulus variation,
classroom management, use of chalkboard, use of instructional
materials and planned repetition. Post instructional skills are
closure and evaluation/feedback skills.

Skill of planning and writing instructional

objectives/lesson plan

The skill of planning is a pre-instructional skill. It is not

regarded by some educationalist as a teaching skill because it is
not part of what actually goes on in classroom in terms of
practice or activity. Ajileye (2012) noted that, a well-planned
lesson with well stated objectives is equivalent to a lesson half
completed. As a result, it is in-separable from other aspects of
lesson presentation. Teachers need to realize that a well-planned
lesson serves as a frame of reference and guide in all aspects of
a lesson from introduction to closure. A well written lesson plan
gives confidence to the teacher.

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 Many teachers fail in their teaching art right from the stage
of planning. Once the objectives of any lesson are wrongly stated,
the consequence is disastrous. This is because the statement of
objectives makes the success of such a lesson. Student teachers
must learn and practice the skill of planning, writing of lesson and
formation of lesson objectives. They should take this aspect very
seriously because it may give negative or positive first impression
to the supervisor at the beginning of a lesson presentation.

The statement of objectives should be relevant, clear,

observable and measurable. Instructional objectives should
contain a clearly stated verb that describes a definite action. For
example the following verbs should not be used for instructional
objectives: to know, to understand, to comprehend, to love, to
like, to grasp, to believe, to appreciate, to value, to think, to
realize, to familiarize and to cope with. These verbs are not
measurable. Instead, the teacher should use the verbs that are
measurable such as: to identify, to choose, to mention, to read,
to add, to draw, to complete, to separate, to locate, to explain, to
analyze, to interpret, to differentiate and to elucidate.

Ajileye (2010) noted that different teachers /lecturers use a

variety of lesson plans. This implies that there is no rigid format
for lesson plans which is suitable for every condition. The format
of writing lesson plan depends on the teacher’s training,
orientation, reference texts and the available resources. In spite
of the variations in writing lesson plans, there are essential
principal elements/components that should feature in lesson
plan. Two types of formats were identified by Ajelabi (2005). They

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are: Vertical (Traditional) format and Horizontal (Modern) format.
Both vertical and horizontal formats are made up of three bodies
named preliminary biographic data, intermediary information and
lesson movement.
Once the objectives of any lesson are wrongly stated, the
consequence is disastrous. This is because the statement of
objectives makes the success of such a lesson. Student –
teachers must learn and practice the skill of planning, writing of
lesson and formation of lesson objectives. They should take this
aspect very seriously because it may give negative or positive
first impression to the supervisor at the beginning of a lesson
presentation.

Skill of Set Induction

Set induction skill is a special skill used by the teacher at

the beginning of a lesson to establish a rapport between the
teacher and his pupils. A good beginning is most likely to bring
about good ending. Set induction attracts attention of learners
towards making them mentally and physically ready to
accomplish any [Link] is the act of introducing a lesson to
awaken learners’ interest in the lesson and create an atmosphere
of curiosity and motivation in the class. Isave (2012) consented
that set induction is a teaching skill used by the teacher for
learners’ induction to attend and learn. The teacher is a powerful
agent to set the learners into the right mind so as to prepare the
class for the lesson.

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 Set induction is any method, procedure or strategy a
teacher adopts at the beginning of a lesson or instructional
program so as to induce learners to be very attentive for better
learning and achievement of set objectives. Set induction skill is a
special skill used by the teacher at the beginning of a lesson to
establish a rapport between the teacher and his pupils. A good
beginning is most likely to bring about good ending. Set induction
attracts attention of learners towards making them mentally and
physically ready to accomplish any task.

Egunjobi, Nwaboku and Salawu (2011) and Singh (2011)

submitted that set induction induces in students the state of
readiness. A well trained teacher should be able to set up
learners by arousing their interest, arrest their attention and get
them ready for the instructional process at the inception of a
lesson. At the time of entering a class, learners’ actions have to
be observed, noted and addressed properly. The actions include
bored look, noise making and inattentiveness. Signs of boredom
and fatigue include catnapping and dozing. This can be as a
result of harsh weather, lack of interest in the course and
poor/unpleasant teachers’ personality due to lack of knowledge of
the subject matter, emotional instability, hostility and indecent
dressing.

How do teachers establish set induction in their classes?

1. By outlining the task to be accomplished in a lesson: The teacher

can introduce his lesson or induce his learners by allowing them
to be aware of the learning tasks ahead of the lesson. He can do
this by making known to the pupils the objectives of the lesson.

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 Outlining the task to be accomplished help both the teacher and
the pupils to progress systematically and provide frame of
reference to be focused.
2. By telling short stories: The teacher can induce his learners by
telling them short but interesting stories and funny things must
be relevant to the lesson topic and objectives. The stories should
capture pupils’ attention and interest.
3. By relating instruction to the learners’ interest: This could be
past, present or future experience of the learners. An introduction
may be considered relevant and meaningful to the extent that
each student is able to relate the objectives and the devices of
attaining them to his experience, his future goals, his personal
interest and value.
4. By using instructional media: All disciplines use instructional
materials. Such materials arouse learners’ interest and curiosity.
Learners are eager to hear, see and manipulate these materials.
Instructional media therefore can enhance attention of learners
and if effectively used, they can be valuable strategy for
introducing a lesson.
5. By performing experiments: This can be in form of drama or
demonstration (e.g. matching into the class). This depends on the
subject area. If appropriately used, it can enhance curiosity and
attention.
6. By using questioning: Questions can be posed to learners on
current affairs e.g. suppose you win a million naira from ‘who
wants to be a millionaire, would you spend it? What will you buy
with it?

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7. By reviewing appropriate or related previous lesson: This is like
the first method of outlining task of a lesson. Here, the previous
lesson can be reviewed in relation to the present one.
8. By singing: Related songs can be used to introduce a lesson

Functions of set induction skill

a) to capture students’ attention
b) to arouse students’ interest
c) to establish students’ involvement and participation in the lesson
d) to facilitate recall by giving meanings to new concepts
e) to prepare the students to tackle new task mentally
f) to focus the students’ attention on the new task
g) to establish the learners’ entry behavior to provide a sooth
instructional transition from known to unknown and from simple
to difficult

Incorrect methods of getting learners’ attention

1. Banging of desk or table.

2. Shouting to seek for attention.
3. Harassing or intimidating or threatening the noise makers.
4. Labeling or nicknaming noise makers.
5. Giving students reward to seek for attention.
6. Rushing in annoyance to students to seek for attention.
7. Using physical assaults like slapping on students to seek for
attention.

Skill of stimulus variation

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 The Skill of stimulus variation deals with presentation of
variety of stimulus that can help the learners to overcome
boredom in a lesson. It involves changing from time to time.
Everyone has a limit to which his attention can be sustained in
any given task. Stimulus variation helps to extend he limit of
attention of individuals. Classroom teachers can help learners to
remain actively interested in the lesson by varying classroom
situation such as teaching style, learning experiences and other
teaching behaviors. Some of the specific things that teacher can
adopt to ensure the skill of variety and variation are:

1. Movement and gesture: There must be done deliberately and

purposefully.
2. Using different mode of communication.
3. Pacing of lesson.
4. Change in interactional style and pattern
5. Different mode of reinforcement.
6. Change of style in questioning and distribution.

Functions of stimulus variation skill

a) Stimulus variation skill enhances children learning by making
them attentive
b) It maintains students’ attention
c) It sustains students’ interest
d) Students participate more in the lesson
e) It leads to great achievement of the lesson objectives
f) The teacher spends less time on disciplinary actions since all
students pay attention and have no disciplinary problems.

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g) It is an avoidance of teaching styles that induce boredom

Skill of communication

Communication is the act of giving information or message

from one person to another. It is a way of making ones idea,
concept, principles and information clear to others. It is an
indispensable skill of teaching. A good teacher must possess
communication skill to make his explanation clear to his students.
For his lesson to be explicit to the learners, he should be a good
communicator. Instructional communication is the interaction of
the teacher and the learner in the classroom. For effective
communication to take place in the classroom, the teacher needs
to acquire some skills.

It is the acquisition of communication skill that will aid the

interaction between him and his students in the process of
imparting and acquisition of knowledge and skills. To be able to
convey message efficiently to the learners, the teacher should
develop communication skills. He should adopt both verbal and
non-verbal communication to facilitate teaching-learning process
and achievement of set objectives.

Adegbija (2009) submitted that, when one shares a

message, information, idea, skills or attitude with another person,
such person establishes commonness with that person. A good
teacher must possess communication skill to make his
explanation clear to his students. For his lesson to be explicit to
the learners, he should be a good communicator. It is the
communication skill that will aid the interaction between him and
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his students in the process of imparting and acquisition of
knowledge and skills. To be able to convey message efficiently to
the learners, the teacher should develop communication skills.
He should adopt both verbal and non-verbal communication to
facilitate teaching-learning process and achievement of set
objectives.
Egunjobi et al (2011) identified two ways of communication
skill. They are verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication is
frequently used by teachers while there is negligence of non-
verbal communication. Verbal communication takes care of
clarity, audibility and use of tone. Non-verbal communication can
be either natural or accidental. Communication is used at all
facets of life. There is family communication, campus
communication, community communication and organizational
communication.
At the education sector, communication is the transmission
or the process of conveying information, idea, facts and
knowledge from the teacher to the learners. A teacher must be a
good communicator. At the school level, information takes place
between the teachers to the pupils, school authority to the pupils,
pupils to the teachers and school authority as well as from pupils
to pupils. At the classroom level, the teacher’s speech should be
of good standard in terms of correctness of grammar, tenses,
punctuation and pronunciation.
Non-verbal communication is a way of communicating
without talking. It can also be referred to as silence skill. It can be
referred to as body or sign language. In school setting, non-verbal
communication refers to an action by the teacher that gives

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learners the signal to say do or not do something. Klinzin (2002)
argued that the use of microteaching in teacher training and in-
service education lead to positive and long term effects in the
acquisition of verbal and non-verbal behavioral patterns.
There are three aspects of non-verbal communication:
silence, visual media and non-verbal cues. While using silence
teacher may be communicating with the students in silence. This
can be used to cut down the amount of unnecessary talking he
does to increase student’s participation. In silence, there is
absence of sound. The teacher neither speaks, talks, answers nor
does something. For example, there may be distinct pause which
prepare students for the next statement or action by the teacher.
When a teacher wants the learners to write something, he pauses
briefly his discussion so as to allow learners to put down or write
down some points. His silence is a signal to the learners that they
should write.
While using visual media teacher can display visual media
without necessary talking. The media convey information and
meaning that aid understanding. Non-verbal cues or gestures
refer to the signal we give others with parts of our body which
convey intended meanings. Okon (2011) submitted that people’s
daily non-verbal behaviors reveal who they are. A teacher’s facial
expression, eyes, voice, body movement and gesture convey
confidence and control. Eye contact and movements refer to
where the teacher focuses, gaze or look. People are generally
sensitive to looks of others because the look of the eyes can be
an expression of the inner self. The look of an eye connotes
friendly, unfriendly, anger, approval and disapproval of behaviors.

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The teacher can use eye contact and movement to contend and
communicate with disciplinary problems in the classroom.
The non-verbal communication makes use of non-
verbal cues such as facial language, body language, space and
motion language as well as the language of time. The non-verbal
cues are designed to give the teacher opportunity to direct and
control classroom interaction without talking. The cues are
powerful tools in facilitating effective teaching-learning process.
Furthermore, Communication is the act of giving information or
message from one person to another. It is a way of making ones
idea, concept, principles and information clear to others.

Questioning skill

Questioning skill is a very interesting skill which a teacher

cannot do without for good job to be done. It is a very important
skill for micro-teaching. Questioning is used to draw out ideas
from his students. Ajibade (2009) opined that questioning is the
skill that is used to elicit feedback, to stimulate thinking and
reasoning and to develop understanding. It is used to determine
students’ entry behavior, personal characteristics and
understanding of a given lesson. Questioning is a valuable tool
for determining achievement and finding out if the set objectives
of a lesson have been achieved or not. While using questioning
skill, the teacher should not call a student before asking his
question and should not ask more than one question at a time.

Questioning skill is employed from the inception to the tail

end of an instructional process by a good teacher. The skill is a

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useful tool for arresting students’ attention and arousing,
sustaining and maintaining students’ interest through-out the
instructional process. Egunjobi et al (2011) enumerated some of
the functions of questioning skill. The skill serves as set induction
at the beginning of a lesson and closure at the end of the lesson.
It is a pointer to attainment of set objectives. The skill detects
students’ strengths, weaknesses, deficiencies and incapability in
learning. Questioning skill is useful for revision exercise. It
promotes discussion and stimulates learners’ thinking. The skill
helps to break monotony as students are allowed to break from
listening only and being passive during instructional process.

The teacher should also distribute his questions evenly.

Questions may be asked to arouse the students’ interest at the
beginning of the lesson and to find out learners’ knowledge level
at the beginning of the lesson or at any stage of the lesson.
Questions may be asked to sustain learners’ interest throughout
the lesson to curb boredom/disinterest and to probe learners’
thought. Questions may be asked to apply knowledge acquired as
in the case of application of principles or formula already learnt.
Achuonye (2007), claimed that there are different types of
questioning. The simplest type is referred to as lower order
questions. These are questions that do not require much task on
the memory before they can be answered. They are mere recall
questions. It is either the student knows the answer or he does
not. How old is Nigeria? Such questions require definite answers.
Another type of questioning is middle order questions. These are
the questions that help to indicate if a learner’s behavior has
been modified or changed by an instruction. It shows whether the

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 learner is able to transfer what he has learnt in a situation to
another. At the primary school level, most of the tasks in verbal
and quantitative reasoning are in the category of middle lower
questions. Higher order questions are used at higher level. These
are questions which cannot be answered merely from memory.
This kind of question requires the students to go beyond the
factual answer and begin to generalize, relate, infer, compare,
perceive the cause effects and make value judgement.

Purpose of Questioning

a. Questions may be asked to arouse the students’ interest at the

beginning of the lesson.
b. Questions may be asked to find out learners’ knowledge level at
the beginning of the lesson or at any stage of the lesson.
c. Questions may be asked to sustain learners’ interest throughout
the lesson to curb boredom/disinterest.
d. Questions may be asked to probe learners’ thought.
e. Questions may be asked to apply knowledge acquired as in the
case of application of principles or formula already learnt.

Classification of Questioning techniques

Lower Order Questions

These are questions that do not task the memory before they
can be answered. They are mere recall questions. It is either the
student knows the answer. How many states are in Nigeria? Such
questions require definite answers.

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 Middle Lower Questions
These are the questions that help to indicate if a learner’s
behavior has been modified or changed by an instruction. It
shows whether the learner is able to transfer what he has learnt
in a situation to another. At the primary school level, most of the
tasks in verbal and quantitative reasoning are in the category of
middle lower questions.

Higher Order Questions

These are questions which cannot be answered merely from
memory. This kind of question requires the students to go beyond
the factual answer and begin to generalize, relate, infer,
compare, perceive the cause effects and make value judgment.
Such questions require the learners to give a correct answer and
explain, interpret, and apply the knowledge already acquired. For
example what are the differences and similarities between study
trip and excursion?

Probing Questions
a. Probing questions which search out and penetrate students’
experience, knowledge, skill and understanding.
b. Probing questions are usually based on the preceding response of
the student. Probing questions always seek for further
clarification, e.g. ‘You said the principal has flogged you, what
was your offence? Such questions stimulate logical and critical
thinking so as to ensure deeper understanding of ideas, concepts
abstracts and events.

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c. They help in developing the pupils’ critical awareness and
communication skills.
d. They are used to sustain discussions during lesson. All the above
mentioned types of questioning are convergent questions
because they have definite and specific answers.

Divergent questions
Divergent questions are open ended questions that require the
pupils to use concrete and abstract thinking to determine the
correct and appropriate responses or answers. Here the pupils
think creatively and differently, so there is likelihood they arrive
at different answers which may be correct. Divergent questions
demand answers from different angles. There are various ways of
presenting satisfactory answers. The pupils are free to explore
issues in any direction. Answers are difficult to score because it is
very difficult to classify answers as wrong or right. Divergent
questions promote originality, imagination and creativity of the
pupils. The pupils are required to make use of the available data
and already acquired experience, skill and knowledge to
determine likely answers. An example is: If petroleum finishes in
Nigeria, what do you think will happen?

Skill of reinforcement

During micro-teaching lesson, student teachers ask

questions at different stages of a lesson just like in a classroom
setting. The student teacher encourages responses from his
students by using positive comments such as ‘good’, ‘okay’,

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‘well-done’, ‘correct’, ‘excellent’ etc. The teacher can also use
positive gestures like handshake and nodding. This motivates the
students and learning. The teacher is to encourage all her
students and not only the good ones. He should also encourage
shy, timid and slow students to participate in the lesson. Non-
verbal reinforcements like clapping can be used for correct
responses. The teacher must tactfully reinforce the in-correct
responses such as ‘that is a good contribution’, ‘can someone put
it better’? Or ‘I admire your effort but you didn’t quite hit the
point’, or ‘you are on the way, try more’.

Abifarin (2004) opined that there are two types of

reinforcements: positive and negative reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement can be referred to as the response of the teacher
to learners’ behavior under the school setting so that the re-
occurrence of an approved behavior at a subsequent time is
increased. Positive reinforcement refers to reward which motives
learners to learn better. Generally, learners need approval of
their behavior to show they are appreciated by the teacher for
good conduct or for answering questions intelligently.
Commendations could include a simple ‘thank you’, gifts
and promotion. Negative reinforcement discourages
unacceptable behavior patterns. This is when punishment is
applied such that the re-occurrence of unwanted behavior is
reduced or does not occur. When a teacher responds to a
learner’s unwanted conduct or wrong answer negatively,
negative reinforcement is applied. It may also be withholding of
reward or application of punishment. It is a corrective measure
inform of scolding, denials or punishment.

