Cambridge IGCSE International Mathematics -

Comprehensive Study Notes

Table of Contents
1. Topic 0: Introduction to Graphic Display Calculator
2. Topic 1: Number
3. Topic 2: Algebra
4. Functions, Coordinate Geometry, and Advanced Topics

Topic 0: Introduction to Graphic Display Calculator

History of Calculators
Abacus: Invented between 2300 BC and 500 BC
Used mainly for addition and subtraction
Still widely used in parts of Southeast Asia
Slide Rule: Invented in 1621
More complex operations than abacus
Used until early 1970s
First Mechanical Calculator: Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642
Used a system of gears
First Handheld Calculator: Appeared in 1967
Result of integrated circuit development

Basic Calculator Operations

Key Functions (Casio fx-CG50 and Texas TI-84 Plus CE-T)

1. Run-Matrix/Arithmetic: Basic calculations
2. Statistics: Statistical calculations and graphs
3. Graph: Entering and plotting equations
4. Table: Generating tables of values
5. Equation: Solving different equation types
Memory Channels
Use memory to store answers for subsequent calculations
Minimizes rounding errors
Store values using letter assignments (A, B, C, etc.)

Plotting Graphs

Linear Functions
Format: y = mx + c
m = gradient/slope
c = y-intercept
Examples: y = 2x + 3, y = -x + 5

Changing Scale
1. Zoom Facility: Zoom in/out to see different parts of graph
2. Manual Scale: Set Xmin, Xmax, Xscale, Ymin, Ymax, Yscale

Finding Intersections
Root: Point where graph crosses x-axis
Y-intercept: Point where graph crosses y-axis
Use calculator's intersection function for two graphs

Tables of Values
Generate coordinate points for manual plotting
Set x-value range and increment (ΔTbl)
Useful for understanding function behavior

Lists and Statistics

Data Entry
Enter data as lists
Calculate mean (x̄ ), median (Med), mode (Mod)
Handle frequency tables with separate lists
Statistical Measures
Mean: Average of all values
Median: Middle value when arranged in order
Mode: Most frequently occurring value
n: Number of data items

Topic 1: Number

Chapter 1: Vocabulary for Sets of Numbers

Natural Numbers
Set: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
Also called counting numbers
Include zero in this definition

Integers
Set: {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
Positive integers: {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
Negative integers: {..., -4, -3, -2, -1}
Also called whole numbers

Rational Numbers
Numbers that can be written as fractions (denominator ≠ 0)
All terminating and recurring decimals
Examples: 3½, 0.2 = 1/5, 0.3̄ = 2/9
Extension of integers

Irrational Numbers
Cannot be written as fractions
Non-terminating, non-recurring decimals
Examples: √2 = 1.414213..., π = 3.14159...
Prime Numbers
Only factors are 1 and itself
1 is NOT a prime number
Examples: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23...
Sieve of Eratosthenes: Method to find primes

Square Numbers
n × n = n²
Sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100...
Index notation: 3² (three squared)

Cube Numbers
n × n × n = n³
Sequence: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216...
Index notation: 3³ (three cubed)

Triangle Numbers
Pattern: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28...
Each number represents triangular arrangement of dots
Formula: T_n = n(n+1)/2

Factors and Multiples

Factors: Numbers that divide exactly into given number
Prime Factors: Factors that are prime numbers
HCF (Highest Common Factor): Largest common factor
LCM (Lowest Common Multiple): Smallest common multiple

Powers and Roots

Square Root: √16 = 4 (positive square root by convention)
Cube Root: ∛8 = 2
Higher Roots: ⁴√625 = 5
Calculator notation: yx for powers, ˣ√y for roots
Reciprocals
Reciprocal of n = 1/n
Examples: Reciprocal of 2 = 1/2, Reciprocal of 2/5 = 5/2

Chapter 2: Calculations and Order of Operations

BIDMAS/BODMAS Order
1. Brackets
2. Indices/Orders (Powers)
3. Division and Multiplication (left to right)
4. Addition and Subtraction (left to right)

Examples
2 + 3 × 4 = 2 + 12 = 14
(2 + 3) × 4 = 5 × 4 = 20
-4 × (8 + -3) = -4 × 5 = -20

Calculator Fractions
Use fraction button for complex fraction calculations
Enter numerator, move to denominator
Alternative: use brackets (90 + 38) ÷ 43

