2.

Hydro-kinematics and Hydro-dynamics

a) Hydro-kinematics:- It is defined as that branch of science which deals with the motion of
particles without considering the forces causing the motion.
b) Hydro-dynamics:- It is defined as that branch of science which deals with the motion of
particles considering the forces like elevation, kinetic & potential etc. causing the motion.
2.1. *Energy of Flowing Liquid
When water flow in a open or closed channel it exerts pressure to the faces of container/
channel. These pressures are nothing but the result of energy stored by the flowing liquid
(water). Based on different situation these energies are divided into three categories:-
a) Pressure energy:- The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its existing pressure is
called pressure energy. It is also known as elevation energy. If a liquid particle is under a
p
pressure of p kg per square metre, then the pressure energy of the particle will be mkg
w
p
per kg of the liquid. The pressure head under this pressure is meters of liquid.
w
Where p = pressure in kg/m2
w= specific weight of liquid
b) Kinetic energy:- The energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its motion or
velocity is called kinetic energy. If a liquid particle is flowing with a mean velocity of v
v2
metres per second, then the kinetic energy of the particle will be mkg per kg of the
2g
v2
liquid. Velocity head of liquid, at that velocity is meters of liquid.
2g
c) Potential energy:- The energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position, is
called potential energy. If a liquid particle is Z metres above the horizontal datum, then
the potential energy of the particle will be Z mkg per kg of the liquid. Potential head of
liquid, at that point is Z metres of liquid.
Note:- 1. Total energy of a particle in motion is the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy.
[Link] energy= PE + KE + PE
2. Total head of a particle in motion is the sum of pressure head, kinetic head and
potential head.
[Link] head= PH + KH + PH
3. Internal energy:- The energy possessed by a body/material due to different condition
of loading like gradually applied, load impact load etc.
4. Specific energy:-Sum of potential and kinetic energy is called specific energy.
2.2. *Bernoulli's Theorem
It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any two
point of the fluid is constant, while the particle moves from one point to another. It is based on
the principle of conservation of energy. The total energy consists of elevation(pressure) energy,
kinetic energy & potential energy or datum energy. i.e. As per Bernoulli's theorem
p1 v1 2 p v 2
  z1  2  2  z 2 = constant
w 2g w 2g

1
2.2.1. Limitation of Bernoulli’s Theorem
Following are the limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem:-
1. The Bernoulli’s theorem has been derived under the assumption that the velocity of
every fluid particle, across the cross section of a pipe , is uniform. But in actual
practice, it is not so.
2. The Bernoulli’s theorem has been derived under the assumption that no external
force, except gravity force is acting. But in actual practice, it is not so.
3. The Bernoulli’s theorem has been derived under the assumption that there is no loss
of energy of liquid particle while flowing. But in actual practice, it is not so.
2.2.2. Uses of Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation is the basic equation which has the widest applications in hydraulics
and applied Hydraulics. Following are the uses of Bernoulli’s equation:-
a) *Venturimeter:- Itis a simple apparatus used to measure rate of flow liquid flowing in a
pipe. The characteristics of venturimeter is as follow:-

d1 d2 d1

Convergent Throat Divergent

Fig: 4.3 Venturimeter
i) Converging part is less than diverging pipe.
ii) Throat is a small portion of circular pipe, in which the diameter, d2 is kept constant.
iii) The length of divergent pipe is about 3 to 4 times than that of the convergent pipe.
The diameter of convergent and divergent pipe is same.
iv) The velocity of liquid at the throat is higher than that of inlet. This increase in
velocity, results in decreasing the pressure at the throat.
v) The velocity of liquid at the outlet is lower than that of throat. This decrease in
velocity, results in increasing the pressure at the outlet.
The discharge through a Venturimeter is given by,
c a a 2 gh
Q d 1 2
2 2
a1  a 2
Where, cd = coefficient of discharge
a1 = c/s area of convergent
a2 = c/s area of throat
h = difference of pressure head at throat & inlet
b) Orifice meter or plate:- It is also used to measure rate of flow through a pipe. It consists
of a plate having sharp edged circular hole known as orifice which is fixed inside the pipe
whose discharge is required. It is shown in fig:4.4
The discharge through a orifice meter is given by,
c a a 2 gh
Q d 0 1
2 2
a1  a 0
Where, cd = coefficient of discharge
a0 = c/s area of orifice meter Fig: 4.4. Orifice meter
a1 = c/s area of pipe