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 There are two types of reinforcements: positive and negative
reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement can be referred to as the response of the

teacher to learners’ behavior under the school setting so that the
re-occurrence of an approved behavior at a subsequent time is
increased. Positive reinforcement refers to reward which motives
learners to learn better. Generally, learners need approval of
their behavior to show they are appreciated by the teacher for
good conduct or for answering questions intelligently.
Commendations could include a simple ‘thank you’, gifts,
promotion etc

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement discourages unacceptable behavior

patterns. This is when punishment is applied such that the re-
occurrence of unwanted behavior is reduced or does not occur.
When a teacher responds to a learner’s unwanted conduct or
wrong answer negatively, negative reinforcement is applied. It
may also be withholding of reward or application of punishment.
It is a corrective measure inform of scolding, denials or
punishment.

Functions of Reinforcement

1. It serves as motivation to the learners.

2. It encourages the learners to involve themselves in positive

rewarding behaviors.

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3. It discourages students from mal-adjustment behaviors

4. It makes the class to be interesting

Skill of examples and illustration

The skill of examples and illustrations is an important

instructional skill. An example is a fact or event or condition that
illustrates or represents a general rule while an illustration is the
act of making something clearer by using examples and various
media especially pictures, charts, drawing and photographs.
Example and illustration skills facilitate teaching – learning
process. The skills make way for easy remembering and recalling.
Achuonye (2007) noted that the skill is used to clarify, verify and
substantiate abstract ideas and concepts in order to achieve
instructional objectives.
The ideas or concept are first explained to the learners
while they are backed up with appropriate examples and
illustrations. The skill can be used to enhance teaching- learning
process through the use of various instructional media [visual
audio and audio-visual], practical demonstration, dramatization,
experienced verbal illustrations and explanation. The teacher
should use the examples that are chosen to serve specific
objectives and needs of learners. The examples must be relevant
and related to the experience and developmental level of the
[Link] skill is used to clarify, verify and substantiate
abstract ideas and concepts in order to achieve instructional
objectives.

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Skill of explanation

Skill of explanation empowers the teacher to make a

concept or idea clearer through verbal discussion or description.
He should discuss in details so as to make the idea or concept
understood by the learner. He needs this to clarify issues during
lesson presentation. This skill is a very essential activity by the
teacher because it increases the learners’ understanding of task
to be accomplished in a lesson.

The teacher‘s choice of words, construction of sentences

and use of language intelligible and clear while presenting the
content of a lesson. He should make complete statement and he
should be fluent in his communication. He should be patient while
explaining ideas, concepts, principles and facts so as to be able
to present his discussion in a way that will help mastery,
retention and recall of the subject matter by the students. While
he is discussing and explaining the ideas and facts, he should
give the learners opportunity to raise relevant issues, ask
questions, make observations and present their own views and
opinions

Egunjobi et al. (2011) noted that the skill is a very essential

activity by the teacher because it increases the learners’
understanding of task to be accomplished in a lesson. The
teacher‘s choice of words, construction of sentences and use of
language intelligible and clear while presenting the content of a
lesson. He should make complete statement and he should be
fluent in his communication. He should be patient while
explaining ideas, concepts, principles and facts so as to be able

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to present his discussion in a way that will help mastery,
retention and recall of the subject matter by the students. While
he is discussing and explaining the ideas and facts, he should
give the learners opportunity to raise relevant issues, ask
questions, make observations and present their own views and
opinions.
Skill of recognizing attention behavior

Skill of recognizing learners’ attending behavior could be

described as the ability of the teacher to monitor and be sensitive
to learners’ reactions or behaviors during teaching-learning
process. It also involves the use of feedback signals or hints
which learners exhibit so that the teacher can restructure his
lesson. Level of concentration, attention and interest of the
learners can be revealed by the signals mentioned above. The
signals as enumerated by Abifarin (2004) are: facial expression,
hissing, direction of eyes, tilting of the head, body posture, body
touching, feet shifting, yawning, looking sleepy, stretching of
body, discussing privately during lesson, eye wide open, head up
most of the times, hands and fingers stretched up to ask
questions frequently etc. All these are indicators either interest or
lack of interest, boredom and large degree of involvement by
learners in the lesson. The recognition of such attending behavior
is necessary so as to be able to address them so as not to disturb
or create disciplinary problem during lesson.

A good teacher should be observant of what the learners

are doing from time to time during lesson. After the teacher has
recognized the behavior he should have ability to contend with

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them. He can grapple such situation by changing the lesson,
varying activity, introducing new instructional strategies etc. He
could check some of the behaviors using appropriate non-verbal
cues such as facial expression, eyes, head, arm, hand and finger
movement, extra-verbal cues etc. Attending behaviors could be
negative or positive in whatever case, they should be attended
to. He can also arrest the situation by not facing the chalkboard
and by not writing for a long time on the board so as to be able to
keep eyes on the students.
The recognition of such attending behavior is necessary so
as to be able to address them so as not to disturb or create
disciplinary problem during lesson. A good teacher should be
observant of what the learners are doing from time to time during
lesson. After the teacher has recognized the behavior he should
have ability to contend with them. He can grapple such situation
by changing the lesson, varying activity, introducing new
instructional strategies etc. He could check some of the behaviors
using appropriate non-verbal cues such as facial expression,
eyes, head, arm, hand and finger movement, extra-verbal cues
etc. Attending behaviors could be negative or positive in
whatever case, they should be attended to. He can also arrest
the situation by not facing the chalkboard and by not writing for a
long time on the board so as to be able to keep eyes on his
students.

Skill of planned repetition

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 The skill of planned repetition is based on the principle that
the more an idea or concept is repeated meaningfully, the more
chances the pupils have to remember such idea, principle, key
facts or concept. This is as a result of over learning. Planned
repetition skill can help the pupils to acquire, assimilate,
apprehend, store, recall and retrieve the ideas, principles,
concepts and key facts. The learning and repetition must be
meaningful if so that the learners will find it easy to transfer the
knowledge correctly. If the repetition is not meaningful, it
amounts to monotony which may be boring to the pupils. Planned
repetition skill can be applied using the methods below.

Simple Repetition

Simple repetition can be referred to as immediate

repetition. This is where the teacher emphasizes the repetition of
certain points, ideas or concepts immediately after they have
been presented during the lesson.

Spaced Repetition

Spaced repetition can be referred to as periodic or interval

repetition. While using spaced repetition, the teacher repeats the
key points or concept of a lesson periodically at various intervals
during the lesson. The repetition increases the chances of
learners’ retention.

Cumulative Repetition

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Cumulative repetition is also known as sequential repetition. This
involves the repetition of all previous vital points or concepts
sequentially before the presentation of new ideas, concepts or
principles. The method is very helpful in retention, recall and
retrieval of facts and ideas when the lesson contains a number of
distinct but complex concepts and need to be reviewed before
proceeding to new concepts.

Mass Repetition

Mass repetition is equivalent to instructional closure. It could be

verbal or written. It involves repetition of all the main points or
ideas of a lesson in form of summary. Instructional media such as
audio, visual and audio-visual materials can be used to enhance
mass repetition.

Skill of closure

The act of bringing an action, event or activity to an end is

called closure. Ajibade (2009) affirmed that closure skill is
whatever the teacher does to bring a lesson to an end. He directs
the attention of the pupils to the completion of the lesson. It is
the process by which different units of a lesson is tied up by the
teacher in other to establish a link between an old lesson and a
new one. It usually associates with the end of a lesson. The types
of closure are: instructional closure, cognitive closure and social
closure. While using instructional closure, the teacher dominates
the lesson and high light the important points of the lesson.

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 Closure draws the attention of the pupils to the completion
of the lesson and enables the pupils to understand and master
ideas, concepts, activities and principles. It draws the relationship
among them at the end of the lesson. Closure is used to
emphasize and focus attention on the most vital points of a
lesson so as to establish relationship between the newly acquired
knowledge and the previous knowledge and experience.
Achuonye (2007) posited that closure is used to summarize the
major points of a lesson and helps to clear misconception and
misunderstanding of ideas, facts and issues. Closure skill
provides the pupils with a feeling of fruition, fulfillment and
accomplishment which serves as drive for continuous learning.
The types of closure are: instructional closure, cognitive
closure and social closure.

Instructional closure

While using this closure, the teacher dominates the lesson and
high light the important points of the lesson. The teacher
summarizes the key points covered in a lesson logically and
systematically. He shows the link between previous knowledge
and the new knowledge at the end of the lesson. This comes up
before evaluation and it makes the pupils to realize that the
lesson is coming to an end.

Cognitive closure

Cognitive closure is referred to as terminal evaluation. It is pupils’

dominated. The pupils answer questions that summarize the
lesson. It is attained when the pupils have understood the new
concepts. The pupils make link between new and previous
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 knowledge. Evaluation of instructional objectives is used to
achieve cognitive closure.

Social closure

Social closure occurs as a follow-up to either the instructional or

cognitive closure. If the student comprehension of a topic is
praised and acknowledged, it can lead to social closure. It is used
to give the pupils a feeling of accomplishment. It is used as a
strategy to let the pupils realize that the lesson has come to an
end. For example, the teacher can say, ‘I am glad you have no
difficulty in understanding the micro-teaching skills, our next
topic will be merits and demerits of micro-teaching.’ Or the
teacher can say, ’your class is very interesting’. ‘You are all
achievers’. These comments motivate pupils to look forward to
the next lesson and encourage them to strive more since they
are making progress.

Functions of closure skill

Closure skill performs the following functions in teaching-learning

process:

1. Closure draws the attention of the pupils to the completion of the

lesson.
2. Closure enables the pupils to understand and master ideas,
concepts, events, activities and principles and draws the
relationship among them at the end of the lesson.
3. Closure is used to emphasize and focus attention on the most
vital points of a lesson so as to establish relationship between the

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 newly acquired knowledge and the previous knowledge and
experience.
4. Closure is used to summarize the major points of a lesson. This
will help the pupils to remember and recall easily the major
points that are emphasized during the lesson.
5. Closure is used to evaluate the whole lesson so as to determine
the extent of attaining the instructional objectives by the teacher
and his pupils.
6. Closure helps to clear misconception and misunderstanding of
ideas, facts, concepts and issues.
7. Closure provides the pupils with a feeling of fruition, fulfillment
and accomplishment which serves as drive for continuous
learning.

Utilization of chalkboard skill

Utilization of chalkboard skill is an instructional skill. Saxena

and Khajanchee (2012) described chalkboard as the old-friend of
teachers which is still the most widely used teaching media.
Zaheer (2013)defined chalkboard as a reusable vertical writing
surface on which texts and drawings are made with sticks of
chalk. Originally, chalkboard was made of smooth, thin sheets of
black or dark grey slate stone. Today, with the emergence of
technology and digital media, chalkboard is made of various
colors such as white, green and blue and materials such as
bulletin, magnetic, interactive, sliding, roller and flannel boards.
The utility of chalkboard is being improved on by the use of
colored chalk, templates of figures, colored tempo/marker and
drawing instruments.

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 Chalkboard is inexpensive and easy to use. There is no school
that cannot afford its purchase. It is a visual material that can be
used to write texts, draw diagrams and make lists to support
words and voice. Learners’ participation in the lesson is ensured
by allowing them to write on the chalkboard. Christopher (2013)
found the use of chalkboard more satisfying than the use of
power-point. Even in the era of technology and innovations,
Christopher (2013) noted that the old chalkboard still has
something to teach. Despite all its merits, drawing diagrams on
the chalkboard is time consuming and the diagrams on it cannot
be [Link] is readily available, inexpensive and easy
to use. There is no school that cannot afford its purchase.
There is no need of using electricity and no need to darken the
room while using chalkboard. It is a visual material that can be
used to write texts, draw diagrams and make lists to support
words and voice. Learners’ participation in the lesson is ensured
by allowing them to write on the chalkboard. Despite all its
merits, drawing diagrams on the chalkboard is time consuming
and the diagrams on it cannot be reused. Also, eye contact is lost
while writing on the board and advance preparation of materials
is not possible with the use of chalkboard.

Guidelines for using chalkboard

The following guidelines will help the teacher in using chalkboard

correctly.

Chalkboard planning

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 The teacher should divide the board to sections depending
on how large it is. The standard chalkboard can be divided into
four parts. He should use the chalkboard systematically starting
from the left topmost to the right. He should not jump from one
area to another haphazardly. He finishes with a section before
moving to the next section. Templates can be used for drawing
objects and diagrams. The area of the board that is not visible to
all audience (like the bottom and the side) should not be used.

Chalkboard tools

The materials to be used for the chalkboard work should be

readily available before the commencement of the lesson. For
example, the teacher should get ready white and colored chalk,
duster and chalkboard pointer. He should not use white chalk
alone because only white chalk makes the chalkboard dull. He
can underline the section headings with colored chalk.

Chalkboard hygiene

The teacher uses a clean board for writing new words and
concepts. Chalkboard can be kept clean by eliminating dust. The
board is to be cleaned with duster and not with hand. Erase
irrelevant materials from the chalkboard. The board should be
renovated once a while for clean for students to see well.

Handwriting

The teacher’s handwriting should be legible enough for students

to see and decode. The teacher should not write or develop
concept on the board before teaching so as not to distract the
students. The teacher should telegraph his message by writing

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only the key points and not long sentences. He should not over
write on the board. He should write large, thick and bold letters in
running or free hand because small, thin and joint lettering are
difficult to read. He should write from left to right since we read
from left to right

Teacher’s position

The teacher’s position should cover the view of his students.

While writing, he should not talk and when he talks, he should not
write to avoid talking to the board and distraction. Students
should not see his back because he writes with his shoulder
perpendicular to the chalkboard so as to see what happens in the
class with his peripheral vision. He should not stay glued to the
podium in the name of writing on the board. He needs to move
round the class.

Classroom management skill

Classroom management skill is a necessity in teaching-

learning process. It is an instructional skill. Bhagava (2009) noted
that discipline maintenance in the classroom and dealing tactfully
with the pupils who misbehave pose a great challenge to teacher
trainees. This is because they are worried and disturbed by
impish pupils’ behaviors. This serves as a barrier to effective
classroom management. Kilic (2010) claimed that student
teachers can curb indiscipline and assert classroom control by
effective use of instructional materials, good time management,
positive personality and mastering of the subject matter. Others

230
are ensuring constant interest in the lesson, creating a
democratic, neat and conducive environment, proper leadership
and classroom organization.
Classroom management skill is a necessity in teaching-
learning process. It is an instructional skill. Bhagava (2009) noted
that discipline maintenance in the classroom and dealing tactfully
with the pupils who misbehave pose a great challenge to teacher
trainees. This is because they are worried and disturbed by
impish pupils’ behaviors. This serves as a barrier to effective
classroom management. Kilic (2010) claimed that teacher
trainees can curb indiscipline and assert classroom control by
effective use of instructional materials, good time management,
positive personality and mastering of the subject matter. Others
are ensuring constant interest in the lesson, creating a
democratic, neat and conducive environment, proper leadership
and classroom organization.

Utilization of instructional materials skill

Utilization of instructional materials is an indispensable
microteaching skill. Instructional media in this context are all
things which can be seen heard, read and manipulated in order to
facilitate communication and teaching-learning process. The skill
of instructional media utilization is the ability of the teacher to
use a host of materials to facilitate teaching-learning process in
order to achieve the set objectives. They are used to make
learning meaningful and concrete. They always affect the quality
and quantity of learning. Ajelabi (2005) opined that pupils

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understand better and faster when instructional materials are
used in teaching.
Olumorin (2013) confirmed that there are numerous
instructional media available today which serve as powerful and
flexible means of communication to teachers and learners. These
media affect the quality and quantity of learning. Examples of
these materials are: printed text (books, journal, magazines,
newspaper, maps, diagrams, posters, charts, graphs,
photographs, and atlases), chalkboard, realia (real objects)and
electronic media such as telephone, radio, tape, recorder,
cassettes, television, public address systems, film, film strips,
computers etc. The use of instructional media facilitates
teaching-learning process achievement of set objectives.
Instructional media can be used in every lesson irrespective of
discipline. Teachers are encouraged to use them in all their
lessons.
The use instructional media facilitates teaching-learning
process achievement of set objectives. Instructional media can be
used in every lesson irrespective of discipline. Teachers are
encouraged to use them in all their lessons. Student teachers
should be able to produce and improvise such materials,
especially in Colleges of Education. It is not good enough to use
them only during teaching practice, but also when the student
teachers are in the field of work. The materials must be well
prepared, properly displayed, used at the right time and must not
replace the teacher in class.

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Skill of Evaluation or Feedback
Evaluation or feedback skill is a post-instructional skill.
Adegbija (2009) claimed that feedback allows the teacher to
identify areas of lapses, omissions and misconceptions in the
teaching-learning process. Teachers can be considered as the
judge in his own class through evaluation. He takes decisions in
the teaching-learning process. The evaluation can be test,
assignment, project or paper/pencil examination.
According to Saxena and Khajanchee (2012), feedback skill
involves giving and receiving feedback from the learners.
Feedback refers to communication of feelings, emotions,
impressions, knowledge, views, opinions and suggestions on
various matters. Feedback skill includes skills of setting questions
for examination, giving tests and assignments, marking and
collating results, placing objective judgement on learners’
performance, interpreting learners’ performance in tests and
examinations and planning measures for learners’ improvement
so as to allow them to do better. Feedback facilitates learning
and correct usual mistakes done by the learners. It improves the
process of learning especially in laboratory, project work,
seminars, dialogue and discussions

Rating scales for Microteaching Practicum

The rating scales named Microteaching Skills Rating Scale
(MSRS) was developed by Ajileye (2015). The scale can be used
for practicum of Microteaching before teaching practice. The
rating scales are shown below.