Chapter 3: Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Fraction Terminology
Numerator: Top number
Denominator: Bottom number
Proper Fraction: Numerator < denominator (e.g., 3/4)
Improper Fraction: Numerator > denominator (e.g., 9/2)
Mixed Number: Whole number + proper fraction (e.g., 4⅕)

Converting Mixed Numbers and Improper Fractions

Mixed to Improper: 2¾ = (2×4 + 3)/4 = 11/4
Improper to Mixed: 27/4 = 6¾ (divide 27 by 4)
Equivalent Fractions
Same mathematical value: 1/2 = 2/4 = 4/8
Simplest Form: Divide by HCF of numerator and denominator
Example: 12/40 = 3/10 (divide by HCF = 4)

Fraction Operations

Addition/Subtraction
Same denominator: Add/subtract numerators
Different denominators: Find common denominator
Examples:
3/11 + 5/11 = 8/11
1/2 + 1/3 = 3/6 + 2/6 = 5/6

Multiplication
Multiply numerators, multiply denominators
Example: 3/4 × 2/3 = 6/12 = 1/2

Division
Multiply by reciprocal
Example: 3/8 ÷ 3/4 = 3/8 × 4/3 = 12/24 = 1/2

Decimal Places and Conversions

Fraction to Decimal: Divide numerator by denominator
Decimal to Fraction: Use place value
0.45 = 45/100 = 9/20
2.325 = 2 325/1000 = 2 13/40

Chapter 4: Further Percentages

Basic Percentage Conversions

Fraction to Percentage: Multiply by 100
Decimal to Percentage: Multiply by 100
Percentage to Decimal: Divide by 100
Key Equivalents
Fraction Decimal Percentage

1/2 0.5 50%

1/4 0.25 25%

3/4 0.75 75%

1/8 0.125 12.5%

1/10 0.1 10%

Percentage Calculations
Percentage of Quantity: 25% of 300 = 0.25 × 300 = 75
One Quantity as % of Another: (First ÷ Second) × 100

Percentage Increases and Decreases

Increase by x%: Multiply by (100 + x)% = (1 + x/100)
Decrease by x%: Multiply by (100 - x)% = (1 - x/100)
Examples:
Increase $14,500 by 12% = $14,500 × 1.12 = $16,240
Decrease $130 by 15% = $130 × 0.85 = $110.50

Simple Interest
Formula: I = Prn/100
I = Simple interest
P = Principal (initial amount)
r = Rate per year (%)
n = Number of years
Total Amount: A = P + I = P(1 + rn/100)

Compound Interest
Interest calculated on principal + previous interest
Formula: A = P(1 + r/100)^n
Alternative: A = P(1 + r/100)^nt where n = payments per year
Examples:
€500,000 at 10% for 3 years = €500,000 × 1.10³ = €665,500
Interest = €665,500 - €500,000 = €165,500
Reverse Percentages
Method: Work backwards from percentage result
Example: 92% of questions = 23 questions
1% = 23/92 questions
100% = (23/92) × 100 = 25 questions

Chapter 5: Ratio and Proportion

Direct Proportion
As one quantity increases, other increases proportionally
Ratio Method: x/y = a/b, so x = (a×y)/b
Unitary Method: Find value of one unit, then multiply

Examples of Direct Proportion

Workers paid by pieces produced
Speed and distance (same time)
Recipe ingredients

Dividing in Given Ratios

Method: Add ratio parts, find fraction of total for each part
Example: Divide 20m in ratio 3:2
Total parts = 3 + 2 = 5
First part = (3/5) × 20 = 12m
Second part = (2/5) × 20 = 8m

Inverse Proportion
As one quantity increases, other decreases
Formula: xy = constant
Examples:
More workers = less time needed
Higher speed = less time for journey
Chapter 6: Approximation and Rounding

Types of Rounding
1. To nearest 10, 100, 1000: Look at digit to the right
68,786 to nearest 1000 = 69,000
28,617 to nearest 100 = 28,600
2. Decimal Places (d.p.): Count digits after decimal point
7.864 to 1 d.p. = 7.9
5.574 to 2 d.p. = 5.57
3. Significant Figures (s.f.): Count meaningful digits
43.25 to 3 s.f. = 43.3
0.0043 to 1 s.f. = 0.004

Estimation
Round numbers to make calculations easier
Examples:
57 × 246 ≈ 60 × 250 = 15,000
6386 ÷ 27 ≈ 6000 ÷ 30 = 200