2
 h = difference of pressure head
The diameter of orifice meter vary 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter but normally 0.5
times the diameter of pipe provided.
c) *Pitot tube:- It is a type of L type tube used to measure velocity in open channel. There
are three cases in placing of pitot tube: -
1. *Case:-I. If pitot tube is placed with its nose facing up stream side, then liquid level
increased by an amount, h such that
v = 2 gh
2. Case:-II. If pitot tube is placed with its nose facing side way, there will be neither rise
nor fall of liquid in the tube.
3. *Case:-III. If pitot tube is placed with its nose facing down stream side, then liquid
v2
level decreased by an amount, h such that, h= . Or, v h 2 g
2g
d) Blowing off roofs during wind storm
e) Aero foil lift
2.2.3. *Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL)
In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is termed as in static equilibrium and
level of water surface is called the static level & the pressure are reported as static head.
In a pipeline where water is flowing, the system is termed as in dynamic equilibrium and
the lines formed by water levels in the tubes is called Hydraulic gradient line. It is also known
as piezometric line. It is the line joining the pressure head in the beginning (top of water level
at the inlet) with the pressure head at the end.
It is also defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure lead (P/w) and datum head (z)
of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is obtained
by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head(p/w) of a flowing liquid
in a pipe from the centre of pipe. The head or pressure shown by HGL is known as Residual
head.
2.2.4. *Total Energy Line (TEL)
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic
head of a flowing liquid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the
line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of pressure
head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. Total energy line lies over the HGL by an
amount equal to velocity head.
The line showing the sum of datum head, pressure head, velocity head and loss of head
in case of pipe flow, is known as total energy gradient line.
2.2.5. Relationship Between HGL ang TEL
i) Both are the graphical presentation of Bernoulli's equation.
ii) Difference between TEL and HGL is v2/2g.
iii) HGL is parallel to TEL for uniform flow.
iv) HGL is parallel to flow while TEL is not parallel to flow due to friction (losses).
v) HGL & TEL slopes downward in the direction of flow. HGL may fall or rise due to
change in pressure while TEL will only rise with the velocity.
 Rotatmeter is used to measure flow of fluids.
 Critical depth meter is used to measure discharge in an open channel.
 Hot wire anemeter is used to measure velocity of gases.

3
  If the area (A) of a cross- section of channel is constant then the discharge will be
maximum only when the velocity of flow is maximum.
 *Float method is used to measure velocity in open channel. If the c/s area of open
channel is known, then rate of flow can be also calculated.
3. Measurement of Discharge
3.1. Hydraulic co-efficient
a) Jet of water :- The continuous flow of liquid that comes out or flows out of an orifice is
known as jet of water.
b) Free liquid Jet :- It is defined as the jet of water coming out from the nozzle in
atmosphere. The path traveled by the free Jet is parabolic.
c) Vena contracta:- The section of jet after leaving the orifice (d/s of orifice) having
maximum contraction or minimum c/s area and more or less jet is horizontal is known as
vena contracta. At vena-contracta, the stream lines are straight & parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the plane of the orifice.
d) Co-efficient of contraction:- It is defined as the ratio of the area of the jet at vena-
contracta to the area of the orifice. It is denoted by c c . Generally the value of cc is taken as
0.64.
e) Co-efficient of velocity:- It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity of a jet of liquid at
vena-contracta and the theoretical velocity of jet. It is denoted by c v. Generally the value
of cv is taken as o.97.
f) Co-efficient of discharge:- It is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge from an orifice
to the theoretical discharge from the orifice. It is denoted by C d. Generally the value of Cd
is taken as 0.62. Numerically, Cd=[Link]
3.2. Orifice
It is a small opening of any c/s on the side or at the bottom of a tank through which a fluid
is flowing. If the head of liquid from the centre of orifice is more than five times the depth of
orifice, the orifice is called small orifice and if the head of liquids is less than five times the
depth of orifice, the orifice is called large orifice. On the basis of the shape, the orifice is
classified as circular, square, rectangular and triangular orifice. On the basis of shape of the
upstream edge, the orifice in classified as sharp edged orifice and bell mouthed orifice. On the
basis of nature of discharge, the orifice is classified as free discharging orifice and submerged
orifice. Submerged orifice is further classified as fully & partially submerged orifice.
a) *Discharge through large rectangular orifice,
2 3/ 2 3/ 2
Q= C d b 2 g [ H 2  H1 ]
3
b) Discharge through fully sub-merged orifice,
Q= C d b( H 2  H 1 )  2 gH
c) Discharge through partially sub-merged orifice,
2 3/ 2 3/ 2
Q= C d b 2 g [ H 2  H 1 ] + C d b( H 2  H 1 )  2 gH
3
d) Triangular opening (orifice)
2  2 H 2 5 / 2  H 15 / 2 3/ 2 
1. Base up, Q= C d B 2 g  .  H1 
3  5 H 2  H1 

