PROFESSIONAL TRAFFIC

OPERATIONS ENGINEER
CERTIFICATION PROGRAM
REFRESHER COURSE
Developed for the Institute of
Transportation Engineers

0418

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

TOPS REFRESHER COURSE

Module 3
Traffic Operations
Interrupted Flow

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of the module, participants should
be able to:
1) Be able to identify appropriate forms of
intersection traffic control
2) Understand concepts of signalized intersection
capacity analysis
3) Be able to apply transportation system
management techniques to reduce congestion
and improve safety on non-freeway facilities
4) Apply traffic calming measures on local streets
5) Appreciate the multi-modal nature of the
transportation system

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Presentation Overview
Interrupted Flow Facilities

• Intersection Traffic Control

• Intersection Capacity Analysis
• Transportation System Management
• Access Management
• Traffic Calming and Speed
Management
• Multimodal Systems

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Traffic Flow Concepts
• Uninterrupted Flow: Vehicles are not
interrupted by external factors. Occurs
on freeways and some rural roads.
• Interrupted Flow: Vehicle flow on
interrupted flow facilities is influenced
by external factors such as traffic
signals, stop or yield signs, or frequent
uncontrolled intersections or high
volume driveways.

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Interrupted Flow
• Traffic operations dominated by
intersection control and driveways
• Typical of urban streets
• Levels of intersection control:
No control device
YIELD control
Minor street STOP control
All-way STOP control
Traffic signal

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

No Control
• Total entering traffic
less than 2000 units per
day (combined vehicle,
pedestrian, and bicycle)
• Adequate approach
sight distance
• Fewer than 5 right angle
vehicle or pedestrian
crashes in 3 years; fewer
than 3 crashes in 2
years 7

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 YIELD Control
• Where full stop not always required
• Adequate approach sight distance
• Total daily traffic on through street less than
6,000 vpd
• <3 right angle collisions in 1 year; <5 in 2 years
which cannot be reduced by less restrictive
ways
8

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Two-way STOP Control
• Use where a full stop is always
required
• Consider use on minor street
approaches where:
Vehicle volumes on the through street
>6,000 vpd, or
Approach sight distance not adequate for
YIELD or uncontrolled intersection, or
≥3 crashes in 1 year or ≥5 crashes in 2
years of types susceptible to correction
9

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Departure Sight Distance

ISD = 1.47 x V x tg
Where: V = design speed of major road (mph)
tg = time gap for drivers on stopped
10
approach (sec)
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
 All-Way STOP
MUTCD Warrants
• Interim where traffic signal justified
• ≥5 correctable crashes in 12 month period
• Minimum 8 hour volumes
Averages ≥300 vph on major street, and
Combined vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle
volume on minor approaches ≥200 units per
hour and average delay ≥30 seconds/vehicle,
but
If main street 85th% speed ≥ 40 mph, use
70% of above volumes for A and B 11

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Traffic Signal Operations
• Efficiency of arterial streets and networks
strongly influenced by location, spacing,
and operation of signals
• Signal retiming projects are extremely
cost-effective (10:1 to 20:1 B/C ratios)
• Interconnecting previously uncoordinated
signals reduces travel time by 10-20%

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Potential Signal
Improvements

• Equipment updates
• Timing plan improvements
• Coordination
• Signal removal

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Signalized Intersection
Capacity
• Lane Group Flow Rates
• Adjusted Saturation Flow Rate
• Proportion Arriving During Green
• Signal Phase Duration
• Capacity and v/c
• Delay
• LOS

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Signalized Intersection
Capacity
Determine Adjusted Saturation Flow Rate
• Base Saturation Flow Rate
• Adjustment Factors
s=so fWfHVg fp fbb fa fLU fLT fRT fLpb fRpbfwzfmsfsp

Default so = 1,900 pc/h/ln if population ≥

250,000; otherwise so = 1,750 pc/h/ln

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Signalized Intersection
Capacity
Determine Proportion Arriving on Green
• Control delay and queue size are highly
dependent on proportion of vehicles
that arrive on green or red signal
indication
• Proportion calculated for each lane
group based on signal timing and
quality of progression
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
Signalized Intersection
Capacity

Determine Capacity and v/c

• Compute Lane Group Capacities
c = N x s x (g/C)
• Compute Lane Group v/c Ratios

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Signalized Intersection
Capacity

Determine Delay
d = d1 + d2 + d3
Where: d = control delay (s/veh)
d1 = uniform delay
d2 = incremental delay
d3 = initial queue delay

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Signalized Intersection
Capacity
Determine LOS
LOS determined for each lane
group, each approach, and
intersection as a whole

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Transportation System
Management
• Alleviate congestion
• Maximize efficiency
• Typically lower-cost improvements
with short implementation time
• Better manage supply side of
supply/demand

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Transportation System
Management
• One-way streets
• Reversible lanes
• Turn controls
• Curb lane use control and
parking management
• Bus stop locations