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MICROTEACHING SKILLS RATING SCALE (MSRS)

The keys for the MSRS are as follows:

Key: 5 (Excellent) 4 (Very Good) 3 (Good) 2 (Weak)

1 (Very weak)

ITEMS SCORES

PLANNING SKILL (WRITING OF LESSON PLAN AND STATING

OBJECTIVES)
Planning lesson from the scheme of work 5 4 3 2 1
Adequately written lesson plan 5 4 3 2
1
Statement of instructional objectives logically 5 4 3 2
1
Statement of behavioural objectives logically 5 4 3 2
1
Organization of knowledge to be presented 5 4 3 2
1
Use of appropriate content (topic & sub-topic) 5 4 3 2
1
Indication of lesson intermediary 5 4 3 2
1
Planning for suitable students’ activities 5 4 3 2
1

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Indication of adequate lesson procedure 5 4 3 2
1
Relating lesson plan activities to subject matter 5 4 3 2
1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

SET INDUCTION SKILL

Observation of learners’ behavior at inception 5 4 3 2
1
Availability of teaching materials 5 4 3 2
1
Exchange of greetings with students 5 4 3 2
1
On-set creation of rapport with learners 5 4 3 2
1
Link previous knowledge with the new lesson 5 4 3 2
1
Moderate gesticulation/walking round the class 5 4 3 2
1
Sharing real life experiences with learners 5 4 3 2
1
Informing learners in advance lesson task5 4 3 2 1
Giving related stories 5 4 3 2 1
Singing related songs. 5 4 3 2 1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

COMMUNICATION (VERBAL AND NON VERBAL SKILLS)

Students’ participation in the dialogue 5 4 3 2
1
Fluency 5 4 3 2
1

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Clarity of information 5 4 3 2 1
Audibility 5 4 3 2 1
Use of language (gestures) 5 4 3 2
1
Use of head movement 5 4 3 2 1
Use of facial expression 5 4 3 2 1
Use of hand/arm movement 5 4 3 2 1
Use of mouth/throat 5 4 3 2
1
Use of tone 5 4 3 2 1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

PLANNED REPETITION SKILL

Hammering on the most important points 5 4 3 2 1
Avoiding monotony 5 4 3 2
1
Repeating difficult concepts several times 5 4 3 2
1
Repeating ideas without confusing the learners 5 4 3 2
1
Writing the key points on the board 5 4 3 2 1
Students’ participation in repeating key points 5 4 3 2
1
Use of simple repetition 5 4 3 2 1
Use of spaced repetition 5 4 3 2
1
Use of mass repetition 5 4 3 2 1
Use of cumulative repetition 5 4 3 2 1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

236
QUESTIONING SKILL
Initiating learners’ participation 5 4 3 2
1
Relating questions to topic of the lesson 5 4 3 2
1
Asking clear/unambiguous questions 5 4 3 2
1
Evenly distribution of questions 5 4 3 2
1
Emotional reaction to learners’ answers 5 4 3 2
1
Reinforcement of learners’ responses 5 4 3 2
1
Giving quality time for students’ thought 5 4 3 2
1
Ability to correct wrong answers promptly 5 4 3 2
1
Learners’ characteristics assessment suitability 5 4 3 2
1
Attainment of stated objectives 5 4 3 2
1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

STIMULUS VARIATION SKILL

Pulsing during teaching 5 4 3 2 1
Arresting learners’ attention 5 4 3 2 1
Sustaining learners’ attention 5 4 3 2 1

237
Changing tones during instruction 5 4 3 2
1
Uses of varieties in teaching 5 4 3 2 1
Uses of gesture 5 4 3 2 1
Uses of questions 5 4 3 2 1
Make the class interesting 5 4 3 2
1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

REINFORCEMENT SKILL
Uses of positive reinforcement 5 4 3 2
1
Uses of negative reinforcement 5 4 3 2
1
Application of verbal reinforcement 5 4 3 2 1
Application of non-verbal reinforcement 5 4 3 2
1
Commiserating reinforcement with task 5 4 3 2
1
Giving gestural reinforcement 5 4 3 2
1
Giving contact reinforcement 5 4 3 2 1
Giving proximity reinforcement 5 4 3 2
1

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Giving token reinforcement 5 4 3 2
1
Curbing noise during reinforcement 5 4 3 2 1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

USE OF EXAMPLES WITH ILLUSTRATIONS’ SKILL

Starting with simple examples to complex 5 4 3 2
1
Relating examples to previous knowledge5 4 3 2 1
Relevance of examples used 5 4 3 2 1
Uses of verbal illustrations 5 4 3 2
1
Uses of graphic illustrations 5 4 3 2 1
Combinations of verbal and graphic illustrations 5 4 3
2 1
Consideration of learners’ life experiences 5 4 3 2
1
Consideration of learners’ characteristics 5 4 3 2
1
Using concrete instances with learners’ unders. 5 4 3 2
1
Use of interesting examples 5 4 3 2 1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

CLOSURE SKILL
Completing the lesson successfully 5 4 3 2 1

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Drawing learners’ attention to the end of lesson5 4 3 2
1
Tiding up all the units of the lesson 5 4 3 2 1
Focusing learners’ attention on what they learnt5 4 3 2
1
Clarification of misunderstanding of the content5 4 3 2
1
Giving learners sense of accomplishment 5 4 3 2
1
Connecting new/previously learned materials 5 4 3 2
1
Learners’ demonstration of what was learned 5 4 3 2
1
Evaluating learners’ attainment of the objectives5 4 3 2
1
Expressing a closure(instruct/social/cognition) 5 4 3 2
1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

SKILL OF ATTENDING TO LEARNERS’ BEHAVIOURS

Keeping eyes on the learners 5 4 3 2 1
Recognising learners’ signals 5 4 3 2 1
Reactions to learners’ behaviours 5 4 3 2
1
Contending with the recognized behaviour 5 4 3 2
1
Checking the learners’ negative behaviours 5 4 3 2
1
Realisation of learners’ problems 5 4 3 2
1

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Guiding learners in respect to their problems 5 4 3 2
1
Ability to sense fatigue in learners 5 4 3 2
1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

CHALKBOARD UTILIZATION SKILL

Provision of writing materials (chalk/duster/board)5 4 3 2
1
Neatness of the chalkboard 5 4 3 2 1
Chalkboard organization 5 4 3 2
1
Creating glare-free visibility for learners to see 5 4 3 2
1
Writing the key points on the board 5 4 3 2 1
Legibility of handwriting 5 4 3 2
1
Appropriateness of letters 5 4 3 2
1
Learners participation on chalkboard work 5 4 3 2
1
Drawing of diagrams 5 4 3 2 1
Avoid speaking to the board 5 4 3 2 1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS UTILIZATION SKILL

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Provision of instructional materials 5 4 3 2 1
Relevance of instructional materials provided 5 4 3 2
1
Using improvised materials 5 4 3 2
1
Allowing pupils to use the materials 5 4 3 2 1
Using teaching supports (real objects/others) 5 4 3 2
1
Displaying instructional materials 5 4 3 2
1
Handling of instructional materials 5 4 3 2 1
Storage of instructional materials 5 4 3 2
1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

EXPLANATION SKILL
Clarification of concepts during explanation 5 4 3 2
1
Discussion of the subject matter 5 4 3 2
1
Consideration of learners’ characteristics 5 4 3 2
1
Learners’ opportunity to raise relevant issues 5 4 3 2
1
Patience with learners during explanation 5 4 3 2 1

242
Application of comm. skills for explanation 5 4 3 2
1
Impressing learners with detail explanation 5 4 3 2
1
Ability to carry learners along 5 4 3 2 1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

CLASS MANAGEMENT SKILL

Time management 5 4 3 2
1
Handling individual differences 5 4 3 2
1
Personality 5 4 3 2 1
Classroom leadership 5 4 3 2 1
Classroom neatness 5 4 3 2
1
Classroom control 5 4 3 2
1
Learners’ participation 5 4 3 2 1
Movement in the class 5 4 3 2 1
Identifying learners’ by names 5 4 3 2
1
Adequate record keeping 5 4 3 2
1

SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

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EVALUATION/FEEDBACK SKILL
Setting questions on the topic taught 5 4 3 2
1
Organization of continuous assessment 5 4 3 2
1
Giving take-home assignment 5 4 3 2
1
Marking of learners’ work 5 4 3 2
1
Assigning justified scores for the learners 5 4 3 2 1
Interpretation of learners’ performances 5 4 3 2
1 Recommendations for learners’ improvemet 5 4 3
2 1
Ability toaccept and take to corrections 5 4 3 2
1
SUB-TOTAL (50 MARKS) SUB-TOTAL SCORE =

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

TEACHING PRACTICE
Learning objectives
At the end of chapter seven, learners should perform the
following:
1. Describe teaching practice
2. Compare and contrast teaching practice and microteaching
3. Explain the procedures for teaching practice
4. Write the importance of teaching practice to teacher
education
5. Discuss the relationship between student teacher and the
permanent or host teacher
6. Elucidate the relationship between the student teacher and
the supervisor
7. Enumerate the relationship between the student teacher
and the pupils
8. State the errors that student teachers commit during
teaching practice

Introduction
Teaching practice is the practical aspect of teacher
education. According to National Policy on Education (NPE) 2004,
teaching practice is an indispensable component of teacher

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education which is capable of making the potential teacher fits
well into the teaching profession. Teaching as a profession
requires adequate training just like any other profession like law,
medicine, nursing, engineering, etc. Jekayinfa(2001) notes that
sound professional preparation is necessary for success in
teaching.
Teaching profession cannot be acquired overnight. It needs
adequate preparation and practical work. The exercise gives the
student teacher the opportunity of putting into practice all he has
gained during his exposure to different kinds of principles and
courses. He applies all the theoretical aspect to practical. This
includes all forms of pre-service training, teaching skills
(especially communication skill), teaching methods, class
management, record keeping, temperament, self-discipline,
school administration and relationship with pupils, parents and
other staff. Others are his personality, co-operation, attitude,
manner and health.
Based on the recommendation of the National Curriculum
Conference of 1969 in Agboola (2000), the student teacher
spends twelve weeks for the teaching practice exercise. No
matter a person’s talent or ability to impact knowledge, he needs
to undergo training that will enhance his performance and uplift
him above people that are in teaching profession by chance.
Teacher education is aimed at preparing and producing trained
and qualified teachers through theoretical and practical aspects.
Teaching practice really teach student teachers how to teach in
the real sense. They have practical in the normal classes that
have normal numbers of children, adequate content and normal

246
time. They have opportunity of meeting their ‘senior colleagues’
in the classroom situation. As medical students and student
pharmacist go for internship or house-man ship, so also student
teachers go for teaching practice and learn on-the-job.

Importance of teaching practice to teacher education

The importance of teaching practice is enumerated below.
1. Student teachers are able to test the theoretical knowledge
they have
gained in the classroom from their trainers, educators and
lecturers. They determine the procedures that are appropriate
for each level of learners as well as suitable classroom
situation or environment.
2. Student teachers use the basic teaching skills they acquire
theoretically in the class to analyse, appreciate and solve
problems of teaching during teaching practice.
3. Student teachers learn how to analyse, evaluate, modify and
correct their behaviours during teaching practice.
4. Student teachers are able to identify objectives of teaching
and see the relationship of a day’s lesson to the long-large
load for a week or term.
5. Student teachers are able to organise syllabus contents
around major concepts and generalizations in the
development of sequential learning in a unit or a course of
study.
6. Student teachers become more familiar with variety of
instructional materials and resources.

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7. Student teachers acquire practice skills through direct
experience and real life situation.
8. Student teachers are assessed and guided for both formative
and summative evaluation purpose by their trainers or
supervisors.
9. Teaching practice makes it possible for teacher trainers or
educators to develop a degree of experience in understanding
their trainees or student teachers’ procedure and techniques
of teaching which they practise under professional guidance
and supervision of their trainers.
10. Teaching practice gives the student teachers opportunity to
gather experience, competence, composure and confidence
to teach.

Procedure for Teaching Practice

There are stages or steps or procedures to be used for
teaching practice exercise. The steps include observation/visit to
schools, readiness for teaching and teaching as identified by
Jekayinfa (2001).

Observation/visit to schools
Some people refer to this stage as Foundation stage of teaching
practice. Student teachers are given opportunity of visiting their
schools and observe some professionally qualified and
experienced teachers and educators as mentors. The student
teachers observe various categories of teachers in their schools.
This is to enable them to learn best pedagogical practices that
are worthy of emulation. The mentors and the student teachers

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discuss about the observed lessons at the end of a specified time.
A student teacher asks his mentor questions on what he does and
why he does it. He writes his reports of observations with specific
comments on the best pedagogical practices of his mentor. He
then puts into use things he emulates from his mentor at the end
of his observation stage. At the observation stage, the student
teachers establish friendly relationship with the subject teachers
in their discipline.
At the observation stage, the student teachers study the
scheme of work, pupils’ exercise books, teachers’ guide, pupils’
workbook and school’s facilities such as toilet, library, assembly
etc. they also find out the available instructional materials for
selection and modification. Where the materials are not available
in the school’s resource room, they should find ways of
improvising. They watch few lessons by the permanent teachers
so as to know the pupils’ names and detect their problems and
difficulties. These will help them in planning their own lessons.

Readiness for teaching: The second stage is the readiness for

teaching. Student teachers prepare their scheme of work and
submit to their subject teachers for approval. Where the schemes
have already been prepared by the permanent teachers, the
student teachers can use such scheme to prepare their own
lesson plan. They should get the approval of either the schemes
or lesson plans before using them and they should follow the
approved scheme and lesson plan strictly. They should not pick
only the simple and interesting topics in the scheme and jump
over the difficult ones. Student teachers should not copy

249
approved lesson plan of other teachers. They should prepare
their own. During their lessons they glance through the lesson
plan but they are not expected to read or study the lesson plan
during teaching. They master whatever they have written there
at the readiness for teaching stage.
Also at this stage, student teachers make themselves
familiar with the class monitors because they will need their class
monitors for distribution of writing materials and for keeping the
classroom tidy. They should not sell their class control to their
class monitors. They also study the pupils’ attitudes and
behaviours at this stage.

Teaching stage
At the teaching stage, the student teacher should master
whatever he has planned for his lesson because at this stage he
shows his competence and adequate knowledge of the subject
matters. He gives his pupils enough activities to do in order to
maintain effective class control. He needs to have excess items in
case some students finish the assigned work before time and
they are left free, they may constitute noise distractions and
disturbance to others. He should be humorous, firm,
understanding, sympathetic and use gestures. He should learn
how to tolerate the pupils’ behaviours and should not be easily
irritated.
At the teaching stage, the student teacher should use both
positive and negative reinforcements. For a question well
answered or an approved behaviour, he can say, ‘well done’,
‘that is good of you’, ‘good attempt’, ‘a fair trial’ ‘clap for him’

250
etc. for incorrect answers or maladjustment behaviours, negative
reinforcements should be given to discourage the exhibition of
such behaviours. The student teacher can say ‘I know you can do
better’, ‘try again’, ‘I don’t expect that from you’ etc. no matter
how an incorrect answer is presented, pupils should be treated
with courtesy and not with embarrassment, courses and insults.
Comments like ‘I know you can not get the answer’, ‘you are not
fit to be here’, and ‘you are just wasting your time’ etc should not
be used for the pupils.
Questions should be mentioned before calling on students
to give answers. If a teacher calls a student and then gives the
question, the question is not meant for the whole class but for
that particular student. Questions should be evenly distributed to
the slow and fast learners as well as the introverts and the
extroverts.
Student teachers should ensure that the pupils write neatly
and legibly. Rough work should be rejected for correction.
Student teachers should lay good examples in their writing on the
chalkboard, marking and recording their pupils’ work. Their
handwriting should be neat and legible too. The chalkboard
should not be disgraced by learning summaries of two different
subjects on it. Student teachers should not clean the chalkboard
with their hands.
Pupils’ notes, class work and assignment should be marked
after the lesson or at the student teachers’ leisure times. Marking
of any type should not obstruct their lessons. Corrections should
be done in the class after marking. This is to enable the pupils
know where they the have gone wrong and do the right thing.

251
 Instructional materials are very essential for student
teachers. Their instructional materials should be purposeful,
appropriate and relevant to the topics they are teaching. The
materials should be neat, meaningful and attractive. Pupils at the
back seat should be able to see and read the instructional
materials properly. So, should be bold and uniform in size and
height. Where possible, student teachers should use real subjects
to make their teaching meaningful and true to life. Where the
instructional materials are already available in the school,
teachers are to make selection suite the purpose in the
classroom. Where they are not available, the student teachers
should be improvised. Pupils should not be sent out to buy writing
materials. Instead they should be lent by the teachers or pupils.

