Political Science notes

UNIT 1 : introduction

1. Meaning and Origin

 Term Politics from Greek word Polis (city-state).

 Aristotle = Father of Political Science; his work Politics is foundational.
 Politics = everything related to the State and its governance.

2. Definitions

 Paul Janet: Study of foundations of the State & principles of government.

 Gettell: Historical (past), analytical (present), ethical (future) study of the State.
 Harold Lasswell & Kaplan: Shaping and sharing power.
 David Easton: Authoritative allocation of values.
 Garner: Begins and ends with the State.
 Stephen Leacock: Deals with Government.
 Max Weber: Struggle for power.

3. Nature of Political Science

 Debate: Is it science or not?

o Aristotle, Hobbes → Politics is a science.
o J.S. Mill, Comte → Politics not an exact science.
 Combination: Both science (systematic, empirical) and art (practical guidelines).
 Political phenomena complex → predictions possible, but not exact like natural
sciences.
 Considered a social science with normative + empirical approaches.

4. Scope of Political Science

 Study of the State:

o As it is (empirical/analytical).
o As it has been (historical).
o As it ought to be (normative/ethical).
 Includes:
o Political theories (idealism, liberalism, communism, fascism).
 o Core concepts: democracy, liberty, equality, sovereignty, power, authority,
legitimacy.
o Political socialization, public administration, national & international
organizations.
o International relations (peace, war, diplomacy).

5. Key Takeaways

 Politics = study of power, state, and government.

 Political Science is both theoretical & practical.
 It studies laws, administration, diplomacy, and social values.
 It cannot reach the precision of natural sciences but remains a systematic social
science.

Relationship between political science and other science

1. General Relationship

 Political Science is closely linked with History, Sociology, Ethics, Economics,

Jurisprudence, and Public Administration.
 It studies the global political economy and shares a symbiotic relationship with
other social sciences.

2. Political Science and Sociology

 Sociology = Science of society; Political Science = Science of the state.

 Both influence each other:
o Politics depends on social structure (class, caste, religion, customs).
o Sociology gets insights from political institutions.
 Example: Hindu Marriage Act, communal riots, revolutions → have both political
and social dimensions.

3. Political Science and History

 “History without Political Science has no fruit; Political Science without History
has no root.” (Seeley)
 History = past politics, Politics = present history.
 History provides facts & context; Political Science derives laws & principles.
 History = “laboratory of Political Science.”
4. Political Science and Economics

 Economics = study of wealth, Political Science = study of power.

 Both aim at social welfare.
 Earlier, Economics was called Political Economy.
 Government policies like taxation, tariffs, ownership of utilities show the overlap.

5. Political Science and Public Administration

 Political Science = study of state & government.

 Public Administration = implementation of policies.
 “Two sides of the same coin.”
 Politics makes policies → Administration executes them.
 Example: Civil servants draft bills, implement programs.

6. Political Science and Ethics

 Ethics = principles of good life; Politics = realization of common good.

 Close link between law and morality → “What is morally wrong cannot be
politically right.”
 Gandhi: Politics must be guided by truth, love, and non-violence (spiritualized
politics).

7. Political Science and Jurisprudence (Law)

 Political Science = State & Government; Jurisprudence = Law.

 Laws are made, enforced, and implemented by the State.
 Nature of laws differs in democracy vs dictatorship, capitalism vs socialism.

Theories of origin and development of the state

1. Meaning and Origin

 Term “State” comes from Latin word status.

 First used by Machiavelli (1469–1527) in The Prince.
 State = most powerful social institution, natural and universal.
 Aristotle: Man is a social and political animal; state exists for the sake of a good life.

2. Definitions

 Woodrow Wilson: People organized for law within a definite territory.

 Aristotle: Union of families and villages for a self-sufficient good life.
  Burgess: Organized unit of mankind.
 Sidgwick: Association of persons (government + governed) within a definite territory.
 Garner: Community of people in a territory, free from external control, with
organized government.
 Laski: Territorial society divided into government & subjects, with supreme coercive
power.