Chapter 7: Laws of Indices

Basic Index Rules

1. a^m × a^n = a^(m+n): Same base, add powers
2. a^m ÷ a^n = a^(m-n): Same base, subtract powers
3. (am)n = a^(mn): Power of power, multiply powers

Special Cases
a^0 = 1: Any number to power 0 equals 1
a^(-n) = 1/a^n: Negative power equals reciprocal
a^(1/n) = ⁿ√a: Fractional power equals root

Examples
4³ × 4² = 4^(3+2) = 4⁵ = 1024
2⁵ ÷ 2³ = 2^(5-3) = 2² = 4
(5²)³ = 5^(2×3) = 5⁶ = 15,625
16^(1/4) = ⁴√16 = 2
Chapter 8: Standard Form

Definition
Standard Form: a × 10^n where 1 ≤ a < 10 and n is integer
Used for very large or very small numbers

Large Numbers (Positive Index)

72,000 = 7.2 × 10⁴
5 million = 5 × 10⁶
Count zeros or decimal places moved

Small Numbers (Negative Index)

0.0032 = 3.2 × 10⁻³
0.000053 = 5.3 × 10⁻⁵
Count decimal places moved left

Operations in Standard Form

Multiplication: (4.4 × 10³) × (2 × 10⁵) = 8.8 × 10⁸
Division: (6.4 × 10⁷) ÷ (1.6 × 10³) = 4 × 10⁴
Addition/Subtraction: Convert to same power of 10 first

Chapter 9: Surds (Extended Only)

Definition
Surd: Irrational square root that cannot be simplified
Examples: √2, √3, √10
Leave in exact form rather than decimal approximation

Simplification Rules
√a × √a = a: Example: √3 × √3 = 3
√a × √b = √(ab): Example: √3 × √5 = √15
√(a/b) = √a/√b: Example: √(4/9) = √4/√9 = 2/3
Simplifying Surds
Factor out perfect squares: √20 = √(4×5) = 2√5
√63 = √(9×7) = 3√7
√363 = √(121×3) = 11√3

Rationalizing Denominators
Single Surd: Multiply by √a/√a
1/√2 = (1×√2)/(√2×√2) = √2/2
Binomial: Use conjugate (a+b)(a-b) = a²-b²
1/(3+2√2) = (3-2√2)/((3+2√2)(3-2√2)) = (3-2√2)/(9-8) = 3-2√2

Chapter 10: Speed, Distance and Time

Time Conversions
12-hour to 24-hour: Add 12 to PM times
2:30 PM = 14:30
24-hour to 12-hour: Subtract 12 from times > 12:00
18:25 = 6:25 PM

Basic Formulas
Distance = Speed × Time
Speed = Distance ÷ Time
Time = Distance ÷ Speed
Average Speed = Total Distance ÷ Total Time

Time Calculations
Convert decimal hours to hours:minutes:seconds
Use calculator's sexagesimal function
4.8 hours = 4 hours 48 minutes

Distance-Time Graphs
Gradient = Speed
Horizontal line = Stationary
Steeper gradient = Higher speed
Chapter 11: Money and Finance

Currency Conversions
Use exchange rates: €1 = $1.50
€400 → $600 (multiply)
$940 → €626.67 (divide: 940 ÷ 1.5)

Earnings Calculations
Gross Pay: Total earnings before deductions
Net Pay: Gross pay - deductions
Overtime: Time and a half (×1.5), Double time (×2)
Piece Work: Paid per item made

Profit and Loss

Profit = Selling Price - Cost Price
Loss = Cost Price - Selling Price
% Profit/Loss = (Profit/Loss ÷ Cost Price) × 100
Discount: Reduction in selling price

Chapter 12: Set Notation and Venn Diagrams

Set Terminology
Set: Well-defined collection of objects
Element: Object in a set (a ∈ A means a belongs to set A)
Subset: A ⊆ B means all elements of A are in B
Empty Set: ∅ (contains no elements)

Set Operations
Union (A ∪ B): All elements in either set
Intersection (A ∩ B): Elements in both sets
Complement (A'): Elements in universal set but not in A

Venn Diagrams
Overlapping circles: Show relationships between sets
Universal set: Rectangle containing all possible elements
Problem solving: Use overlapping regions to find unknowns
Topic 2: Algebra