Relationship between student teacher and the permanent

teacher
The permanent teacher or cooperating teacher can be
regarded as the most important companion of the student
teacher with respect to professional preparation and growth. He
is the teacher in charge of the class. He knows the school and the
pupils very well. The student teacher relies heavily on the
permanent teacher for updating relevant information on his
teaching.
The permanent teacher instructs guides, marks lesson
plans, observes, advises, supervises and assess student teacher
at all times. He plays these roles without any bias. As a result, the
student teacher should maintain cordial relationship with the
permanent teacher. The student teacher should be trainable and

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should not prove to know too much. He should listen to the
advice and constructive criticisms of the permanent teacher and
take to corrections from him. If there is any cause for argument,
the student teacher should let his argument be logical and be
supported with facts. He should not keep on repeating ‘yes
sir/ma’, ‘No sir/ma/ when he is expected to express himself in a
simple language or ask questions. He should not be rude to the
permanent teacher in any way.
The student teacher should observe and obey the school’s
rules and regulations. He should be conversant with the school
tones and programmes and be present in the school’s
programmes such as morning/opening assembly,
afternoon/closing assembly, cleaning of the school compound,
sporting and games activities, literary and debating societies and
the guidance programmes. The student should be punctual and
should not go to school only when he has lessons. He keeps
records and maintains classroom discipline and control.

Relationship between the student teacher and the

supervisor
The supervisor is an educator, teacher or lecturer who has
qualifications and experiences in teaching profession. The
supervisor may be from the student teacher’s college or from
outside the college (as external supervisor). He reports to the
head teacher before supervising. The supervisor should be
descriptive and not need to be assertive or authoritative on the
presentation of the student teacher. He needs to give his opinion
that usually starts with, ‘in my own opinion……. Or in my

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 experience……’ He needs to describe something that the student
teacher can act upon. He does not need to make comments that
are discouraging and that can make the profession uninteresting
to the student teacher. The student teacher should not be rude to
his supervisor. He should be in school through at all times of the
teaching practice period so that he is available whenever his
supervisor comes. He should receive the supervisor warmly and
look at him as his mentor. The roles of the supervisor include:
1. The supervisor should possess and be well equipped with the
recent, current and relevant information and experiences in
teaching profession.
2. The supervisor assesses or appraises the student teacher. He
observes and watches the student teacher without bias. He uses
the evaluation form or format provided by the institution. He
should not be in a hurry to assess many student teachers at a
time. He should be steady and take time to assess each of them.
3. The supervisor should have enough time with his supervisees. If
possible, he should spend at least 20 - 30 minutes on each of the
student teacher. This will allow him to watch and observe the
lesson and the student teacher from the beginning of the lesson
to an appreciable level. He should not create fear in the student
teacher.
4. The supervisor should make constructive corrections on the
student teacher’s work. He should not embarrass, harass or insult
the student teacher even when the latter is not doing the correct
thing. He corrects the student teacher in pure love at a place
where his pupils can not hear him.

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5. The supervisor serves as a role model and a motivator to the
student teacher. Therefore, he should not dress shabbily for
supervision as dressing is one of the items in the format of
teaching practice assessment. He should be neat and dress
modestly so that the student teacher can emulate him.
6. The supervisor provides feedback to the student teacher at the
end of his daily assessment. He gathers all the student teacher
and tells them all his observations and how they can improve. He
does not condemn or discourage them. He should be an
inspiration and support to the student teachers.
7. The supervisor should be well equipped with adequate
communication skills and should be fluent. He should express his
interaction with the student teacher in simple and correct
language. There should be no ambiguity and proverbs in his
choice of words so as to allow the student teacher to gain from
his wealth of experience.
8. The supervisor should not supervise by proxy. He should go to
the student teacher’s school of practice. He needs not to invite
the student teacher to his office or a school that is not the
student teacher’s school of practice.

Relationship between student teacher and the pupils

The student teacher is in his school because the pupils are
there. So, he needs to treat his pupils with courtesy. His roles
include teaching class management, record keeping discipline.
1. The student teacher should prepare his lessons and acquire the
knowledge of the subject matters.

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2. He should read very wide and update his knowledge by using
internet. He should provide the pupils with current and adequate
information on what he is teaching.
3. He should be fluent and explanatory enough for his pupils to gain
from his experience.
4. As he emulates his ‘senior colleagues’ in the teaching profession
so, his pupils emulate him both academically and character wise.
5. The student teacher keeps adequate records. The records include
lesson plan and, scheme and records of work, attendance
register, records of pupils’ marks and all the class inventories.
Where he is not competent enough, he should ask the permanent
teacher to put him through.
6. The class management and control are done by the student
teacher. Good class management is the key to classroom
success. There is a positive approach to classroom when there is
good class management. There is no classroom without its little
problem no matter how well it is managed but where good class
management is lacking, there is chaos and teaching-learning
process is distorted. The student teacher is confronted with many
problems which include: absenteeism, disobedience, truancy,
bullying, lateness, fighting (both verbal and physical) in
attentiveness, leaving one’s seats for no good reason, noise
refusal to do assignment, shuffling of feet, tapping pen or pencil,
sleeping, talking loud when one is expected to be quiet and
making or receiving phone calls in the class.
7. The student teacher maintains discipline in the class. A
disciplined class is where both the learners and the student
teacher know what is right and do it without disrupting the class.

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There are bound to be certain disciplinary problems in the class
since the pupils are not angels, they are growing and
experiencing new stages of life. The student teacher should use
the notes on the ways of maintaining discipline in the classroom
and apply the recommended methods.

Errors that student teachers commit during teaching

practice

There are some errors or mistakes which student teachers

commit during teaching practice. These have made them to have
nasty experience of the exercise. Student teachers need to guide
against such errors for smooth teaching practice exercise.

Punctuality
Student teachers stay away from their schools of practice without
permission. The permanent teachers are not well informed of
their where about. So, the supervisor finds it difficult to assess
them even after repeated visits. Student teachers should
endeavour to be in their schools of practice but when they are
unavoidably absent, proper permission should be taken from the
school authority. The school should also provide time book for
them to sign their entrance and exit from the school.

Lesson plan
There are some student teachers who do not write lesson plan at
all. Some write but inadequate, un-sequential and un-logical.
Some lesson plans are rough. Most of the times, the instructional
and behavioural objectives are not well written or well stated.

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Student teachers’ handwritings sometimes are illegible. The
lesson plans are full of poor spelling and wrong tenses. Some
words are wrongfully amalgamated while some are unnecessarily
separated. The student teachers should read more about lesson
plan and practice how to write lesson plan several times before
teaching practice.

Set induction
Set induction is the introduction of the lessons. Student teachers
make mistakes of asking pupils questions on the new topics and
it is only the answers they gather from pupils that they use to
teach. This is a wrong approach to teaching. The pupils are
assumed as not having enough knowledge of the subject matter.
That is the essence of the teacher’s interaction with them.
Introduction of a new lesson can be done by asking questions on
their entry behaviour or previous knowledge (last lesson that
relates to the new one), by singing, by telling stories, by role
playing, by dramatization and by displaying instructional
materials.

Lesson presentation:
There have been many cases where student teachers do not
have depth knowledge of the subject matter. It is difficult for
someone to give what he does not possess. The impaction of
knowledge is difficult when the student teacher has shallow
knowledge of the subject matter. They become nervous (some
shiver while others sweat) during the lesson. Some may also
stammer since they are confronted with the situation they never

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expected. Student teachers should prepare well and master their
subject matters before practice.

Explanation
Some student teachers are unable to explain concepts. They fail
to relate an object, event, action or state of affairs to some other
object, event, action or state of affairs. They do not pay attention
to the five major maxims of teaching while explaining such as
from the known to unknown, the easy to difficult and the simple
to the complex, the particular to the general and from the
concrete to the abstract. They do not give examples and
illustrations during teaching-learning exercise. Student teachers
should observe competent teachers and imbibe their strategies
before they go for teaching practice.

Communication skills
Student teachers make grammatical error. Some are not audible
because they have weak, harsh and unclear voice while some can
not express themselves. Their choice of language is inappropriate
and unsuitable as some result to ‘’pidgin’’ English during
classroom interaction. Since they are not fluent, explanation is
unclear and learning is difficult. There should be clarity in their
voices. Student teachers should try to be audible and avoid ‘bed-
room voice’. That does not mean that they should shout and
harass the pupils. They only need to talk in a suitable tone.
Student teachers should practise spoken English several times,

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watch their lecturers, listen to radio and television programs and
take to corrections where they have deficiencies.

Chalkboard
Student teachers make many mistakes while using the
chalkboard. Some do not rule the margin while others do not
write on the board at all. Some write without dates while others
write without topics. Some do not clean the board well while
others disgrace the chalkboard by writing on the used board.
Some student teachers misuse the chalkboard by cleaning it with
their hands. Some have illegible handwriting while others’ writing
slants. There are omissions of letters in words, amalgamation of
words and unnecessary separation of words. Some do not
manage the chalkboard well as a result of their big lettering while
others talk to the board and back the pupils.

Use of instructional materials

Student teachers are supposed to improvise and utilize
instructional materials during teaching. Many of them are lazy
and they find production of instructional materials unnecessary.
They result to verbal explanation which may not be enough for
proper and effective teaching-learning process. Some use
irrelevant materials while others misuse them by displaying them
from the beginning of the lesson to the end. Some borrow
instructional materials which they are not conversant with while
others do not review their materials before use and they get
disappointed during teaching.

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Time management
Student teachers make errors in time management. Such student
teachers concentrate on an aspect so much that they fail to touch
necessary aspects of their lesson .some of them do this to cover
up for their inadequacies on the topics or the lesson taught. Time
should be given to all aspects from the beginning to the end of
the lesson so as to cater for set induction, lesson presentation,
illustrations, using of instructional materials, evaluation,
summary and closure.

Pupils’ participation
Pupils should be well involved in the lesson. It is not only during
evaluation that pupils should be allowed to talk. They too can
contribute to the lesson through their own questions. They should
be asked to touch and manipulate the instructional materials
provided. They should be active and not passive participants in
the class. Many student teachers do all the talking while their
pupils do all the listening.

Class management
Student teachers make a lot of errors in class management. They
find class control difficult and their pupils turn their classroom to
battle field. Some of the pupils fight while others pinch one
another. The bullies find opportunity of oppressing the less
privileged while others eat and litter the classroom all sorts of
dirt. There usually an obvious indiscipline in such class.

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Reinforcement
Student teachers do not use both positive and negative
reinforcement well. They forget to reward the pupils that give
correct answers and those that exhibit good behavior so as to
encourage others to emulate them. They also leave undesirable
behaviors unchecked. Many student teachers concentrate on
their verbal explanation and they do not react to their pupils’
responses.

Evaluation
Evaluation can be done by asking pupils questions, giving them
assignment and, test and examination. Student teachers make
errors in questioning. They call or designate the pupils or
respondent asking their questions. This means that such a
student teacher is addressing and catering for only one pupil and
not the whole class. They also concentrate on the fast learners
and the introverts are left without allowing them to contribute.
Some ask questions outside their stated objectives while others
ask ambiguous and unclear questions. Some do not ask questions
during teaching while others ask too many questions at a time.

Assignments
Student teachers make the error of giving assignments. Some do
not give assignment at all while others give assignments that are
beyond the pupils’ abilities and ask them to give their elder
brothers and sisters at home to do for them. Assignment is very
important because it helps the parents to compliment the

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teacher’s efforts but it has to be given on what the pupils have
been exposed to.

Supervisor’s interaction
Some student teachers do not teach when there are no
supervisors. They do eye-service. They only work in the presence
of supervisor and do not do so at his absence. When the
supervisor is in the class, some student teachers try to spy at
what he writes on their partners (students that are teaching)
instead for them to be watching their partners that are teaching
and pin point some useful hints in their teaching. Some student
teachers make mistakes of looking and concentrating on their
supervisors, class tutors or whoever they think they are superior
to them. In doing so, they lose focus and develop inferiority
complex and divided concentration during the lesson. These
break the continuity of the lesson and they become nervous.

Manner
The manners of the student teachers matter. Some of them
have no confidence while others are overconfident. They are not
well composed and comported. In fact they can be regarded as
exhibiting inferiority complex. Apart from that, some of them lack
good characters. Assessment of a potential teacher should not
only be on academic performance but also on the acceptable
characters which can be transmitted to the younger ones.

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Personality
Student teachers are supposed to dress modestly because
teachers are role models for younger ones. Anything a teacher
does is considered to be supper right by the pupils. Some student
teachers dress half-naked in other to entice the teachers in their
school of practice. Some wear transparent clothes while others go
for mining skirts. Some male student teachers match their
trousers while others sag. On no account should the inner wear of
both males and females be exposed for pupils to see. The types
of hair styles the males and the females have do not befit a role
model. It is true teachers should appear neatly, smartly and
modestly but the dressing for a party does not fit the classroom.
Always remember that decent dress breeds decent life and the
way someone dresses; so, he is addressed.

CHAPTER EIGHT

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT, ORGANIZATION AND

DISCIPLINE

Learning objectives

At the end of chapter eight, learners should perform the

following:

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 1. Define classroom management, classroom organization and
classroom control
2. Describe classroom maintenance
3. Discuss classroom discipline
4. Explain signs of indiscipline in the classroom
5. State causes of poor classroom control
6. Elucidate positive discipline techniques in the class
7. Give account of negative discipline techniques in the class

Introduction

The skill of classroom management is an indispensable one

in teaching-learning process. Classroom management has always
been one of the foremost problems for teachers; indeed the
adequate control of a classroom is a pre-requisite top achieving
instruction objective and to safeguarding the psychological well-
being of students.

Classroom management

A classroom is an institutionalized artificial setting for

teaching. This setting is managed by a man or woman who is
trained to direct the day-to-day affairs of the student’s curricula
and co-curricula activities of the class. The classroom is the
meeting point of teachers and their students. In a classroom, we
may find between twenty and thirty-five students under the
guidance of a teacher. An ideal situation of the classroom is such
that a teacher will have sizeable numbers of students. Today,
hardly can one see an ideal class constituted by forty students.
What exists in schools today is large class and over-population.
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 Teachers and students meet regularly in the classroom for a
designated period of time over an interval of four to nine months.
Classroom operates under a form of rationality which specifies
that activities involving all students must have an educator
justification. Classroom management could as well be defined as
the planning, management and execution of the school’s
program as it affects teaching and learning in the classroom. The
teacher in the centre of activities of the classroom manages the
physical as well as the psychological environment to create an
atmosphere that is conducive for learning.

Classroom organization and arrangement

A simulating classroom environment is a constructive force

for healthful living and functional learning in the education of
children. The physical facilities set the stage for instruction. In an
attempt to create an educative classroom, the teacher should
give attention to the decoration of the classroom. He can do this
by displaying all attractive pictures and the children’s
craft/creative works. The class furniture should be well arranged
to accommodate the pupils and make the environment safe for
them.

The idea thing is for proper physical layout that is spacious

to accommodate chalkboard, podium for teachers, seats for
pupils/students, teacher’s table and chair, library and
instructional materials. The space in the classroom should give
room for demonstration and dramatization. There is need for
good walkways that allow the teacher to move round his students
and not staying glued to the podium during teaching. The space

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in the podium should be enough to display pupils’workand
[Link] a clumsy and disorganized classroom, pupils spenda
lot of time waiting tomove in the class especially in large classes.

The recommended sitting arrangements depend on the size

of the class. For example, round table is suitable for small group
collaboration. In large classes, lining desks in rows facing the
teacher is the traditional old method of classroom arrangement.
That is still the rampart arrangement today in Nigerian schools
due to large population. The arrangement allows the teacher to
make eye contact with every learner and reaches each of them
with ease. However, other classroom sitting arrangements have
entered the system especially in many private schools and few
public schools that have small classes.

Class maintenance

The classroom is a tangible structure that serves as shelter

for the educational activities. The classroom equipment like desk,
chairs, blackboards, cupboard, shelves, dustbin, dusters, wash-
hand basin, napkins/hand towels and teaching aids are all located
in the classroom. The maintenance of these facilities is the
responsibilities of the teacher, the head of the classroom. He may
also delegate other pupils like the captains and other members of
the class to watch over all the items. It is always good to put a
destructive element among them in charge or a pupil who has
been known for stealing things in the class. Pupils like that are
very good custodian of class properties.

The class teacher should make prompt report of damage of

any facility in his class to the head master/mistress so that it can
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 be replaced in good time. Examples are roofing sheets, broken
wall, damaged chalkboards, missing books and blackboard ruler
and such other items in the classroom; should be promptly
reported to the head master. The class teacher also ensures that
all electrical appliances are well fitted for smooth running of the
class.

Class leadership and control

As it has been mentioned above under the teacher’s

functions and code of conduct, the class teacher is the
paramount ruler/leader in the classroom. He does not only teach
the topics he prepares to teach alone, he also directs the affairs
of the class activities such as:

1. Ensuring pupils prompt and positive response to calls.

2. He also ensures that laws and order are maintained in the class
at all times.
3. He also presents himself as a role-model to the children by the
way he dresses, manner of speaking etc. Teachers should not
wear bathroom slippers or dress shabbily. Women should not
expose sensitive parts of their bodies. Also, assisting the teacher
in the task of control and leadership in the classroom are the
class-captains or the class representatives (boy/girl). To these
pupils the teacher should delegate authority to control and
manifest leadership authority when he is not around in the class.
Situations like attending a meeting or having engagement
outside the classroom may occasionally arise, the class captain
takes charge of the classroom. Sometimes, these “assistants”

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supervise sweeping and general cleaning of the classroom. They
also represent the class at the school level.

Importance of class control

Teacher’s ability to control and manage the behavior of his

students during teaching is a panacea to achieving positive
educational outcomes. Exhibition of sound and positive behavior
makes good instruction possible. Teachers that find if difficult to
control their students’ behaviour during instruction always face
the challenge ofineffectiveness and high levelof stress/burnout.