4
 2  3 / 2 2 H 2 5 / 2  H 15 / 2 
2. Base down, Q= C d B 2 g  H 2  . 
3  5 H 2  H 1 
Where, Cd=co-efficient of discharge
H2=Ht. of liquid above the bottom edge of orifice
H1= Ht. of liquid above the top edge of orifice
b =breadth of orifice
R =Radius of orifice
H =difference in water level
r =radius of vena-contracta
e) Discharge through sharp edged orifice, Q= CA 2 gh
= 0.62 A 2 gh
f) Discharge through bell-mouthed orifice, Q= CA 2 gh
= 0.97 A 2 gh
Where, A=area of orifice
h=height of liquid above the centre of orifice
g) Discharge through circular orifice,
r2
Q= C d R 2 gH 2 (1  )
32 H 2 2
Where, r = radius of vena contracta
R= radius of circular hole
H2=head of water above from the bottom of orifice
 *Square & rectangular orifices have slightly higher discharges than circular orifice by
about 1 to 1.5%. The discharge of triangular orifice is lower than circular orifice. (T<C<
square or rect.)
3.3. Mouth Piece
A mouthpiece is a short length of a pipe which is two to three times its diameter in length,
fitted in a tank or vessel containing the liquid. On the basis of their position with respect to the
tank, the mouthpiece is classified as external and internal mouth piece. On the basis of their
shape, the mouthpiece is classified as cylindrical, convergent and convergent- divergent
mouthpiece. On the basis of nature of discharge of the outlet of the mouthpiece, the mouthpiece
is classified as running full (L=D)and running free mouthpiece (L=3D).
Where, L= length of the mouth piece
D= diameter of mouthpiece.
This classification is only for internal mouth piece which are known as Bordas or Re-
entrant mouth pieces.
a) Borda's mouthpiece running free, Q= C d a 2 gh 0.5a 2 gh
b) Borda's mouthpiece running full,
Q= C d a 2 gh 0.707a 2 gh
c) Discharge through external cylindrical mouthpiece, Q= C d a 2 gH
d) Discharge through convergent mouthpiece, Q= a 2 gH Since, C d = 1
e) Discharge through convergent divergent mouthpiece, Q= a c 2 gH =
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge(0.855)
a = c/s area of mouthpiece
5
 H = head at centre of mouthpiece
ac = area at vena-contracta
3.4. Notch & Weir
Notch is defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such a way that
the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of opening. It is used to measure
the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel or a tank.
Weir is a concrete or masonry structure, placed in an open channel over which the flow
occurs. The notch is of small size while the weir is of a bigger size. The notch is generally
made of metallic plate while weir is made of concrete or masonry structure. It is used to
measure the rate of flow of a liquid in river or streams.
Classification of notches & weirs
A ) According to shape of opening
Notch Weir
1. Rectangular notch 1. Rectangular weir
2. Triangular notch 2. Triangular weir
3. Trapezoidal notch 3. Trapezoidal or cipolleti weir
4. *Stepped notch
B)
According to the effect of sides on the nappe
Notch Weir
[Link] with end contraction 1. weir with end contraction
2. Notch without end contraction or 2. weir without end contraction or
suppressed notch. suppressed weir
 *Stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notch .The discharge through stepped notch
is equal to the sum of discharges through the different rectangular notch.
C) According to the shape of the crest
a) Sharp- crested weir
b) *Broad- crested weir:- If the width of the crest of the weir is more than half the height of
water above the weir crest, then weir is called broad crested weir.
c) Narrow- crested weir:- If the width of the crest of the weir is less than half the height of
water above the weir crest, then weir is called narrow crested weir
If 2L>H, the weir is called broad crested weir
If 2L<H, the weir is called narrow crested weir
Where L=length of the crest
H=height of water above the crest
d) Ogee- shaped weir
D) Discharge of different notch/weir
2
a) *Rectangular notch/weir, Q= C d L 2 g H 3 / 2
3
8
b) *Triangular notch/weir, Q= C d 2 g H 5 / 2Tan 2
15
2 8
c) *Trapezoidal notch/weir, Q= C d L 2 g H 3 / 2 + C d 2 g H 5 / 2Tan 2
3 15
2
d) *Cipolleti weir, Q= C d L 2 g H 3 / 2
3
(It is a trapezoidal weir having side slopes of 1H:4V.)
6
 2
e) Cipolleti weir, Q=
3