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 One-way Streets
Applications:
• Left turns impede traffic flow
• Closely spaced signals
• Parallel streets continuous thru
corridor can serve as one-way couple
• Central business district grid network
• Continuous frontage roads distribute
freeway traffic
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
 One-way Streets
Potential Advantages:
• Left turn conflicts eliminated; reduced crashes
and greater capacity and efficiency
• Reduced running times
• Better gaps at non-signalized locations
• Multi-leg intersections simplified
• Temporary one-way streets discharge special
event traffic
• Avoid parking removal
• Turns of large vehicles may be accommodated
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
One-way Streets Reduce
Intersection Conflicts
Intersection
of 2 two-
way streets:

Intersection
of 2 one-
way streets:

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 One-way Streets
Potential Disadvantages:
• Increased VMT due to adverse travel
• No pedestrian refuge on wide streets
• Turns concentrated
• Block emergency vehicles when loaded
• Modifications in transit routes may be needed
• More difficult way-finding for unfamiliar drivers
• Perceived negative impacts to businesses
• Lane-change crashes may increase

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Reversible Lane Control
Alternatives:
• Two-way streets, center reversible lane(s)
• Two-way streets, two-way left turn/
reversible lane
• One-way street, reversed at different
times of day
• One-way street during peak periods and
two-way during off-peak

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Reversible Lanes
Criteria for installation:
• Recurring congestion in peak
direction
• Predictable time of congestion
• Ratio of directional traffic
volumes matches ratio of lanes
• Adequate capacity at terminal
points
• Lack of alternative
improvements

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Reversible Lanes
• Potential Advantages:
 Increased capacity for heavy peak directional traffic
 No parallel street needed
 Existing pavement used efficiently
 Traffic does not have to shift to another route
• Potential Disadvantages:
 Possible increased crashes, especially at termini
 Changeover may be difficult
 Capacity reduced for minor direction traffic flows
 Unfamiliar drivers may be confused

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Reversible Lanes
Traffic Control:
• Pavement markings
• Permanent signs
• Lane control signals
• Physical separations

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Turn Controls
Factors to Consider:
• Degree of congestion and delay caused by
turning movement
• Frequency and severity of crashes involving
turning movement
• Availability of alternative routes
• Impact of diverted traffic on congestion and
crashes
• Adverse environmental and social impacts of
diverted traffic

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Example of Diversion of
Prohibited Movement

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Better To
Accommodate Turns
Rather Than Restricting Them

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Right Turn on Red
Restrictions
• Significant conflicts between
right turns and pedestrians
• History of Right-Turn-on-Red
crashes
• School crossings or large
number of children or elderly
pedestrians

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Right Turn on Red Restrictions
Sight Distance Restrictions

Cross Street Minimum Sight

Speed Limit Distance
(mph) (feet)

25 240
30 290
35 335
40 385
45 430
50 480
55 530
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
Curb Lane Use Control
Parking Management

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Curb Lane Use Control
Priorities for use of curb lane
1. Moving Traffic
2. Loading and Unloading
3. Time-Limit Parking
4. Long-Term Parking

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Bus Stop Locations
• Locate to maximize passenger safety and
minimize impact on through traffic flow
• Provide turn-out bays where feasible
• Mid-block and far-side locations improve
visibility of disembarking passengers and
minimize impact on intersection
operations

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Access Management
• Control of Driveway
Access
Spacing
Location
Design
• Techniques:
Reduce Number of Conflict Points
Separate Conflict Points
Remove Turning Vehicles from Through Lanes
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
Access Management Tools
• Limiting the location and number of driveways
• Driveway design - channelization, provision of
acceleration and deceleration lanes, and other
geometric improvements
• Driveway control - prohibit movements
• Medians - prohibit or limit access and/or store left
turning vehicles
• Two-way left turn lanes
• Limit the number and spacing of traffic signals, and
• Providing frontage roads, cross-access, and mixed-
use land uses
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
 Queuing Analysis
λ2
Em =
µ (µ − λ )
λ
Ew =
µ (µ − λ )

P(n > N ) = (λ / µ ) N +1
Em = Mean queue length (veh)
Ew = Mean waiting time in queue (min.)
P(n>N) = Probability of more than N vehicles in the queue
λ = Arrival flow rate (veh/min.)
µ = Departure flow rate (veh/min.)
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
 Traffic Calming and
Speed Management
• Traffic problems on local residential streets:
Traffic volume
Traffic speed
Road geometry
Traffic operations
• Residents may perceive that area is no longer
safe or pleasant for children, pedestrians,
bicyclists, or other motorists

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Traffic Calming
• “Traffic calming involves changes in street
alignment, installation of barriers, and
other physical measures to reduce traffic
speeds and/or cut-through volumes, in
the interest of street safety, livability, and
other public purposes.”
• Potential traffic calming measures:
Physical measures
Traffic regulations