Causes of poor classroom control

1. Poor classroom control emanates from the teachers that are

ill-prepared and lack professional development. This may
also be due to the fact that such teachers have not received
sufficient training for managing students’ behavior.
Whatever training the teachers imbibe in their institutions
goes a long way in their performances at the field.
2. Large class is another cause of inability to control students’
behavior especially a large class with high percentage of at-
risk (anti-social behaviours) students.
3. Poor academic achievers can also result to disrupting class
activities and events. They do this in order to prevent others
from gaining in the events and activities so that all of them
will become the same.
4. Lack of instructional materials can also cause anti-social
behaviours in the class. This is because students are bored
with lecture method without variations. This makes them to

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 result to catnapping, noisemaking and other maladjustment
behaviours.
5. Lack of environmental in the school security pose as
challenge to classroom control. School fencing is very
important because it helps to checkmate students’
unguarded behaviours such as sneaking in or out of school.
It also prevents unwarranted attacks by external bodies.
Lives of both teachers and students are vital towards
promotion of learning.
6. Lack of job security can pose as challenge to class control.
The government and proprietors need to guarantee the job
security of teachers for efficiency. Teachers would not give
their best in controlling pupils’ behavior when they know
they are unprotected and threatened. They can be thrown
out of their employment while doing their jobs especially in
private schools.
7. Home background is another factor that affects control of
learners’ behaviours. A child’s parental social status and
moral qualities affect his intellectual and behavioural
patterns. It has been observed by educators that children
from influential homes have some behavioural excesses
that pose as challenges to teachers. Some parents even go
to their children’s schools to insult teachers and demand for
their removal from their children’s classes or school if
possible. This happens often in private schools where
proprietors are money hungry and have no sense of
integrity to protect teaching profession. The worst thing is
that such teachers are relieved of their duties for

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 performing their duties diligently without any benefit. Such
teacher’s hope is dashed and his future is left to hang in the
balance.
8. School location can also control measures in the class.
Pupils in a rural setting with serene environment are easily
controlled than pupils from the heart of the town. This is
because the pupils from towns and cities are attracted to
anti-social behaviours which keep them away from their
educational pursuits more than students from villages and
rural areas.

Discipline

Pupils/ students come from different homes and socio-economic

backgrounds. Some of them are from homes where parents
engage in fighting, nagging, cursing etcetera. Some of them may
also be products of broken homes. Others may be fortuned to
come from loving, stable and happy homes. The school is a sub-
set or sub-system of the society while the society serves as the
supra system to the school. As a result, the vices, mal-adjustment
behaviors such as dishonesty, disobedience, hatred, crime,
corruption, wickedness, greed etcetera that emanate from the
society reflect in the school. Students are given helping hand to
learn control and orderly behaviors.

Discipline refers to the extent to which the learners apply

themselves willingly to the tasks assigned to them by their
teachers. There are rules that are attached to these
responsibilities. Failure to conform to the rules and regulations
amounts to indiscipline. The teacher corrects the vices by

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mentoring and correction with pure love. Some of the school
rules and regulations that guide the smooth running of the school
include: punctuality, regularity and class attendance,
attentiveness, cooperation with class members, cleanliness, and
etcetera.

Signs of indiscipline in the classroom

Indiscipline can be noticed in the class that is noisy, shows act of

misbehavior and wrapped with restlessness and inattentiveness.

Noise
Noise causes distraction in the class. It does not allow
students to attain the set objectives. Noise can cause a huge
barrier to effective instructional communication. It can emanate
from the teacher and the pupils. Teacher’s poor pronunciation,
lack of knowledge of the subject matter, lack of communication
skills, mother tongue interference, mannerism, nervousness and
personality can cause noise in the classroom. Noise can also
emanate from the pupils when they are over eager to get the
teacher’s attention, shout out answers, engage in private and
group arguments, make comments on what they have been
exposed to, rude deliberately, engage in disorderliness (pushing
and struggling for passage, space or materials), whisper and
subdue laughter, idle due to teacher’s absenteeism and private
engagement such as group discussion, quarrels, argument and
fights.

Acts of misbehavior
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 Pupils can be naughty deliberately. They engage in mal-
adjustment behaviors and vices like lying, late coming, stealing,
and refusal to carry out assignment, truancy, dishonesty and
rudeness. They do these to show or express rebellion to their
teachers.

Restlessness and inattentiveness

Pupils loose attention and concentration in a lesson especially

when the class environment is not suitable for the or when the
teacher’s method is boring and uninteresting. Instead of paying
attention to the teacher, pupils concentrate on the attractions
and disturbances outside the classroom. This can also happen
when they have been sitting for so long in the class.

Strategies for classroom discipline

There are some strategies a teacher can use to establish

discipline in his class. There are both positive and negative
discipline techniques. Both are discussed below.

Positive discipline techniques

Positive discipline techniques that a teacher needs to use in the

class include:

1. The teacher should be a role model

2. The teacher should be kind but firm.
3. The teacher should be consistent
4. The teacher should state clearly the expectations from the
students.

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5. The teacher should apply justice with explanation of his actions to
the pupils.
6. The teacher should give warning before punishment
7. There should be one-on-one discussion between the teacher and
the student before punishment
8. The teacher should ignore inappropriate behaviours especially if
he feels that the offender commits such behaviours deliberately
to annoy him unless such behaviours are dangerous, destructive
or embarrassing to the teacher, other students, other teachers or
outsiders.
9. The punishment to be imposed should commeasurable with the
offence committed.
10. The teacher should create a warm dynamic atmosphere in
the class for his pupils to be happy and participate in class work.
11. The teacher should keep the pupils busy at all times.
12. The teacher moves close to where pupils are sitting.
13. The teacher reminds the pupils of the rules and regulations
occasionally.
14. The teacher makes eye contact with the pupils that are
misbehaving.
15. The teacher changes the activity by using stimulus variation
skill to avoid boredom.

Negative discipline techniques

There are negative discipline techniques which the teacher
should avoid in the classroom. They include:
1. Teacher’s mal adjustment behaviour: The teacher should avoid
all forms of behaviours that can chip off his self-esteem.

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2. Nagging: The teacher should avoid nagging his students
3. Ratting: The teacher should avoid ratting his students
4. Threat: The teacher should avoid threatening his students
5. Humiliation: The teacher should avoid humiliating his students
6. Sparking: The teacher should avoid sparking on his students
7. Partiality and injustice: The teacher should avoid partiality and
injustice in dealing with his students
8. Too many rules at a time: The teacher should avoid giving too
many rules and regulations at a time.
9. Repetition of commands: The teacher should avoid repeating
commands, rules and regulations often.
10. Power tussle: The teacher should avoid engaging in power
struggles and tussles with his students
11. Argument: The teacher should avoid arguing with his
students
12. Abusive words: The teacher should avoid using abusive,
insultive and defamatory languages for his students.
13. Indiscriminate punishment: The teacher should avoid
punishing the whole class for the offence committed by only
one of the class members.
1. Wickedness: The teacher should avoid using punishment that
will inflict wounds or permanent physical deformity on his
students such as slapping on the ear/face/eyes, knocking of
heads and using cane/rod to beat/whip the students.
2. Hot temperament: The teacher should avoid losing his temper
on students’ mis-behaviour. Punishment given in annoyance
may not correct mal-adjustment behaviours as it may not
commeasurable with the offence committed.

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 CHAPTER NINE

SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM RECORDS

Learning objectives

At the end of chapter nine, learners should perform the following:

1. Define records
2. State the rationale for keeping records
3. Enumerate the records that are kept by the head teachers
4. Discuss the records that are kept by class teachers.
5. Explain the functions of syllabus
6. Elucidate the importance of time-table
7. Describe the importance of scheme of work
8. Differentiate lesson plan from lesson note
9. Enumerate the functions of lesson plan in classroom
interaction.

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 10. Choose topics in their area of studies and write lesson
plans using SMASE format that is used in FCT schools

Meaning of record keeping

In the school system, there are records that are kept by the
head teacher in the administrative office and there are some that
are kept in the classroom by the class teacher. UNESCO (1991)
defines record as a documented proof of a transaction. The
transaction between the parents and the school is teaching with
provision of conducive environment for pupils or students. In
doing this, a lot of activities are involved such as pupils’
admission, procurement of materials, teachers’ employment,
pupils’ progress etc. all these need to be carefully documented.

Records are written or documented information kept for

remembrance. They can be in physical entity or electronic. They
are evidence of facts of an occurrence which passes from one
hand to another.

Rationale for record keeping

Records are kept for planning of resources, school

management, school financial management, improvement of
instructional programme and maintenance of effective
interpersonal relationship with the community and external
agencies. These are explained below.

Planning of resources

Resources in the school system include teachers, non-

teaching staff, students, instructional materials and time. The

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resources needed are determined by the school administrators
through planning. Planning, coordination, control and organizing
of school activities could be enhanced through the use of records.
Records such as students’ admission and attendance registers,
school inventories book and teachers’ register are consulted in
order to plan for acquisition and utilization of the resources.
Planning for utilization of time is very important so as to avoid
wastage. Records like school calendar and time table can be used
to allocate programmes, curricular and co-curricular activities of
the school.

School management of staff and students

Record keeping is necessary in schools for easy management of

staff and students. When the administrative wing of the school is
equipped with the data of the staff and students, the head
teacher will be able to know individual staff and student. The
records kept on students strengthens the relationship of the
parents and the school/teachers.

Financial management

Record keeping is essential for financial management of schools.

Records show the money that comes in and the expenditures.
Signatures and names of people that are connected with school
account are there with the amount paid and collected. This
makes it difficult for dishonest to embezzle the school money
without being brought to book.

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Types of School records

School records are of two categories: statutory and non-

statutory. The statutory records are legally binding on the school
to keep and they are mandated to be kept by education law. The
non-statutory records are not enforced by law but they are very
important to be kept by schools. Though they are not legally
binding, they are very helpful in documenting other activities
going on in the school. They include duty roster, testimonial,
reward book, official correspondence file, as well as
clubs/societies records.

School records are indispensable instrument for effective

performance of school administration. School records can be
regarded as the greatest assets for successful school
administration because they are the information banks of the
school. A good school administrator is equipped with ability to
store and retrieve records in a short time and deliver them upon
request. Examples are:

1. Log book
2. Attendance register
3. School calendar
4. School Time table (lesson and examination)
5. Conduct register
6. Admission register
7. School plant and equipment record
8. School budget/financial record
9. Visitors’ book
10. Staff time/attendance book

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 11. Staff record
12. Staff movement book
13. Transfer Certificate Booklet
14. National Policy on Education
15. Syllabus
16. Staff Meeting Minutes Book
17. Parent Teachers Association Executive meeting
minutes book
18. Clubs and Societies Minutes Book
19. Duty Roster Book
20. Duty Report Book
21. Examination Malpractice s Decree Booklet
22. Continuous Assessment Record Book
23. Staff List and Nominal Roll
24. First Aid Box/Report Book
25. Cumulative Record for Guidance Counselor
26. Farm Diary or Record Book
27. Schedule of Duties for Staff Record
28. Examination Committee File
29. Heads of Department Committee File
30. Inspection Report File

Log Book

Log book is a historical record of events that have

significant effects on a school’s activities. It could be an
important source of information or data to future historians and
serves as an accurate historical record of the school. Some of the

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events that are considered worthy of being recorded in a school
log book include the date of school’s establishment, information
on the head teacher and staff, movement/ transfer of teachers,
important staff meetings/emergency meetings, visits of
inspectors and dignities, changes from normal school day and
death.

Admission Register

Admission register is used for fresh students. The register is

an important public record and needs to be made available for
scrutiny by school inspectors, police officers etc. the data for
students’ enrolment includes students’ names, age, health
history, parental religions /address and admission numbers or
matriculation numbers. Admission register is a reference book for
tracing the entry, progress and existence of any student admitted
into the school. It can be used for settlement of legal
controversies and claims. It can be used for the purpose of
international comparisons for the allocation of financial aid for
educational development.

School Plants and Equipment

School plants and equipment record can also be called

inventory book. School plants are the assets of the school. They
include school buildings or immovable structures/educational
facilities. They are usually shown in the school’s site plan. The
information on school’s dimension and boundaries is recorded.
Equipment on the other hand are the movable educational
facilities such as fans, air-conditioner, duplicating and photocopy
machines, chairs and tables, laboratory equipment etc. keeping
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records on plants and equipment is very important because it
provides a historic information on the building dimensions,
architects construction firm, materials used, approval notice from
the town planning authority, renovations etc. all the school’s
assets, plants and equipment should be taken care of by the
head teacher.

School time-table

The time table is the indicator of what each teacher with his
pupils are to do at a given period. A regular order is maintained
by making each subject fall into its natural and suitable place. It
ensures that each subject receives its due share of attention
according to the importance of the subject. It ensures that
adequate time is allocated to every subject.

Factors that determine the drawing of school Time-table

Subject to be taught: All subjects must receive attention

according to the curriculum. They should be given appropriate
proportion according to their importance.

Length of a school day: There is regulation for every school

day as stipulated by the education department. The length
should be considered in drawing up school time table. The school
opens at 8:00 am and closes at 2:00 pm with long and short
breaks.

The duration of the lesson: The time allocated to the subjects

in the lower classes should be shorter than that of upper classes

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 especially in primary schools so as to gain the students’
attention.

The lesson sequence: Subjects should be well arranged in such a

way that two difficult subjects do not follow each other.

Lesson distribution: The time table should be drawn according

to the mental graph e.g. Mathematics should be taken in the
morning when the mental graph is high while subjects like social
studies, drawing and moral instruction should be taken in the
afternoon when the mental graph is low.

Importance of Time-table

a. The time table is drawn up to help the smooth running of the

school work.
b. It regulates teaching adequately by paying equal attention to all
the school subjects.

Character or correction/punishment book

Character or correction or corporal punishment book is the

record of the punishment meted on pupils by the head teacher or
other teachers in the school. It involves the use of whip; hard
labor etc. teachers need to be careful while giving corporal
punishment so as no to inflict wounds on the students. The
punishment must measure up to their offences. According to
Education Edict (1985), no male teacher should administer
corporal punishment on a female student. The names of the
pupils, dates and details of their offences, vices or misbehaviors
are written in this record. It is better to keep the parents

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informed before corporal punishment is given to their
children/wards.

Visitors’ Book

Visitors’ book is the record of important visitors to the school.

They include inspector, teachers from other schools, community
leaders, publishers and educationists. Their names, address and
purpose of their visits should be stated.

School Budget/Financial Record

Schools, institutions and educational organizations have

resources which must be maintained periodically to enable them
achieve the goals of teaching and learning. Funds are required to
maintain school resources. So, a tool to guide school
administrators in the judicious use of available resources is
necessary. A budget provides estimates of future revenues and
expenditures of the school system such plan can be modified
which is due to the influences of variety of factors like the
economy and government decisions.

The records which must be used in the preparation of a

school budget provides information on fees paid by the students,
donations from PTA and well-wishers, school ventures,
government aids, other source of funds, staff records, physical
facilities and expenditure (current and capital expenditure). The
current expenditure include transport, repair, maintenance,
utilities charges, consumables, social expenses and
miscellaneous. Capital expenditures are funds on physical
structures, furniture and other equipment.

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Staff Record

Staff record contains information on both teaching and non-

teaching staff. The record spells out their dates of transfer to the
school, qualifications, ranks, grade levels, permanent home
addresses and next of kin.

Time Book/Staff Attendance Register

Time book is where each teacher’s daily resumption and exist are
kept. The teacher signs in with his/her signature on daily basis.
He/she signs out at closure. This record is very important as it
aids the school administrators to know the standing of his staff
such as those that are punctual, regular, latecomers, truants and
absentees. It helps him to find out the problems of his staff.
Those that are punctual and have good standing should be
rewarded by the school head-teacher e.g. principal’s award.

National Policy on Education

National Policy on Education is a very important document that

guides all levels of education in Nigeria (pre-primary/primary,
secondary and tertiary).it can also be referred to as Educational
Law. The materials, teachers’ qualifications, methods of
instruction, class ratio and students’ ages are spelt out. It also
makes provision for each education course such as educational
technology, curriculum studies, adult education, guidance and
counseling, special education etc. the latest NPE is the (2004)
edition which is popularly referred to for research, submission
and findings by researchers, educators, authors and teachers.

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Transfer Certificate Booklet

In the school system, there is always movement and transfer of

pupils/students from one school to another. This may be due to
parents’ relocation from one place to another or preference of
one school to another. This document is issued to transferring
pupils to their schools.

Syllabus

Curriculum is drawn from the society while the syllabus is

drawn from the curriculum. Syllabus contains the sets of subjects
or courses to be taught or learnt. It is the syllabus that guides the
teacher on the development of the scheme of work. The syllabus
contains all the information needed on each topic for all classes
and all subjects. The school draws the syllabus from the
curriculum while each teacher draws his topics/scheme of work
from the syllabus. Syllabus is always referred to as the program
of studies of schools at various levels of education. Syllabus is
usually presented as a list of topics to be covered. It is a course
of work planned to span a long period of time usually a year.
Syllabus should include what ground to be covered, units of
learning, order of the units of learning and time allocation to each
unit. The class, average age and ability of the learners and
language of instruction are included in the syllabus. Syllabus
should also include the number of weeks in the year, number of
periods in a week, method of instruction, materials, correlation of
topics and subjects as well as the season of the year and time of
the day that are conducive for the topics to be taught.

Types of Syllabus
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 There are two types of syllabus:

School Syllabus

The school syllabus contains statements of general and specific

objectives, learning activities and teaching strategies and
evaluation devices. Such syllabus contains all aspects of a child’s
education which the school should provide. The school syllabus
serves as a guide to the teacher. The school syllabus is drawn up
in each subject for each class for a period of one year. It is
usually divided into three terms.