C d L 2 g ( H  ha) 3 / 2  ha 3 / 2 
(If velocity of approach is considered)
2
f) Sharp crested/ogee weir, Q= C d L 2 g H 3 / 2
3
g) Broad crested weir, Q= 1.71C d LH 3 / 2

 Triangular notch/weir gives more accurate results than rectangular notch in case of low
discharge.
Velocity of approach:- The velocity with which the water approaches a notch, is called
velocity of approach. Mathematically it is obtained by,
Disch arg e over notch
Velocity of approach, va = Area of channel
2
v
Head due to velocity of approach, ha  a
2g
Francis formula
2
Notch/weir with end contraction, Q= C d ( L  0.2 H ) 2 g H 3 / 2
3
[*Based on experience Francis concluded that end contraction decreases the effective length of
the crest of weir and hence decreases the discharge. Each end contraction reduces the crest
length by 0.1 H where H is the head of water over the weir.]
 *The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is called nappe or vein. If the
atmospheric pressure exists beneath the nappe, it is called free nappe. If the pressure
below the nappe is negative, it is called depressed nappe. If there is no air below the water
and nappe adhere or clings to the d/s side of the weir, such nappe is called clinging nappe.
 The bottom edge of a notch or a top of a weir over which the water flows is known as sill
or crest respectively.
 The error of 1 % in measuring H will produce 1.5 % error in discharge over a rectangular
notch /weir.
 The error of 1 % in measuring H will produce 2.5 % error in discharge over a triangular
notch /weir.
3.5. Flow Through Pipes
3.5.1. Introduction
A pipe is closed conduit, generally of circular cross section used to carry water of fluid.
When the pipe is running full, the flow is under pressure. Pressure in pipe flow is normally
more than atmospheric pressure. But if pipe is not running full, the flow is not under pressure.
*The velocity of fluid particles at the centre of cross section in maximum and gradually
decreases to minimum near the circumference.
3.5.2. Loss of head in pipes
Flow in pipes is retarded due to certain causes which is known as head loss. Major head
loss is occurring due to friction. The loss of head in a pipe is calculated from the following
formulae:-
n 2v 2 L
*Manning's formula, Hf=
R4/3

7
 flv 2
Darcy-weisbach formula, Hf=
2 gd
4 flv 2
*Dracy-williams formula, Hf=
2 gd
f' P
Chazy's formula H f   .L.V 2
w A
W Hf A
or v  . . C Ri
f' L P
Where Hf =head loss in pipe
n=rugosity coefficient
v=velocity
L=length of pipe
R=hydraulic mean depth
c=chazy's constant
i=loss of head per unit length or hydraulic gradient.
f=friction factor
(v1  v 2 ) 2
*Loss of head due to sudden enlargement, e h 
2g
2
v2
Loss of head due to sudden contraction, hc 0.5
2g
v2
*Loss of head due to sudden entrance of pipe, hi 0.5
2g
v2
Loss of head due to at the exit of pipe, ho 
2g
Loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe,
2
v2  A 
   1
2g  Cc ( A  a) 
kv 2
Loss of head due to bend in pipe, hb 
2g
Where v1 = velocity of flow before enlargement
v2= velocity of flow after enlargement / obstruction
v = velocity of flow in pipe
a = max. area of obstruction
A = area of pipe
K = constant
# *Factors Affecting Head Loss in Pipe
[Link]. Factors Relation Remarks
1 Flow rate (Velocity)  Head loss
2 Pipe lingth  Head loss
3 Viscosity  Head loss
4 Roughness of pipe  Head loss The smoother the inner surface of the
pipe, the lower the head loss. Thus,
surface since PVC pipe is smoother than
steel or cast iron, it has a lower head

8
 loss for identical conditions.