Chapter 13: Algebraic Representation and Manipulation

Expanding Brackets
Single Bracket: Multiply everything inside by term outside
3(x + 4) = 3x + 12
-2x²(3x - y + 1) = -6x³ + 2x²y - 2x²

Factorising
Common Factor: Take out highest common factor
6x + 2x² = 2x(3 + x)
8p - 6q + 10r = 2(4p - 3q + 5r)

Substitution
Replace letters with given values
Follow order of operations (BIDMAS)
Example: If a = 3, b = 4, c = -5
2a + 3b - c = 6 + 12 + 5 = 23

Changing Subject of Formula

Simple: Isolate required variable
a = 2b + c → c = a - 2b
ab = cd → d = cb/a

Chapter 14: Further Algebraic Manipulation

Expanding Two Brackets

FOIL Method: First, Outer, Inner, Last
(x + 3)(x + 5) = x² + 5x + 3x + 15 = x² + 8x + 15
(x - 4)(x + 6) = x² + 6x - 4x - 24 = x² + 2x - 24

Perfect Squares
(a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²
(a - b)² = a² - 2ab + b²
Examples:
(x + 4)² = x² + 8x + 16
 (x - 4)² = x² - 8x + 16

Difference of Two Squares

a² - b² = (a + b)(a - b)
Examples:
x² - 25 = (x + 5)(x - 5)
4a² - 9b² = (2a + 3b)(2a - 3b)

Factorising Quadratics
x² + bx + c: Find two numbers that multiply to c and add to b
x² + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
x² - 7x + 12 = (x - 3)(x - 4)
ax² + bx + c: More complex, may need trial method

Factorising by Grouping
Four terms: Group in pairs, factor each pair
ax + ay + bx + by = a(x + y) + b(x + y) = (a + b)(x + y)

Complex Subject Changes

Squares and Roots: May need to square or take square root
C = 2πr → r = C/(2π)
A = πr² → r = √(A/π)

Algebraic Fractions
Simplification: Cancel common factors
(6x²y)/(2xy) = 3x
Addition/Subtraction: Common denominator needed
a/b + c/d = (ad + bc)/(bd)
Multiplication/Division:
(a/b) × (c/d) = ac/(bd)
(a/b) ÷ (c/d) = (a/b) × (d/c) = ad/(bc)

Chapter 15: Linear and Simultaneous Equations

Solving Linear Equations
Basic Method: Collect like terms, isolate variable
With Fractions: Clear fractions first or find common denominator
Examples:
3x + 8 = 14 → 3x = 6 → x = 2
x/2 + 3 = 7 → x/2 = 4 → x = 8

Constructing Equations
From geometry: Use angle properties
Triangle angles sum to 180°
Quadrilateral angles sum to 360°
From word problems: Identify unknown, set up equation

Simultaneous Equations

Elimination Method
Make coefficients of one variable equal
Add or subtract equations to eliminate
Example:
3x + y = 9, 5x - y = 7
Add: 8x = 16, so x = 2
Substitute: y = 3

Substitution Method
Express one variable in terms of other
Substitute into second equation
Example:
From 5x - y = 7: y = 5x - 7
Into 3x + y = 9: 3x + (5x - 7) = 9
8x = 16, so x = 2

Graphical Method
Plot both lines on same axes
Intersection point gives solution
Use calculator intersection function
Constructing Formulas
Identify variables: What changes and what stays constant?
Establish relationships: How variables relate
Write formula: Use algebraic notation
Example: Temperature drops 1°C per 200m height
t = T - h/200 (where t = temperature at height h, T = base temperature)

Chapter 16: Solving Quadratic Equations

Standard Form
ax² + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0
Examples: x² - 3x - 10 = 0, 2x² + 5x + 3 = 0

Factorising Method
Factor quadratic expression
Set each factor equal to zero
Example: x² - x - 12 = 0
(x - 4)(x + 3) = 0
x = 4 or x = -3

Special Cases
x² - a² = 0: Difference of squares
x² - 4 = 0 → (x - 2)(x + 2) = 0 → x = ±2
ax² = 0: One factor is x
x² - 6x = 0 → x(x - 6) = 0 → x = 0 or x = 6

Quadratic Formula
x = (-b ± √(b² - 4ac))/(2a)
Use when factoring is difficult
Example: x² + 7x + 3 = 0
a = 1, b = 7, c = 3
x = (-7 ± √(49 - 12))/2 = (-7 ± √37)/2
Completing the Square
x² + bx + c = (x + b/2)² + (c - b²/4)
Useful for finding vertex of parabola
Can solve by taking square root