3. Essential Elements of the State

(A) Physical Bases

1. Population
o People make the state.
o Plato: Ideal number = 5040.
o Aristotle: Population should be large enough to be self-sufficient but small
enough to be well-governed.
o No fixed size in modern states.
2. Territory
o No state without territory (land, water, air-space).
o Needed for citizenship & governance.
o Size varies (India = 32,87,263 sq. km, 2.4% of global area).
o Prof. Elliott: Territorial sovereignty = state’s superiority within boundaries +
freedom from external control.

(B) Political Bases

3. Government
o Working agency of the state; political organization.
o Appadorai: Agency through which state’s will is expressed.
o C.F. Strong: Highest authority needed to make and enforce laws.
4. Sovereignty
o Supreme & final legal authority; no higher power exists.
o Two aspects:
 Internal → Supreme over all citizens & associations.
 External → Independence from foreign control.

4. Characteristics of Sovereignty

 Absoluteness → No legal power above the state.

 Universality → Extends over all persons & associations.
 Permanence → Exists as long as the state exists.
 Indivisibility → Cannot be divided; only one sovereignty in a state.
1. Meaning of Approach

 An approach = way of looking at and explaining politics.

 Decides: problem selection, data collection, and analysis method.

2. Traditional Approaches

1. Comparative Approach
o Aristotle studied 158 constitutions.
o Later used by Montesquieu, De Tocqueville, Bryce.
o Indian Constituent Assembly benefited from it.
o Compares institutions across countries considering social, moral, political, and
economic differences.
2. Historical Approach
o Political institutions grow out of history, not suddenly created.
o To understand present & plan future, study past political systems.
3. Legal Approach
o Politics studied through law and judicial institutions.
o State exists to create & enforce law.
o Sources: constitutions, codes, judicial decisions.
o Applied widely in Europe (Germany, Belgium, France).
4. Institutional Approach
o Focus on formal structures (legislature, executive, judiciary).
o Also informal ones (parties, pressure groups).
o Also called structural approach.
5. Philosophical/Ethical Approach
o Concerned with values, justice, ethics.
o Leaders of Indian National Movement emphasized it.
o Gandhi: Means and ends inseparable → politics as ethics.

3. Modern Approaches

1. Sociological Approach
o State = social organization.
o Studies political culture, kinship, race, religion, language.
o Focus on interest groups and their role.
2. Psychological Approach
o Focus on instincts, habits, emotions, motivations.
o Political behavior influenced by psychology of leaders & citizens.
o Thinkers: Plato, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Bentham.
3. Economic Approach
o Politics influenced by economic factors (wealth, class, production).
o Marx → politics = rooted in economics.
o Strong economy = political strength & stability.
4. System’s Approach
 o Developed by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1920s).
o State = system with structures & sub-structures.
o Studies national & international politics as interacting systems.
5. Input-Output Approach
o Extension of institutional approach.
o Inputs = demands/pressures; Outputs = decisions/policies.
o Political system converts demands into decisions.
6. Behavioural Approach
o Developed after 1940 (Graham Wallas, Arthur Bentley).
o Focus on beliefs, attitudes, actions of individuals.
o Robert Dahl: Makes political science more empirical & scientific.

 Traditional approaches = Historical, Legal, Philosophical, Comparative,

Institutional (focus on norms, values, institutions).
 Modern approaches = Sociological, Psychological, Economic, System, Input-
Output, Behavioural (focus on empirical, scientific, social behavior).

indian context santiparva and kauilayas saptang theory

1. Shanti Parva (Mahabharata) – Theory of State

 Found in the Shanti Parva section of the Mahabharata.

 Explains the origin and purpose of the State in ancient India.
 Key Ideas:
o In the beginning, people lived in a state of nature → chaos, lawlessness,
injustice.
o To end disorder, people selected a King (Raja).
o King was given power to protect dharma (justice, righteousness).
o State was seen as a moral institution, with duty to ensure peace, security, and
justice.
 Basis of the social contract idea in Indian political thought.