5 Scale deposits  Head loss

6 Friction factor  Head loss
7 Fittings and bends  Head loss
Diameter 1

Head loss

3.5.3. Pipes in Series or Compound Pipes

While laying a pipe line, we have to connect pipes of different lengths and diameters with
one another to form a pipe line. Such a pipe line is called a compound pipe or pipes in series.
The discharge through each pipes should be same. Total head loss is obtained by adding the
head loss of each pipe.
 f1l1 f 2l2 
H=  5
 5
 ......... 
 3d1 3d 2 
3.5.4. Equivalent Size of a Pipe
When compound pipe is replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter having same length, such
that loss of head as well as discharge is same for both the cases. Such pipe of uniform diameter
is called equivalent pipe. Head loss of equivalent pipe is given by
fQ 3  l1 l 
H=  5  2 5  ......... 
3 d d2 
 1 
and diameter of equivalent pipe is computed by the formula,
l l l l
5
 15  2 5  35  ..........
d d1 d 2 d3
3.5.5. Pipes in Parallel
Sometimes, a new pipe has to be laid, along with the existing pipe one, in order to increase
the discharge from one tank into another. Such an arrangement is known as pipes in parallel.
The characteristics of pipes in parallel is as follow:-
i) Total discharge is the sum of discharge of all pipes.
ii) The loss of head in each pipe is same.
3.5.6. Characteristics of Pipe Flow
i) Water flow under the pressure.
ii) It follows the equation of continuity if the liquid is incompressible
i.e. A1V1 = A2V2 = …………….
iii) There may be different types of flow.
iv) *Hydraulic gradient line is always above the pipe line except the siphon.
3.6. Flow Through Open Channels
3.6.1. Introduction
An open channel is a passage , through which the water flows under the force of
gravity. i.e. under atmospheric pressure. A channel may be closed or open. In case of open at
top, the free surface of flowing water is in contact with the atmospheric pressure.
3.6.2. Channels of Most Economical Cross Section

9
 A channel which gives maximum discharge for a given cross sectional area and bed
slope is known as channel of most economical cross section. It is also defined in terms of
minimum wetted parameter. It involves lesser excavation for the designed amount of discharge.
The most economical section for different cross section is given below.
a) *Rectangular Section:
b d
i) d = ii) m =
2 2
b) *Trapezoidal (1:n = V:H)
b  2nd d
i) d n 2  1 ii) m =
2 2
3.6.3. Types of Flows
a) Streaming flow:- If the depth of water in the channel is greater than critical depth, the
flow is called streaming flow. It is also known as tranquil flow.
b) Critical flow:- If the depth of water in the channel is equal to critical depth, the flow is
called critical flow. It is also known as critical velocity. It is denoted by Vc.
q
Mathematically, Vc 
hc
where Vc = critical velocity
q =discharge per unit width
Hc = critical depth
c) Shooting flow:- If the depth of water in the channel is less than critical depth, the flow is
called shooting flow. It is also known as torretional flow.
3.6.4. Terminology
a) *Afflux and back water curve:- Due to construction of weir/dam in a channel, the
amount of water by which water level rises is called afflux while curved profile upstream
of the weir is known as back water curve.
b) Alternate depth:- The two depths at which a given discharge can occur are called
alternate depths.
c) Critical depth:- The depth of water in a channel, corresponding to the minimum specific
energy is known as critical depth. It is denoted by hc.
1
 q2  3
hc =  
 g 
Where hc = critical depth
q =discharge per unit width
g = gravitational acceleration
d) *Conjugate depth:- The two depths at which the specific energy is same is called
conjugate depth.
e) *Hydraulic jump: The rise of water table, during the transformation of unstable shooting
flow to stable streaming flow is, known as hydraulic jump. It is also known as standing
wave. At hydraulic jump surplus energy is dissipated. The depth of water due to hydraulic
jump,
d 2 2
d1 2d1v1  d 
d2=-  
1
  =  1 1  8( Fe) 2  1
 2 4 g 
  2 