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Principles of Traffic Calming
• Identify the real problem
• Quantify the problem
• First consider improvements to the arterial
network
• Apply traffic calming measures on an area-
wide basis
• Avoid restricting access and egress
• Use self-enforcing measures
• Do not impede non-motorized modes
• Consider all services
• Monitor and follow-up

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Traffic Calming and
Speed Management
• Focus on “localizing” the character of the street
• Positive Physical Controls
 Speed Humps, raised crosswalks, raised intersections
 Chicanes
 Curb extensions
 Directional closures
 Median islands
 Right-turn in/out islands
 Traffic circles
 Diagonal diverters
 Full closure (cul-de-sac)

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Speed Humps and Median Islands

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Traffic Calming: Circles

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Traffic Management on
Local Streets
• Passive Controls
One-Way Streets
Turn Prohibitions
Stop Signs

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Multi-modal Systems
• Consider all potential modes of
transportation
Personal automobiles
Trucks
Public transit
Bicycles
Pedestrians
• All modes should interact cooperatively and
seamlessly in integrated transportation
system

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Freight Movement
• Economic viability depends on efficient
freight movement
• Decisions that impact freight movement:
Selection of design vehicle
Vehicle weight and size restrictions and lane
use restrictions
Designation of loading zones
Design of access to intermodal facilities
Truck speed limits
Service and loading access and design for
land developments

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Public Transit
• Many forms including rail, bus, paratransit, contract
services, and ferry boats
• Potential priority treatments for public transit
services:
 Exclusive or semi-exclusive transit lane
 Priority right-of-way past bottlenecks
 Express transit lane, roadway, or ramp
 Contra-flow transit lanes on one-way streets
 Transit streets/malls
 Traffic signal priority
 Exemption from turn restrictions
 Park-and-ride or kiss-and-ride facilities

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 High Occupancy Vehicle
(HOV) Lanes
• Preferential Treatment for
– Buses
– Carpools
– Vanpools
• Lane Reserved For High Occupancy
Vehicles
– Continuous
– Peak Periods
• May Increase Congestion in Other Lanes

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Bicycle Treatments
• Viability enhanced by providing
connectivity of convenient routes
• Minimize speed changes due to traffic
control devices
• Improvement allow bicycles and motor
vehicles to share the road:
Paved shoulders
Wide outside lane (14-ft minimum)
Bicycle-safe drainage grates
Smooth, clean riding surface
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
Pedestrian Accommodation
• Safety is a key consideration in planning,
design, and operation
• Accessibility and usability to accommodate
pedestrians of all abilities
• Important issues:
Vehicle speed management
Continuous sidewalk access
Buffer from high-speed or high-volume traffic
Frequent, safe crossing opportunities
Visual quality and aesthetic treatments that
encourage walking

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Sample Question 1
If a two-way arterial street is converted to
a one-way arterial street, which of the
following is LEAST likely to occur?
a. Reduced vehicle-miles of travel
b. Increased travel speeds
c. Reduced left-turn crashes at
intersections
d. Increased lane-change crashes

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Sample Question 1
If a two-way arterial street is converted to
a one-way arterial street, which of the
following is LEAST likely to occur?
a. Reduced vehicle-miles of travel
b. Increased travel speeds
c. Reduced left-turn crashes at
intersections
d. Increased lane-change crashes

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Sample Question 2
Which of the following be LEAST
likely to serve as a traffic calming
strategy?
a. Speed humps
b. Diagonal diverter
c. Parking prohibition
d. Cul-de-sac

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Sample Question 2
Which of the following be LEAST
likely to serve as a traffic calming
strategy?
a. Speed humps
b. Diagonal diverter
c. Parking prohibition
d. Cul-de-sac

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Sample Question 3
Which measure will typically provide the highest
benefit-cost ratio in terms of reduced delay at a
signalized intersection?
a. Add a left turn lane
b. Add a right turn lane
c. Modernize signal control equipment
d. Update signal timing and provide
coordination
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
 Sample Question 3
Which measure will typically provide the highest
benefit-cost ratio in terms of reduced delay at a
signalized intersection?
a. Add a left turn lane
b. Add a right turn lane
c. Modernize signal control equipment
d. Update signal timing and provide
coordination
Where Transportation and Education Intersect
 Sample Question 4
What type of intersection crashes are most likely
to be reduced if two-way STOP control is
replaced with a traffic control signal?
a. Rear-end collisions
b. Lane-change collisions
c. Right-angle collisions
d. Fixed object collisions

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

 Sample Question 4
What type of intersection crashes are most likely
to be reduced if two-way STOP control is
replaced with a traffic control signal?
a. Rear-end collisions
b. Lane-change collisions
c. Right-angle collisions
d. Fixed object collisions

Where Transportation and Education Intersect

Questions

Where Transportation and Education Intersect