Examination Syllabus

Examination syllabus is a brief statement about the

requirements, regulations and conducts of an examination. Each
examination such as WAEC, NECO, NABTEB, NTI and JAMB bodies
set its own examination syllabus. Examination syllabus is
different from school syllabus because it only prepares the
learners for passing examination and certificate whereas the
school syllabus intends to produce an all-round educated
individual who communicates as a well-adjusted citizen.

Types of Class Records

A proper keeping of school or class record is a vital role

played by the class teacher. The class teacher or the headmaster
keeps administrative records as well as teaching records.
Teaching records are kept for effective and efficient teaching and
learning processes while administrative records help in efficient
and effective administration of the class as well as the entire
school. Few of the class records kept by class teachers are:

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 1. Attendance register
2. Result master sheet/spread sheet
3. Report card
4. Dossier (pupils’ cumulative records)/ continuous
assessment book
5. Syllabus
6. Scheme and record of work
7. Class indicator
8. Lesson plan
9. Assignment book.
10. Teaching records

Class attendance register

Every class has an attendance register, which is kept by the

class teacher, it contains the names, admission number, sex,
dates of birth, daily attendance and each student’s date of
promotion to the class. Other information about the
parent/guardian is also supplied by a well-kept register such as
name of parent/guardian, home/office address, phone number,
religion and occupation. All these help the class teacher through
the school to be able to get in touch with the parents of students
when need be. The register is normally marked twice in a day,
one in the morning and the other in the afternoon with standing
strokes. The daily attendance is summarized at the weekend
(Friday) or anytime the school closes for the week when there is
public holiday etc. The summary in the week is then entered
appropriately in the register.

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 The register is usually checked and endorsed by the
assistant head teacher. If properly kept, the register can help
teachers to identify the truants, perpetual comers/habitual
latecomers and occasional latecomers among the pupils.

The class teacher is not expected to delegate the marking of

register to the class captain or a brilliant pupil in the class as it
possesses some danger to the teacher himself and the school.

Result master sheet/Spread sheet

Result master sheet is sometimes referred to as spread sheet. It

contains the name of the school, the academic year and term,
level and class. Other information on the spread sheets are:

a. Names of pupils are arranged alphabetically in the attendance

register. In this case, no room is given to segregation (names of
boys written in black and girls in red). This system is old fashion.
b. List of subjects offered in each level.
c. Marks obtained in C.A (continuous assessment) and the
examination and total mark obtained in each subject offered.

Average scores and remarks are features of the master/spread

sheet.

The advantage of this record is that at a glance, the class teacher

can read the result of all students in the class. Class teachers
should prepare a neat and clean master sheet as it speaks of the
characteristics of the teacher in question. This record is so vital
that any alteration, painting or erasure of number renders it
invalid and unacceptable. Teachers should be diligent in handling
it because it could be referred to at anytime and from anywhere

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especially when facts about performances of students are
required.

Report card

Report card contains all reports of the child. Unlike the

master/spread sheet which only shows the cognitive/academic
performance of the child, report cards reflect assessment. Most
parents show interest only in the academic performance but the
class teacher is expected to measure the affective area of each
child. The class teacher must be vigilant to know all his/her pupils
personally by character, names and should be able to read their
emotion. This record should as well be kept with all diligence.

In addition, report card should be neat (no alteration of

painting or erasure on it) as these acts render it invalid. It also
speaks of the personality of the keeper of that record. To the
parents and outsiders who may read this record, the integrity of
the teacher will be questioned. No school head will look kindly
whose result is dirty and un-presentable. The teacher should
ensure the card gets to the hands of parents/guardians. Students
should not be allowed to handle the record because it can be
doctored or mutilated by pupils or students who failed.

The class teacher should not use students to record marks

or anything in the report card as they can alter marks to favor
themselves or the weaker friends. Report cards are prepared
monthly in the school so in a term, a student may be accessed
four times. Where a student would have to collect his report
cards, class teachers should ensure that the student in question
signed for it to prevent a situation where a student may deny
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collection because he failed his exam or lost the same. The
school may be held responsible for the missing report card.

Dossier

Dossier is a booklet containing individual report cards of

pupils. A pupil is given a dossier each. A dossier shows records of
performance of pupils at each level of education throughout
his/her stay in primary school. In a nutshell, it is cumulative
record of pupil’s performance in a school. The rules for keeping of
other records still hold as the teacher handles this record. It must
be neat and void of eraser, painting and mutilation. It is better
kept in the school to avoid mishandling either by parents or
pupils.

Scheme of work

The scheme of work is drawn from the syllabus. It contains

the topics, concepts and themes. It is the duty of the teacher to
draw out the scheme of work from the syllabus. In doing this, he
breaks the syllabus into topics and writes the topics to cover the
number of weeks per term. Scheme of work can be written on
term basis specifying which topic is to be taught per week. The
teacher writes the session, term and week of each subject. The
teacher writes the topics that guides him on weekly basis.
However, the teacher should not be a slave to the scheme of
work. It is when he is able to cover a topic for particular week
that he proceeds to the next topic. If he covers the topics and the
students do not understand the topic, he has to re-teach it.

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 In addition, if time doesn’t allow him to finish the topic due
to unforeseen reasons such as public holidays, mid-term break,
teachers’ strike etc, he has to start where he stops. The recorded
work could be checked, marked and corrected by the HOD, head
teacher or whoever is assigned to do so at the end of the week.
The teacher develops his lesson notes from the scheme of work
on daily basis.

Lesson plan

Lesson plan maps out

teaching strategies and actual learning outcomes. It is an
indicator of a teachers’ preparedness to teach a topic. Lesson
plan is written daily on subject basis drawn from topics in the
scheme and record of work. Lesson plan is a systematic design of
instruction for a single unit of lesson. It is used to describe the
plan of activities of the teacher and the students for a single
lesson. Some people refer to lesson plan as lesson note. Lesson
note is the note or summary of the lesson or hints or points that
is given to the students to copy in their note books at the end of
the lesson.

Lesson plan on the other hand

as identified by Nigeria Educational Research Council (1981),
Offorma (1994), Abimbade (1999), Achuonye and Ajoku (2003),
Sadiq (2005) and Ajileye (2010) is a planned format that a
teacher prepares on daily basis according to the subjects and the
topics. A teacher gives serious thought to a lesson before he
actually teaches it. This preparation is done at the pre-teaching
stage. Lesson plan is an indispensable tool/document in a goal

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 oriented teacher’s hand. A well planned lesson can be used to
teach by another competent teacher in the absence of the
regular teacher.

Good teaching and instruction

take place with good and careful planning. A lesson that is not
well planned leads to disappointment and failure. Pupils that
attend unplanned lesson may get bored, disappointed and
unhappy. Such teacher’s self-esteem, regard, interest and
confidence his pupils have in him are cheeped off and eroded.
Such lesson contains incomplete subject matter and
incorrect/obsolete information.

Necessary details and

illustrations are lacking which give room to disorderliness,
haphazardness, chaos and noise. The objectives of a lesson
written in the lesson plan are evaluated at the end of each lesson
per day. A lesson plan is made up of three bodies: preliminary,
intermediary and lesson movement. The preliminary include all
the general information and the reference texts. Intermediary
includes instructional materials, instructional objectives,
behavioral objectives, previous knowledge and introduction. The
lesson movement is made up of lesson presentations, conclusion,
evaluation and assignment.

Importance of Lesson Plan

1. It aids the memory of the teacher during the lesson. It provides a

program for lesson to remind the teacher of each step to be
taken while teaching.

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2. Writing of lesson plan really prepares the teacher for the next
day’s job.
3. It enables the teacher to give adequate thought and preparation
to the objective of the lesson and the method outcomes.
4. Lesson plan establishes binding relationships among its essential
features as the topic of a lesson must be related to the age of the
learner, pupils’ entry behavior, content, method of teaching and
the evaluator questions set to determine learning outcomes.
5. Lesson plan boosts teacher’s confidence.
6. Lesson plan allows a teacher to present his lesson sequentially.
7. Lesson plan makes the teacher to pursue and attain the stated
objectives within a limited time.
8. Lesson plan serves as reminder to the teacher which gives him
memory while teaching and he leaves no relevant points,
techniques and materials.

Lesson presentation (Lesson plan format)

Different teachers /lecturers use a variety of teaching plans.

This implies that there is no rigid format for lesson plans which is
suitable for every condition. The format of writing lesson plan
depends on the teacher’s training, orientation, reference texts
and the available resources. In spite of the variations in writing
lesson plans, there are essential principal elements/components
that should feature in lesson plan. Also, there is need to
harmonize the variation so as to reduce the student teachers’
stress during micro-teaching and teaching practice. Many of them
get stranded as they are confused on what format to adapt for
their training. This theoretical research has gone through many

294
 texts and has considered many authors’ contention on the format
of lesson plan. Apart from the fact that the elements in each text
differ, the orderliness is not the same.

Two types of formats were identified by Ajelabi (2005). They

are: Vertical (Traditional) format and Horizontal (Modern) format.
Both vertical and horizontal formats are made up of three bodies:

1. Preliminary biographic data/introduction: Name, number, date,

school, subject, class, age and duration.
2. Intermediary information: General topic, specific lesson topic,
reference sources, instructional materials, instructional
objectives, behavioral objectives and previous knowledge.
3. Lesson movement: Lesson introduction, step by step
presentation, conclusion, evaluation and assignment.

Vertical (traditional) format

Name of Teacher

Matriculation number (for student teachers)

Date

School of practice

Subject

Class

Average Age

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Gender

Time

Duration

Period

General Topic for the Week

Specific Lesson Topic (sub-topic)

Reference Texts

Instructional Materials

Instructional Objectives

Behavioral/Specific/Performance Objectives

Previous Knowledge/Entry Behavior

Introduction

Presentation Arranged in Steps

Step I

Step II

Step III

Step IV

Evaluation

Conclusion/Summary

Assignment

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Horizontal (modern) format

Name of Teacher

Matriculation number (for student teachers)

Date

School of practice

Subject

Class

Average Age

Gender

Time

Duration

Period

General Topic for the Week

Specific Lesson Topic (sub-topic)

Reference Texts

Instructional Materials

Instructional Objectives

Behavioral/Specific/Performance Objectives

Previous Knowledge /Entry Behavior

Introduction

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 The lesson presentation using horizontal format of lesson
plan is more scientific, modern and child-centered. Though, the
vertical format is simple, it does not create space for learners’
activities, methods/strategies and duration. One can safely say
that the vertical format is non-scientific, it is teachers centered
and it is not activity based. Therefore, horizontal format is better
than vertical format.

An example of a lesson plan on teaching Set induction in a

Microteaching class

Course: EDU 213: Microteaching (Theory& Practicum)

General Topic: Microteaching Skills

Sub-Topic: Set induction Skill

Class: 200 Level Student Teachers (Conventional

group)

Duration: One Hour

Reference Text: Ajileye, M.A. (2012). Rudiments of

Instructional System; Abuja;Yinkus and

Sons ENT

Instructional Materials: Chalkboard materials, textual

materials and audio record on set induction.

Instructional Objectives: To guide the student teachers on

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 1) Methods of introducing a lesson

2) Methods of gaining students’ attention

3) How to use set induction

Behavioral objectives: At the end of the lesson, student

teachers should be able to

1) Mention methods of introducing a lesson.

2) List ways of gaining students’ attention

3) Use methods of introducing a lesson.

Entry Behavior: The student teachers have been taught

meanings of microteaching and the different

teaching skills used in microteaching according to

the NCCE minimum standard.

Introduction: The teacher introduces her lesson by singing a

song to arouse the student teachers’ interest. The

set induction of greeting should also be used.

Lesson presentation

Step Educator’s Student Instruction Duratio

s Activities teachers’ al n
Activities Strategies
I Educator Student Lecture 5
explains set teachers listen method and minutes
induction skill and jot down explanation
key points skill

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II Educator Student Explanation 5
explains teachers listen skill minutes
methods of and ask
using set questions
induction
III Educator writes Student Demonstrati 5
the key points teachers write on method minutes
on the board the key points and
in their chalkboard
exercise books skill
IV Educator Student Communicati 5
demonstrates teachers on skill minutes
the use of the watch, listen to
set induction the audio tape
skills and ask
questions
V Educator groups Student Group and 30
the student teachers fall in project minutes
teachers and groups and methods
asks them to practice turnwith planning
practice the use by turn and
of set induction communicati
skill on skills
VI Educator and Student Communicati 10
peers make teachers take on and minutes
critiques of the part in the feedback
lesson critics of their skills
presentations mates

Evaluation: Educator asks student teachers some questions on

set induction skill? What is the meaning of set induction? Mention

three methods of giving set induction.

Conclusion: Educator goes over the lesson briefly to clear

misconception observed during evaluation and take attendance

of the participants

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Assignment: Educator asks the students to read materials they

can lay hands on set induction before the next lesson.

Recently, a new horizontal format was introduced in Nigeria

especially in Federal Capital Territory Universal Basic Education
schools, [Link] is referred to as Strengthening of Mathematics
and Science Education (SMASE). In the attempt to make Nigeria
one of the top industrial countries in the world in accordance with
Vision 2020, teachers’ development especially at the
primary and secondary school levels is very important. SMASE is
joint efforts of Nigeria and Japanese governments. The agencies
that are involved in Nigeria are; Federal Ministry of Education
(FME), National Teachers’ Institute (NTI), Universal Basic
Education Commission (UBEC) and State Universal Basic
Education Board (SUBEB). SMASE is now made compulsory for all
teachers and all subjects in Abuja (the pilot field).

It is as follows: SMASE lesson plan has the same feature with

horizontal format above. The preliminary are the same but the
intermediary and lesson presentation tables differ. The example
is given below.

Name of teacher to sub-topic are the same with the above

horizontal format.

Rationale

Learning objectives

Pre-requisite knowledge/entry behavior/previous knowledge

Teaching and learning resources

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Reference materials

Lesson development

Instructional Stage Teacher’s Pupils’ Learning

Activities Activities point

Step1; Introduction How the What What to

teacher pupils are be
Step2; Development
explains expected achieved
Step3;Development the to do in at the end
contents in response of each
Step4;Evaluation
detail as to the step
Step5;Conclusion/ related to teacher’s
Assignment the stated activities,
objective. responses,
expected
All the
reactions
instructiona
and
l events.
involveme
nt of the
pupils?

Components of lesson plan

General information: Date, Period of the lesson, Duration of the

lesson, Class to be taught, Number of pupils in class, Topic, sub-
topic and reference texts.

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Reference text

The teacher may need more than one reference texts. He

should write them in his plan and consult them to obtain the
information he needs on concept to be taught. In doing this, he
should use the appropriate referencing form e.g. write the
author(s) year of publication title of the book in italics, write
where the book was published (publisher). Then he should write
the reference page he consults for the lesson. If it is a journal, he
should italicize the name of the journal and not the title. An
example of a textbook or a journal is shown below using APA
format 6th edition:

Ajileye, M.A. (2008). Secondary School Teachers and the

Challenges of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT): Journal of Science Education; 2 (1)
50-58.

Ajileye, M.A. (2012).Rudiments of Instructional System. Abuja;

Yinkus and Sons ENT

Instructional Materials

The identification, selection and choice of teaching

materials should be done by the [Link] should identify the
materials he would employ to effectively teach the lesson. He
needs to use various media and techniques which are relevant
and adequate. Instructional materials and equipments include the
following: charts, poster, realia, models, mobiles, cartoons,
magnetic board, textbooks, projectors, television, computer
system etc. Where he has wide varieties of relevant materials

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there can be selection. He can also modify the available
materials. Where materials are neither available nor relevant
there is no room for either selection or modification so he should
design and improvise new ones. Where possible, the use of real
objects (realia) is the best material for lesson presentation but
may either be unavailable, too big or dangerous for classroom
situation (e.g. snake and wide animals).

Instructional Objectives

These are the broad instructional goals that state the purposes,
aims & goals of instruction. They state the intention of the
teacher in the instruction. They are derived from the needs
assessment as reflected by the syllabus, textbooks, known
societal expectations, learners’ previous knowledge and National
Policy on Education. They are stated as follows:to instruct the
pupils,to guide the pupils,to lead the pupils andto direct the
pupils.

Behavioral Objective

This refers to by some authors and teachers as specific

objectives or performance objectives. They specify what actions
the teacher expects the pupils to perform at the end of the
lesson. They are usually stated in behavioral terms or in
observable and measurable terms. Action verbs are used for
setting behavioral objectives such as: At the end of the lesson,
pupils should be able to write, draw, mention, read, speak,
elucidate, and explain etcetera. Immeasurable terms like to
know, understand, think belief, faith, love; etcetera should be
avoided in writing the behavioral objectives.
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Previous knowledge

The past learning experience of the learners should be

identified by the [Link] past learning experiences will
enhance the learning of the new concept. The basic pre-requisite
skills and knowledge relevant to the new concept should be
identified by him because he has to teach from simple to
complex, from known facts to unknown and from abstract to
concrete. For example a pupil who is to undergo the present and
past tenses must have knowledge of verbs (doing words).
Previous knowledge is to ensure appropriate entry behavior.

Introduction

The introduction of a lesson is done using set induction skill.

The teacher can remind the pupils their previous knowledge. He
can also ask pupils questions on what they have learnt before
which is related to the new topic. The teacher highlights
systematically the contents of the lesson as they would be taught
in relation to the stated objectives.

Presentation

The teacher should present the lesson step by step, from

known to unknown and from simple to concrete. He should
ensure that pupils participate in the lesson fully. The presentation
format should reflect pupils’ activities to make learning
interactive. He should specify when the instructional materials
would be used to clarify relevant aspects of the concept during
the lesson. There should also be plan for formative evaluation
during the lesson so as to give immediate feedback to the

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teacher from the students on the lesson. He should respond
promptly to the needs of the students.