10
 A
f) Hydraulic depth:- where T is the top width of water
T
wetted area
g) *Hydraulic mean depth/radius = wetted perimeter
3.6.5. Characteristics of Open Channel Flow
Open Channel Flow is defined as fluid flow with a free surface open to the atmosphere.
Examples: Streams, rivers and culverts not flowing full. Open channel flow assumes that the
pressure at the surface is constant and the hydraulic grade line is at the surface of the fluid.
i) Open channel flow have a free surface
ii) A free surface is subjected to attmospheric pressure.
iii) The driving force is the component of gravity along the flow direction.
iv) *Hydraulic gradient line is slightly higher (negligible) i.e. coincide with the free
surface.
v) The depth of flow, discharge,slope of the channel bottom and of the free surface are
interdependent.
vi) It follows the equation of continuity if the liquid is incompressible.
i.e A1V1 = A2V2 = …………….
vii) There may be different types of flow.
4. Different forces and Dimensionless number
4.1. Different Forces
a) *Inertia force:- The inertia force is an imaginary force which acts as a rigid body brings it
in an equilibrium. A force opposite in direction to an accelerating force acting on a body
and equal to the product of the accelerating force and the mass of the body. It is also
known as fictitious force.
b) Viscous force:- Viscosity or viscous force is the force between a body/fluid and any fluid
moving along it in a direction so as to oppose the motion of the fluid along the object. It is
the product of shear stress due to viscosity and cross section area of the flowing liquid.
c) Gravitational force:- The gravitational force is a force that attracts any two objects with
mass. We call the gravitational force attractive because it always tries to pull masses
together, it never pushes them apart. It is the product of mass and acceleration due to
gravity of the flowing liquid.
d) Surface tension force:- It is the product of surface tension per unit length and length of
surface of the flowing liquid.
e) Pressure force:- Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per
unit area over which that force is distributed. It is the product of intensity of pressure and
area of the flowing liquid.
f) Elastic force:- Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after
being stretched or compressed. The force that allows some materials
to return to its original shape after being stretched or compressed is known as elastic force.
It is the product of elastic stress and the area of the flowing liquid.
4.2. Dimensionless Number
A number representing a property of a physical system, but not measured on a scale of
physical units (as of time, mass, or distance), is known as dimensionless number.
Dimensionless number are those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by
viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force. Since

11
this is a ratio of one force to the other force. It will be a dimensionless number as name
indicates. Following are the dimensionless number:-
a) Weber's number:- It is defined as the square root of ratio of inertia force of a flowing
fluid to the surface tension.
v
We 
l
Where We = Weber number
 = Density of fluid
v= Velocity of fluid
l = Traveled length of fluid or Characteristric length
 = Surface tension
b) Mach number:- It is defined as the square root of ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid
to the elastic force. It is denoted by M

v
M 
K

If Mach number <1-flow is sub sonic
=1-flow if sonic
=1-3-flow is hypersonic
>3- flow is supersonic
c) *Reynold's number:- It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing liquid and
viscous force of the liquid. It is denoted by Re.
vl
Re 

Where  = Fluid density
v = Fluid velocity
l = Traveled length of fluid or Characteristric length
 = Dynamic viscosity of fluid
If Re < 2000 then flow is laminar and >2800 flow is turbulent in between transition or mix
flow.
In case of open flow, If the Reynolds number Re is less than 500, then the flow is
called laminar flow. If the Reynolds number is more than 2000, then the flow is said to be
turbulent. A flow that has Reynolds number between 500 and 2000 is said to be in the
transition state.
d) *Froude's number:- It is defined as the square root of inertia force of a flowing fluid to
the gravitational force. The Froude number can be used to determine the resistance of an
object moving through a fluid. It is denoted by Fe.
v
Fe 
gl
Where v = Fluid velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity
l = Characteristric length or length of flow
If Fe < 1 Sub critical flow
If Fe = 1 Critical flow
If Fe > 1 Super critical flow
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e)Euler's number:- It is defined as the square root of ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid
to the pressure force. It is denoted by Eu.
v
Fe 
P

 Rotation is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that both of its axes
rotate in the same direction.

# Functions of Specific Instruments

1) Anemometer:-It is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure.
2) *Altimeter:-It is a device that measures altitude—a location's distance above sea
level.
3) Bourdon-tube gauge, invented about 1850, is still one of the most widely used
instruments for measuring the pressure of liquids and gases of all kinds
4) *Barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also
called barometric pressure.
5) *Hydrometer is an instrument used to determine specific gravity.
6) Hygrometer, instrument used in meteorological science to measure the humidity, or
amount of water vapour in the air.
7) Lactometer:-It is an instrument that is used to check for the purity of milk by
measuring its density.
8) Manometers work by measuring pressure against a volume of liquid.
9) Odometer:-It is a device that is used for measuring the distance traveled by a vehicle.
10) *Pycnometer:-It is used to determine the specific gravity of cohesion less soils and
water content.
11) Pyrometer:-It is an instrument that measures temperature remotely, i.e. by measuring
radiation from the object, without having to be in contact.
12) Rotameters are simple flow meters used to determine volumetric flow rates of fresh
gas flows, often coming from wall sources.
13) *Thermometer:-It is a device used for measuring temperature.
14) *Viscometer:-It is an instrument for measuring the viscosity (resistance to internal
flow) of a fluid.

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