Applications
Area problems: Set up quadratic from given area
Word problems: Translate situation into quadratic equation

Additional Advanced Topics

Chapter 17: Using Graphic Display Calculator

Plotting Linear Equations

Enter in form y = mx + c
Rearrange if necessary: 2x - 3y = 9 → y = (2x - 9)/3
Use intersection function to solve simultaneously

Quadratic Graphs
Parabola shape: Opens up (a > 0) or down (a < 0)
Zeros/Roots: Where graph crosses x-axis
Vertex: Turning point of parabola
Use calculator's zero/root function

Chapter 18: Inequalities

Linear Inequalities
Solve like equations: But reverse inequality when multiplying/dividing by negative
Number line representation: Use open/closed circles
Examples:
3x + 1 < 7 → 3x < 6 → x < 2
-2x ≥ 6 → x ≤ -3 (inequality flipped)
Compound Inequalities
Form: a < bx + c ≤ d
Solve both parts separately
Example: 7 < 3x + 1 ≤ 13
6 < 3x ≤ 12
2<x≤4

Graphical Inequalities
Method:
1. Draw boundary line
2. Test point to determine which side to shade
3. Shade region that does NOT satisfy inequality (leave solution unshaded)
Line types: Solid (≤, ≥), dashed (<, >)

Systems of Inequalities
Graph all inequalities on same axes
Solution region is where all conditions met
Applications in linear programming

Quadratic Inequalities
Method:
1. Find intersection points of two functions
2. Determine which function is above/below other
Use calculator to graph and find intersections

Chapter 19: Indices and Algebra

Algebraic Index Rules

Same rules as numerical indices
a^m × a^n = a^(m+n)
a^m ÷ a^n = a^(m-n)
(am)n = a^(mn)
Exponential Equations
Method: Express both sides with same base
Examples:
2^x = 32 → 2^x = 2^5 → x = 5
3^(2x) = 9 → 3^(2x) = 3^2 → 2x = 2 → x = 1

Chapter 20: Sequences

Linear Sequences
Common difference: Same amount added each term
nth term formula: Tn = an + b where a = common difference
Examples:
3, 7, 11, 15, ... → Tn = 4n - 1
12, 7, 2, -3, ... → Tn = -5n + 17

Quadratic Sequences
Second differences constant: Rule involves n²
Method of differences: Use table to find pattern
General form: Tn = an² + bn + c

Exponential Sequences
Common ratio: Same multiplier each term
Formula: Tn = ar^(n-1) where a = first term, r = ratio
Applications: Compound interest, population growth, decay

Fibonacci and Other Special Sequences

Fibonacci: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... (each term = sum of previous two)
Square numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ... (Tn = n²)
Cube numbers: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ... (Tn = n³)
Triangle numbers: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ... (Tn = n(n+1)/2)

Chapter 21: Direct and Inverse Variation

Direct Variation
y ∝ x means y = kx (k is constant of proportionality)
Linear relationship: Graph passes through origin
Examples: Distance ∝ time (constant speed), Cost ∝ quantity

Extended Direct Variation

y ∝ x^n: y = kx^n
Examples: Area ∝ (length)², Volume ∝ (length)³

Inverse Variation
y ∝ 1/x means y = k/x
Hyperbola shape: xy = constant
Examples: Speed ∝ 1/time (constant distance), Pressure ∝ 1/volume

Problem-Solving Strategy
1. Identify type of variation
2. Find constant k using given values
3. Use formula to find unknown values
4. Check answer makes sense in context

Key Formulas and Important Results

Geometry
Triangle angle sum: 180°
Quadrilateral angle sum: 360°
Circle area: A = πr²
Circle circumference: C = 2πr

Algebra
Quadratic formula: x = (-b ± √(b² - 4ac))/(2a)
Difference of squares: a² - b² = (a + b)(a - b)
Perfect squares: (a ± b)² = a² ± 2ab + b²
Sequences
Arithmetic: Tn = a + (n-1)d
Geometric: Tn = ar^(n-1)

Interest
Simple: I = Prt/100
Compound: A = P(1 + r/100)^t
This comprehensive set of notes covers all major topics from the Cambridge IGCSE International
Mathematics textbook, providing detailed explanations, formulas, methods, and examples for
thorough understanding and exam preparation.