Evaluation

The teacher evaluates his lesson based on his instructional

and behavioral objectives. He writes out his evaluation questions
and activities related to the stated objectives. His evaluation
should test the knowledge, comprehension and application of
what the pupils have been taught. The questions can be
answered orally or by writing. It can be individualized or in a
group.

Conclusion

After evaluation of the pupils, the teacher needs to round

up the lesson by making summary and correcting pupils’
responses on the questions they answered during evaluation. He
does this by going round the students in the class. This is
possible where we have normal or recommended class
population.

Assignment

The teacher should give his learners specific assignment to

enhance the practice of the new skill or concept acquired. The
assignment should be in form of home work to keep the learners
busy at home and to give the parents feedback on the school
activities.

Assignment book

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 The teacher keeps records of the assignments given to his
pupils throughout the term. The record enables him to reach out
to the assignment which he might use in setting the examination
questions. He should also record in the book accurate responses
to the assignment. This will equally enable him set the marking
scheme for the examination.

Teaching record
The class teacher should have the record of what he has covered
on daily or weekly bases. This will enable the teacher to
determine the learners’ entry behavior from one stage to
another. This will also help him for setting of his questions at the
end of the term or semester. The monitoring unit that supervises
teachers randomly can also demand for the record to determine
whether the set goals per term can be achieved or not.

Question bank
Question bank is the document that contains all questions that
are given to pupils during instructional communication or weekly
test. At the end of the term, semester or year, the teacher uses
these questions to set the termly or yearly examination. The
record can also be used as point of reference during revision at
the end of the term or yea

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 CHAPTER TEN

SCHOOL PUBLIC RELATIONS AND SPECIAL DAYS

Learning objectives

At the end of chapter ten, learners should perform the following:

1. Define meanings of school public relations and special days

2. Describe leadership in the school setting
3. Explain teacher-head teacher relationship.
4. Discuss the guidelines for teacher-teacher relationship
5. Elucidate the guidelines for teacher-parent relationship
6. Describe teacher-pupil relationship
7. State pupil-pupil relationship
8. Enumerate the school-community relationship
9. Write the special days in school setting
10. Explain the roles of Parents-Teachers Association
(PTA) in the school system
11. Describe prize given day and its usefulness
12. State the importance of children’s day
13. Explain the meaning and functions of Old Students
Association in primary and secondary schools
14. Elucidate the meaning and roles of Alumni Association
in Tertiary Institutions

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 15. Give detailed account of the strategies to use for
school expansion.

Introduction

In the school system, there is bound to be interaction

between teachers, pupils and parents. Interaction has to do with
emotional behaviors of the teachers, pupils and the parents. The
three persons should work hand in hand in order to make the
child to become productive, vibrant and useful and a great asset
in future. The chapter also contains special days and events in
the school system.

Leadership and Staff management in a school setting

Management could be described as the ability to control the

resources in an organization so as to ensure the maintenance
and achievement of the set goals. Therefore, school management
can be viewed as the ability to carefully control the human,
material and financial resources in the school setting. It is the
way the head teacher, in consultation with the proprietor
conducts the affairs of the school so as to have efficient and
smooth running of the entire school.

School management deals with planning, controlling,

directing and managing the school activities. It involves the
administrative procedure embarked on by the head-teacher to
make the physical and psychological environment safe and
conducive for both the teachers and the pupils. The well-being of
the teachers and the pupils are realised through effective school

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 management. Through effective school management, the
school’s activities and programmes are run without itch.

Teacher-Head teacher relationship

The head teacher is the ‘’governor’’ of the school. He gives order

to other teachers. He directs the activities of the school. He is the
accounting officer of the school and he is answerable to all
questions of the school. This explains why teachers report any
problems they encounter in the classes to the Head teacher. He
evaluates teachers on yearly basis and recommends them for
promotions when due. HE commends them when they do well
and correct or reproach them when they make mistakes.

Head Teacher’s Personality

It is not enough for a head-teacher to have a wealth of

experience and be highly qualified in education, his personality is
very important to the leadership, improvement of the school and
good relationship among the human resources connected to the
school. These are the teachers, parents, supervisors and the
pupils. In other to achieve the overall educational goals for which
the school is established, the head-teacher should establish and
maintain a good and cordial teacher-pupils, teacher-teacher,
teacher-head-teacher and school-community harmonious
relationships.

1. The head-teacher should be friendly, accommodating, cautious,

kind, modest, simple, understanding and considerate. He should
be cheerful. Everybody has his/her own problematic areas of life.
The head-teacher should not allow his family problem to cause

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 distraction in the school. There should be no transfer of
aggression if there must be peace in the school. He should not be
the one that frowns and tie his face always. His sense of humour
in the school environment reduces the teachers’ physical and
mental stress as well as tension.

2. He should be fair, impartial but firm and consistence. He should

not be timid and shy. He should have ability to handle crises. He
needs to identify, understand different types of human
behaviours and how to deal with them. The diversity in behaviour
leads to individual differences. He will have to work with
extroverts/introverts, honest/dishonest, punctual/truant,
diligent/lazy, competent/incompetent, humble/arrogant,
peaceful/troublesome etc. Those that exhibit maladjustment
behaviours need to be discussed with on one- one first to know
their problems.

3. He should avoid discipline techniques that can result to

embarrassment, humiliating, nagging, sparking, ratting, labelling,
power tussle, argument and threatening.

4. The head-teacher should not be autocratic. He should be

approachable and should have listening ears. He should not
expect that all his views, suggestion and opinions must be taken
by his teachers.

5. The head-teacher should have control over his temperament. He

should not use abusive/insultive words/adjectives for his teachers

6. He should be a good communication manager. No matter his

knowledge about a teacher’s secret life, he should maintain

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 confidentiality unless the information is necessary or demanded
by higher authority to safe guard an ugly situation in the school.
His position does not tolerate quarrel, fight and gossip.

7. The head teacher should have good communication skill. His

writing, listening, reading and speaking ability in the English
language which is the official language must be super. This will
empower him to communicate effectively with his staff, pupils,
School’s Board members and government agencies. While
speaking, he should guide against mother tongue interference
and all mannerism that can serve as barriers to effective
communication. He needs to be well equipped with non-verbal
cues which can give him adequate feedback from his audience.

8. The head-teacher should strive to cooperate with his teachers

because he cannot work in isolation and succeed. He needs to
carry other teachers along and involve them in the school
administration. He should understand the fact that his position
exist because there are teachers to control, lead and direct. If
there are no teachers, there will be no need for the position of
the head-teacher.

9. The head-teacher should be simple but neat. As he is expected to

have neat character, his outward outlook should be neat as well.
As number one citizen of his school, he is the role model for the
teachers and the pupils. His mode of dressing, appearance,
attitude and behaviour should dignify his position and portray the
good name of the school. He should be worthy of emulating. He
should not be rough in appearance. The female head-teacher
should not be blindfolded by fashion to the extent of exposing her

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 sensitive part of the body. He should be healthy, agile and neat
enough to receive visitors or be sent out for functions at any
time.

10. The head teacher should have good communication skill.

His writing, listening, reading and speaking ability in the English
language which is the official language must be super. This will
empower him to communicate effectively with his staff, pupils,
School’s Board members and government agencies. While
speaking, he should guide against mother tongue interference
and all mannerism that can serve as barriers to effective
communication. He needs to be well equipped with non-verbal
cues which can give him adequate feedback from his audience.

Head-teacher’s administrative roles

1. The head-teacher’s managerial duties involve organization and

administration of the school. He creates an atmosphere that
gives room for healthy and cordial relationships between the
teachers, teacher-head-teacher, teacher-pupils, teacher-parents,
head-teacher-parents and head-teacher-community. This
minimises quarrel, conflicts, misunderstanding and lack of trust
between the human resources in the school. Good interaction in
the school makes a school to be happy, safe and purposeful place
for all of them. He can achieve this by maintaining the
organogram or hierarchy in the school system. The staff
members are to identify, respect and maintain the hierarchy
which is usually based on seniority.

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2. The head-teacher is the maintenance of the school buildings that
are put up by the proprietor (which could be individual,
community, religious body or government. The head-teacher
takes the inventory of such buildings and allocate to teachers as
classes or offices. He takes care of the buildings by making sure
that they are kept clean and tidy, keeps the materials in their
appropriate places to avoid loss, beautify the school and report
any damage either by storm, rain flood etc to the appropriate
authority for immediate repair. He ensures that there is
maintenance culture in the school.

3. The head-teacher receives visitors from the community and the

Ministry of Education/ Local Government Education Authority. He
answers questions on the school setting and attend meetings
with his colleagues outside the school. He takes correspondence
and sends out mails. He informs the staff about new development
and keeps them abreast with current messages during the staff
meeting which he heads.

4. He makes duty rosters and ensures that teachers on duty

perform their duties and write their reports adequately. He
evaluates the teachers’ performances annually and makes
recommendations for their promotions.

5. The head-teacher in cooperation with the school management

embarks on teachers’ motivation. Teachers’ motivation is very
crucial in the planning, administration, organization and
management of a school. According to the National Policy on
Education (2004) ‘no education system can rise above the quality
of its teachers’. The teacher is crucial at every point of education

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 process. Teachers’ motivation is an essential factor for effective
classroom management. It makes teachers happy, satisfied and
dedicated. They bring out their best for pupils, parents and the
society to benefit greatly from them.

6. The head-teacher is staff and pupils’ discipline. In doing this, he

should not be either too harsh or too slack. He should have ability
to maintain satisfactory discipline in the school. He should ensure
that teachers are regular, punctual, dedicated to their duties
prepare and conduct lessons, keep class records, discharge co-
curricular duties assigned to them and evaluate pupils’
performance. The staff members that are not working to
expectation should be invited by the head-teacher for one-one
discussion. After that, they can be given warnings but if they
refuse to take to corrections, they should be taken to the School’s
Board or committee for necessary action of discipline. He needs
to be well versed in human characters and individual differences
such as; diligence/laziness, extrovert/introvert, honest/dishonest,
punctual/truant obedient/disobedient, competent/incompetent,
patience/aggression and teacher/cheater.

7. The head-teacher keeps up to date records such as log book,

admission register, class attendance register, visitors’ book,
question bank, school plant and equipment, school budget, staff
record, staff movement book, time book etc. he ensures that
teachers keep adequate records in the class such as lesson plan,
attendance register, class indicator, pupils’ progress chart,
scheme and record of work, assignment book etc. Teachers keep

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 the records and take them to the head-teacher for correction and
signature.

8. The head-teacher is the financial controller of the school. He is

the chief accounting officer of the school and he is responsible for
the financial administration of the school. He collects any
approved money and pays to the Board’s bank account. He plans,
prepares and submits the school’s annual budget. He makes
interaction with the Alumni Association of the school. He
associates the finalists of the school with the association for
adequate monitoring of such pupils’ educational pursuit. The
association could be a wonderful support to the school. In some
schools, such associations build and equip laboratories, buy
school fans etc depending on the good rapport of the head-
teacher. Another association which can serve as succour to the
school is the Parents Teachers Association of the school. PTA
makes suggestion on the strategies for improving the school,
provision of essential amenities and it also provides manpower
and human resources to the school. There are usually special
days in the school like orientation day, prize giving day, end of
the year activities, exhibition day, founder’s day etc. The head-
teacher plans, organizes, inform and involve people that are
connected to the school. He involves in the social welfare of staff
and identifies with them when they are celebrating and
otherwise.

Teacher-Teacher relationship

In school system, there is hierarchy. There are Head

teachers, Vice Head teachers, Head of Departments etc. There

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are ranks in teaching. The young, fresh graduate teachers should
not compare themselves with those that have been doing the
work for the past twenty years. The young teachers are supposed
to learn and take order from the senior teachers. The young
teachers should be guided and directed by the senior teachers on
teaching as a profession. The senior ones should give the young
teachers orientation on teaching profession and bodies that are
involved in teachers’ welfare such as NUT and TRCN. Without
proper guidance of the young teachers, the rudiment of teaching
profession may be eroded.

Guidelines for teacher-teacher relationship

1. Teachers should always strive to promote peace and

understanding in their Faculties, Colleges, Schools and
Departments. Teachers should create peaceful environment
around them but they should not be foolish. They should not
inginite trouble and should not engage in evil or whatever
can bring disharmony among co-teachers. Whatever you
cannot take, do not give it to another teacher. Always
remember it is when you have peace within you that you can
deliver and help students to learn effectively.
2. Avoid giving your colleagues the impression that you are the
best among them or that your method is the best. Always
refer to your method as one of the best and not the best.
Referring to yourself or your method as the best result to
academic pride and arrogance. It makes the person not to

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 learn from others. A teacher should therefore strive to learn
from other teachers by respecting others opinions and views.
3. Encourage and show kindness and humility to yourco-
teachers. This can be done by commending and praising their
exemplary work regardless of the person that does it. Show
concern for others’ feelings well-being.
4. While giving criticism to your colleagues/teachers, do it
gently and helpfully in a way that will bring positive changes
in the colleague concerned and not spitefully.
5. Maintain a positive attitude to your co-teachers. Be happy
everyday you go to work. This makes people around you
more comfortable with you on daily basis.
6. Let the water roll off your back by dusting off all negative
things your co-teachers have said about you. Do not allow
the negativism to get under your skin and cause damages to
your health. Belief in yourself and not what they say you are.
Let your own actions determine how your colleagues see you
to remove the negative things said about you from their
minds. This results to positive change from them towards
you.
7. Teachers are agents of change. As a result, teachers should
not be conservatives by living in analogue age at computer
age. When suggestions are made about new innovations by
your colleagues, do not antagonise them and do not stand as
bricks on your colleagues’ or your unit’s/departmental
progress. Cooperate and collaborate with your co-teachers on
positive issues especially when it comes to development and
implementation of the curriculum. Do not work in isolation

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 and do not sit on the fence. If there are new policies or ideas,
be ready to up-date and up-grade your knowledge. Do not
antagonise new innovation. If you have different opinion, you
can air your view. If you have misconception, you can ask
questions to clear it. Do not be afraid of sharing brilliant ideas
with your co-teachers.
8. Always control your temperament. Watch what you say to
your co-teachers because there is power in words. Do not be
quarrelsome, confrontational or combative. Let your tone
while discussing with your co-teachers earn you respect. Hold
your tongue and be call when the need arise. This creates
confidence among your co-teachers in your ability to handle
a similar situation.
9. Be open minded, objective and rational in dealing with your
co-teachers. Do not cause hard feelings on others by being
critical about their teaching effectiveness, behaviours and
attitude or work. Do not be judgemental about your co-
teachers. Do not discuss your co-teachers with your students,
their parents or other staff. Remember that students tend to
hear only what they want to hear and look for meanings in
your words that you may not intend in order to implicate you.
Do not gossip and do not start spreading bad news or
hearsay about your co-teachers, parents or school.
10. Always maintain pro-social behaviours and shun anti-social
behaviours. This guides you from evil activities. If you make
promise with your colleagues, no matter what the cost is,
redeem your promise. Otherwise, you lose respect of your co-
teacher and chip off your self-esteem/integrity by breaking

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 promise let your colleagues make professional deal with you
and have their two eyes closed since they know you will not
cheat, fail or disappoint them.
11. Be just and impartial in dealing with your co-teachers.
Always stand for the truth no matter what it will cost you.
Always do the right thing at the right time without
procrastination. There is joy in sharing. Be free to share the
benefits of whatever accrues to your unit with your co-
teachers. Do not be too hungry and greedy to sit on the
goodies belonging to all. Always remember that those who
pack excess are not satisfied and those who pack less are not
lacking.

Teacher-pupil relationship

No matter how young a teacher is, he is still considered to

be more matured and more experienced than his pupils.
Therefore, a teacher is expected to use his professional skills,
maturity and experience in dealing with his pupils. He should be
flexible in his decision but not slack. He should not be a
permissive or autocratic teacher. He should be democratic in
dealing with his pupils. He should realize that his appointment is
based on the availability of pupils. He should do everything
possible to care for his pupils. He should let the pupils be aware
of all opportunities around them. He should be competent and
highly knowledgeable in his subject matter. He should also create
conducive environment for the pupils to learn. He should correct
his pupils with love and remembers that he is in charge of his
pupils from the time school opens to the closing time.

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 The pupils should be submissive to their teachers and take
orders from them. They should respect and obey their teachers
and should always remember that teachers are also their
parents. There should be no suspicious relationship between the
teacher and his pupils. He should not have carnal knowledge of
his pupils especially the male teachers. Therefore he should have
equal dealings with all the pupils in the class.

Teacher-parent relationship

Many teachers underestimate the values of building

relationships with their students’ parents. Parents can be the best
friends or the worst enemies of teachers. Without the cooperation
of teachers and parents, it will be very difficult if not impossible
to produce vibrant youngsters. A child’s academic success is
enhanced greatly when teachers and parents are partners in the
process. Parents have entrusted their children in the care of
teachers especially during school period. A child’s academic
success is enhanced greatly when teachers and parents are
partners in the process.

Parents should be invited to the school especially when

children engage in vices like truancy, lateness, theft, bully etc.
Even without invitation, parents should endeavor to visit their
children’s school occasionally. They should take to teachers’
advice on their children. Parents should attend school programs
like PTA meetings, sport activities, visiting day, price giving day
etc.

Guidelines for teachers-parent relationship

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 1. Communication: parents and teachers should
communicate mutually on the progress of their children.
The teacher should have effective communication with the
parents on their children’s performances, strength and
weaknesses. All information needed by the teacher about a
child’s background can be supplied by the parents. This will
enable the teacher to understand the challenges encounter
by such child and solutions can be suggested. On the other
hand, parents need information about their children’s
progress and behaviours in school. This will allow the
parents to complement the efforts of the teacher at home.