2. Kautilya’s Saptanga Theory (Arthashastra)

 Propounded by Kautilya (Chanakya) in Arthashastra.

 State compared to a living organism → just as the body has 7 organs, the state has 7
essential elements.
 Saptanga (Seven Limbs of the State):
1. Swami (King/Ruler) – Head of the state; ensures protection and prosperity.
2. Amatya (Ministers/Officials) – Advisors and administrators to assist the
king.
3. Janapada (Territory & Population) – Land and people forming the basis of
the state.
4. Durga (Fort/Capital) – Physical security, defense, and administrative center.
5. Kosha (Treasury) – Economic resources, wealth, and revenue of the state.
6. Danda (Army/Force) – Military power to defend and enforce law.
 7. Mitra (Allies/Friends) – Foreign relations and diplomacy.
 Emphasis: A state survives only if all seven limbs function properly. Weakness in
any one organ can endanger the state.
 More pragmatic and realistic than the Shanti Parva theory; stresses power,
administration, and security.

3. Comparison in Indian Context

 Shanti Parva → Ethical & moral basis of state; king chosen to protect dharma.
 Saptanga Theory → Practical & administrative framework; state as a scientific
system.
 Together, they show that Indian political thought recognized both the moral
legitimacy and the practical structure of the state.

1. Hindu Concept of State

 Rooted in Dharmashastras, Mahabharata (Shanti Parva), Manusmriti,

Arthashastra (Kautilya).
 Origin of State:
o Initially, people lived in disorder (Matsya Nyaya – “law of the fish” → strong
devour the weak).
o To avoid chaos, people chose a King (Raja) → like a social contract theory.
 Purpose of State:
o Uphold Dharma (justice, righteousness).
o Ensure peace, order, and prosperity.
 King’s Role:
o Seen as divinely sanctioned but bound by Dharma.
o Must protect subjects, collect taxes fairly, punish wrongdoers.
 Kautilya’s Saptanga Theory (7 elements of state):
o Swami (King), Amatya (Ministers), Janapada (Territory/People), Durga
(Fort/Capital), Kosha (Treasury), Danda (Army), Mitra (Allies).
o State as a living organism → survival depends on balance of all elements.
 Nature: Ethical + Pragmatic; blends morality (Shanti Parva) with power-politics
(Arthashastra).

2. Islamic Concept of State

 Rooted in Quran, Hadith, and Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia).

 Origin of State:
o State is not man-made; it is divinely ordained.
o Purpose is to enforce the Will of Allah as revealed in Quran and Sunnah.
 Purpose of State:
o Establish justice (‘adl), maintain peace, and ensure welfare (maslahah).
o Enforce Sharia (Islamic law) in all aspects of life.
 Ruler (Khalifa/Imam):
o Considered vicegerent of Allah on earth.
 o Must govern according to Quran and Hadith, not personal will.
o Accountable to both people and Allah.
 Nature of Authority:
o Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone.
o People exercise authority as a trust (amanah).
 Features:
o Unity of religion and politics (no separation of church and state).
o Shura (consultation) with people in decision-making.
o Equality of all believers (Ummah).

3. Comparison
Aspect Hindu Concept of State Islamic Concept of State

Source of Based on Dharma; King as upholder of Sovereignty belongs to Allah; ruler is His
Authority law vicegerent

Divine ordination (from Quran &

Origin Social contract (to end Matsya Nyaya)
Sunnah)

King (Raja), guided by Dharma & aided

Ruler Khalifa/Imam, guided strictly by Sharia
by ministers

Purpose Protection of Dharma, peace, prosperity Enforcement of Sharia, justice, welfare

Dharma, customs, Arthashastra (secular

Law Sharia (Quran, Hadith, Ijma, Qiyas)
+ religious)

Religion & Sometimes distinguished (practical +

No separation; politics is part of religion
Politics moral views)

Ethical + pragmatic (balance of Dharma

Nature Theocratic (Allah’s will supreme)
& power)