While giving parents reports about their children, the teacher

should make sure they always give positive (strengths) before
negatives (weaknesses) ones. This is because parents get sick of
only unpleasant news about their children. If the teacher starts
with disciplinary issues on a child, he should make sure he ends it
with ray of light and hope while conversing with parents. This
means that the teacher needs to suggest ways for improvement.
The teacher should always remember that children may learn at
different paces and level but all children are capable of learning.

During registration, teachers need to build a good

foundation with parents of their students. Teachers and parents
exchange phone numbers and e-mail addresses. This makes it
possible for the teachers to contact parents on educational
strengths/weaknesses and behaviours (pro-social anti-social) of
their children. A child that knows that his teacher communicates
on regular basis with his parents and that the parents trust the

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teacher would likely put more efforts positively in the school. On
the other hand, a child who knows that there is no
communication between his teacher and parents would often pit
the two against each other. The result is counter productivity
which creates problems for the teacher in the short run but for
the child and his parents in the long run.

The school can design a form such as Detailed Students’

Information Sheets (DSIS) where the teacher can get information
on his students. The form includes the basic information about
the child such as parents’ names, contacts, religion, workplace,
home location, socio-economic background etc. Therefore, if a
child is absent from school, he can be traced home by the
teacher. Another form that can be designed by the school is
Parent Survey Form (PSF). The form asks questions from parents
on their children. This will go a long way to supply the school with
information about a child’s life as a baby, strengths, weaknesses,
interest etc.

All discussions between the teacher and the parents should

be well documented. Documentation is very valuable. Parents
may not be happy about decisions the teacher or the school take
on their children but when there are documents to support their
actions, they are able to clear the air. Parents may also deny that
there have been discussions with them on their children’s
misbehaviours but when the teacher and the school have
documents, they cannot be blamed for any decision taken.

2. Trust Building in parents: Building trust in parents is a

gradual process. The parents need to ensure that the

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 teacher has their children’s interest at heart. Parents are
happy when they know the teachers of their children
personally such as teachers’ interest and hobbies. Teachers
need to go extra mile to help students socially. This wins
respect and trust faster than anything. For example visit to
a sick child or bereaved family, calling of parents when a
child is absent from school etc build parents’ trust on the
teacher that he is capable of taking good care of their
children.

3. Dialogue: Teachers need to be good listeners. It is not all

the time that a teacher talks. He needs to listen to the
parents of his students too. The dialogue the parents
engage with the teacher on their children may be in formof
questions and contributions on the affected child. The
teacher needs to crate time for such dialogue and end the
dialogue peacefully. If parents come to complain about a
particular teacher or his poor teaching methods, the teacher
should not be defensive or angry but be calm and explains
with courtesy tone. The documents at the teacher’s disposal
can bail him out. The documents can erase the
misconception the parents have about the teacher

Pupil–pupil relationship

Pupils interact in the school and in the class. The senior

ones interact with the junior ones and vice-versa. Teachers must
be on the look-out so that the weaker ones will not be oppressed.
The senior ones should not be given too much power on the

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junior ones so as not to create fear and lack of interest on the
part of the junior ones. Any quarrel should be reported to the
teachers before it goes out of hand.

School-community relationship

Schools are located and established in the community to

serve the people of that immediate environment. Schools may
even be established by the community efforts. The community
accommodates the school and its personnel and provides
resources (human, material, institution and natural resources for
the school when the need arises. The community fills the school
with their children and the school takes over the care of the
children from when schools open till when they close.

The school serves as educational and social institutions for

transmission and learning of cultural heritage by the teachers
and the pupils respectively. The community expects the school to
collect, preserves and refines the good aspects of its culture and
imparts same to its younger generation. The school is also seen
as a valuable tool for changing, innovating and improving the
societal values.

Strategies for school expansion

Strategies can be described as ways, methods or means of

doing things for improvement. Strategies for expansion in a
school setting therefore refer to means, ways or methods that
can be employed for school expansion at the Lower and Middle
basics (primary) of Universal Basic Education (UBE). This is

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because primary level of education warrants attention since it is
the foundation of all other levels.

Secondary school level builds on the foundation laid at the

primary level. In other word, primary education determines
secondary education. The National Policy on Education (2004)
recognizes primary education as the key success or failure of the
whole educational system. All other systems build and rest on it
as their foundation, bedrock and cornerstone. Unfortunately,
most pupils graduate and enter secondary school without a
strong foundation for subsequent learning.

The expansion in a school setting can be viewed in terms of

pupils’ enrolment and general development of the school. Quality
of a school determines its expansion. Okebukola and Shabani
(2001) described it as consistency with the notion of conformity
to specifications or standards. The standard of primary level
could be viewed in terms of course materials development, basic
organization (physical facilities like strong attractive buildings,
good access road and neat environment), teachers’ qualification
and competence, the use of instructional materials, pupils’
attitude inside and outside the school environment as well as
pupils’ performance in both internal and external examinations.
All these specifications build the integrity of a school which
enhance growth and expansion in a school setting.

Basic organization in a school setting include the good

location, access road, availability of physical facilities, security
and good environmental development. Location of a school is
very important. Schools that are located very close to the market

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place, motor parks and airports are exposed to people’s noise,
noise of car horns and traffic while those located close to airports
are disturbed with planes’ noise. Any kind of noise is a barrier to
instructional communication. In addition, good access road that
leads to a school can be of great help for its expansion. This is
because people can easily locate and get to such school. The
school should also make solid arrangement for school’s fan or bus
to relief the working parents of the stress of carrying their
children to school daily. A school that is sited where there is no
accessibility cannot enjoy pupils’ patronage.

The availability of physical facilities that are in a school

determines its growth. This include strong beautiful buildings for
classrooms, laboratories, libraries, clinics, resource centre, offices
for head-teacher assistant head-teachers, school counsellor etc.
There should also be building for conveniences such as females
and males toilets for both pupils and teachers. It is better for such
school to be fenced for security purpose, pupils’ control and the
beauty of the school. Parents will always prefer neat environment
to poor environment where their children can be exposed to
diseases, kidnappers, ritualises and rapists.

Primary schools should be spacious enough to

accommodate pupils’ games, sports and recreation. Many schools
manage the available space for academics forgetting that games,
sports and plays develop children’s bones muscles and brain.
Basic organization also includes the type of school; is it a day or a
boarding system? Some parents may prefer boarding system for
their children but many prefer day system at the primary level

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because of the age, emotion, health and maturational level of
their children.

The proprietor needs to make investigation on this before

embarking on any of the systems as this may also depend on the
parental economic background. He should bear in mind that
boarding system puts additional responsibility on him and the
school management in terms of hostel accommodation, feeding,
provision of health facilities etc. in short, he needs to be more
financially buoyant before deciding on boarding system.

Another factor that aids growth and expansion in a school

setting is availability of resources. It is not enough to have
beautiful buildings alone, the instructional materials that will be
used by the pupils in those buildings is of paramount importance.
It is true that availability of resources does not automatically
translate into better learning but instructional resources like
laboratory equipment, computer, printed texts, mobiles, globe,
radio, GSM phones, television and other audio, visual and audio-
visual materials make learning more concrete, meaningful,
interesting and permanent. The available resources should be
commeasurable with population upsurge of the pupils so as to
avoid over stretching of the facilities. There are limited
instructional resources in the market but teachers can improvise
for their own use.

Ajileye (2009) noted that teachers have positive perception

towards the improvisation and utilization of instructional
materials but they are financially handicapped. It is suggested
that schools that want their teachers to provide that service

328
should give their teachers allowances to take care of instructional
materials. It is good to produce or improvise instructional
materials, it is better to utilize them during teaching-learning
process. The use of instructional materials enables teachers to
achieve since the pupils’ performance is enhanced. This serves as
evidence for more pupils’ enrolment and the school’s growth.

School’s expansion and growth can also be achieved by

creating awareness of the existence of the school through
propaganda such as radio and television jingles, newspaper
advertisement, handbill/cards, ed of the year rally, etc. It can also
be done through the use of the school’s signpost. Unfortunately,
many schools are unknown because there are no signposts. Such
schools may either be ignorant of the importance of the signposts
or are trying to avert or avoid payment of tax or revenue on such
facility.

A school’s expansion is achieved through the characteristics

of its teachers and head-teacher which include qualifications,
experience, age, vision, discipline and ability to deliver. The
teachers’ competence is measured by how good they in
preparing their lesson plans, content mastery, classroom
management,/control, teaching methods and strategies,
instructional communication/interaction strategies and the use of
instructional materials. The least qualification for teachers at the
primary level is NCE.

The school management should not compromise standard

in lieu of cheap labour. Many private schools carry the brunt of
employing unqualified teachers because of cost of remuneration

329
and as a result lose their integrity, dignity and reputation. One
cannot say because of the high cost of health delivery in terms of
drugs and health services carry his sick child to a quack for
treatment. So, it is very dangerous to leave the care of our future
leaders at the mercy of untrained teachers.

Teachers in private schools are given heavy workload. They

even teach outside their areas of training which results to
inefficiency and pupils’ poor performance. This is enough to
discourage parents from enrolling their children in such school.
Also, head-teacher’s appointment is supposed to be based on
merits in terms of experience, qualification and personality as the
key figure in managing a primary school. Many schools base their
head-teachers’ appointment on favouritism and fatherism. Unlike
in Tanzania, teachers in private schools in Nigeria do not enjoy
permanent contracts/retirement, fringe benefits and gratuities.

Teachers need to have access to in-service training for

capacity building to up-date their knowledge and make them
keep abreast with current information in their field. This
enhances their performances and pupils’ excellence which result
to the school’s growth and expansion. Teachers that bring pupils
for enrolment need to be compensated while their biological
children schooling in their schools need to be given certain
percentage discounts of their school fees.

In addition, school’s growth and expansion can be achieved

by the pupils’ academic performance and attitude which
determine the extent to which objectives of education are
achieved. The society expects certain basic qualities from

330
primary school pupils. They include fluent reading ability, ability
to read and understand the material, displaying of expected
numeracy skills, consistent good behaviour and discipline as well
as brilliant and excellent performance in both internal and
external examinations. The products of a primary school that
cannot perform such tasks are not good ambassador of the
school. Their inability to perform may be due to poor input by the
school, parental influence and lack of readiness on the part of the
pupils.

Schools that produce such pupils may find it difficult to

grow and expand. Pupils are to be given sound moral teaching
and doctrines through religious instruction. Their attitudes in the
society determine the integrity of the school. Pupils should be
discouraged from exhibiting delinquency and maladjustment
behaviours. They should not engage in vices. There should be
good discipline in the school to justify the trust parents have on
the teachers to be in charge of their children. Schools that
engage in discipline of their pupils grow and expand because
parents are encouraged to enrol their children in such schools.

Adequate funding of a primary school also determines its

expansion. Private schools are financed and managed by
individuals, mission or group of people called proprietors while
public schools are financed by the government. Efforts should be
geared towards adequate funding of the schools either by
proprietors or government. High percentage of the school fees
collected by private schools and government allocation to public
schools should be geared towards the maintenance in form of

331
teachers’ salaries, instructional materials, physical facilities,
workshops and provision of essential facilities if the schools want
to grow. Private schools take advantage of greater autonomy
than public schools but they are not completely free to set their
own schools and run them the way they like. They are guided by
education policies and monitored by the Ministry of Education.

Curriculum design, instructional practices and school

calendar are from government policies. As a result, private
schools need to liaise with the Ministry of Education not for
financial support but for academic, social and educational
support. The agencies like Teachers’ Registration Council, Federal
Ministry of Education, Ministry of Labour and Productivity etc
should monitor the remuneration of teachers in private schools to
curb labour exploitation.

Schools can grow and expand through meetings of school

heads in form of conferences, seminars, get together, zonal
meetings, workshops etc. These meetings give them opportunity
to liberate one another and acquire more knowledge in school
management. Information that can help them to grow can
emanate from such meetings. Highly resourceful persons can be
invited to give them lectures on issues that affect their
profession. Such issues include classroom management,
improvisation of instructional materials, statement of
instructional and behavioural objectives, correct format of lesson
plans etc. pupils should also be allowed to meet pupils of other
schools in form of quiz competition, debates sports and games.
This will allow the pupils to announce the good names and

332
integrity of the school through their behaviours with pupils of
other schools. This will go a long way to aid the school’s
expansion and growth.

School programs/performances/tones

There are activities in the school that keep the school moving and
progressing. Examples are: registration of new students, school’s
orientation day, end of the year party/ convocation, alumni day,
open/open house day, inter-house sports competition, visiting
day, cultural day and children’s day. The activities, events,
programmes and tones are discussed below.

Enrolment of new students

Enrolment of new students is done after admission exercise.

Those that have been offered admission are given admission
numbers and they are enrolled as bonavide members of the
school and the class. The class teacher writes the pupils’
admission numbers with their names in the class register.

School’s rules and regulations

There are some guidelines, rules and regulations that guide the
operation of a school. The rules specify the ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ of
the pupils and the teachers. Violation of such rules attracts
penalty so as to guide against the disruption of the school
system.

Orientation program The orientation program is carried out by

the school counselors. During the program, pupils are introduced

333
to the school facilities like health services, library, staff room,
food vendors’ center etc. The school rules are explained to the
fresh students as well as the school programs.

Parents/Teachers’ Association (PTA)

This is usually referred to as PTA. The school organizes PTA

meeting once per term in order to let the parents know the
credibility, achievements, problems and activities of the school. It
is through PTA that parents contribute to the school’s
development in cash and kind. In some schools, the PTA is so
strong to the extent of employing teachers, building classrooms,
equipping laboratories and purchasing school vans.

Apart from PTA meetings, there are some other forums

where parents and teachers meet such as Parents and Teachers
Conference or Open House. Open house or Parents and Teachers
Conference is a very special and unique day in schools. It is an
avenue to build and establish positive relationship with parents
by the teachers and the school. The teachers can prepare their
classroom interactions with their students and use computer with
power point projectors to show their activities with the students.

Through this, parents see the activities of the school,

teachers and individual student. Parents are able to see the
serious students and the unserious ones. Through this, parents
are aware of what their children go to do in school including their
activities during instruction. Apart from using projectors and
computers, parents can watch the teachers’ live teaching. This
erases the misconception parents have on the teacher about
their children’s failure which teachers are usually blamed for.
334
End of the year party/prize giving day

The school organizes end of the year party/prize giving day

once a year. This comes up at the end of the session. It is during
this program that awards and prizes are given to the outstanding
pupils, teachers and parents. Pupils engage in activities like
debate, cultural dance, career talk, sports etc to let their parents
in attendance know the worth and standard of the school. Many
times, such programs motivate parents to enroll more new pupils
and increase the school’s population.

Children’s day

As different countries around the globe map out different

days to celebrate children’s days, Nigeria is not left out. On every
May 27th, parents, teachers, government and other stake-holders
celebrate with their youngsters. The day is a day to highlight the
dignity of children and respect for their needs, love, care and
respect. The sense of identifying independence and national
pride is instilled in the children through the activities and events
for the day.

Alumni day

The Alma-mater is the membership of all ex-students of the

school. The school integrates and involves the final year students
in the activities of the alma-mater so that when they graduate
from the school they will still be useful to the school in cash and
kind. The alma-mater should have a day in a year to celebrate in
the school and contribute to the school’s development. In some
schools, Alumni are so strong to the extent of building

335
classrooms, computer centre, libraries, laboratories etcetera for
the school. They take part in the employment of teachers for
special subjects and help members to develop personally.

Old Students Association/Alumni

At the primary school and secondary school levels of

education in Nigeria, graduates are referred to as as Old Students
Association. For example, there is an association named Playfair
Old Students Association (POSA). The association belongs to
graduates of Playfair Memorial College Oro Agor. At the higher
level such as Colleges of Education, Nursing Schools, Polytechnics
and Universities, the association is named Alumni. Examples are
Alumni of University of Ibadan and Alumni of University of Ilorin.

Roles of Old Students Association

1. Fund raising through launching, sales of magazine, bazaar

etc.
2. Members serve as human resources
3. Provide intellectual development
4. Construction of classrooms
5. Provision of instructional materials
6. Provision of scholarship
7. Influencing government and general public toward the
improvement of the school
8. Liase with any other organization to address improvement
in education.
9. Maintain government and community support depending on
their positions nd status in government and society.

336
 10. Fight against any other individual or association that
may be detrimental to the improvement of education in
their schools. Setting up of school clinic and canteen with
equipment.

Alumni Association

Alumni association is a social between old students and

their tertiary institutions. The reputation and prominence of an
institution rest on the graduates productivity, competence,
success and status.

Roles of Alumni Associations at Tertiary level of Education

1. The Alumni take in Institutional Representation and decision

making
2. Building of skill and knowledge sharing network
3. Building development processes towards the overall
advancement of their institutions in form of intellectual and
human resources
4. Fund raising for capital projects
5. Establish open and direct communication channels with
members to ensure that the association represents true
reflection of the institution.
6. Development of institutional ambassador and advocates
7. Recruiting prospective students and mentoring current ones
8. Assisting graduates with career advancement
9. Serves as mouth piece of a crucial interest group of the
institution.
10. Serve as the core identity and values of an institution.
The association does not only serve as future donors of an
337
 institution but as continuing learners who serve as lifelong
customers of the institution
11. Promoters of peace in the institution.
12. Provide relevant information about their institutions
and education in general as it were in their yester years
13. Function as critiques that make their positions known
to the governments, educational administrators and general
public about educational policies and issues

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