ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IAL
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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1. Atomic Structure and the

Periodic Table
1.1. Atoms and Isotopes
Atoms consist of protons, electrons and neutrons.
Protons have a charge of +1 and relative mass of 1.
Neutrons have a charge of 0 and relative mass of 1.
Electrons have a charge of -1 and relative mass of 1.2. Atomic Orbitals and Electronic
1/1840.
Configuration
This is how an atom is represented:
Overview
Electrons exist in shells around the nucleus of an atom.

If X is carbon, the symbol would be ‘C’, the mass number

would be 12 and the atomic number would be 6.
The mass number is the number of protons and
neutrons.
The atomic number is the number of protons only.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons
(they have the same atomic number but different mass
number).
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical
properties because they have the same electronic
configuration, i.e; the number of electrons in the
outer shell (which determine the chemical properties)
are the same.

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The first shell is titled ‘K shell’ (can hold 2 electrons). An arrow represents one electron.
The second shell is titled ‘L shell’ (can hold 8 electrons). Only two electrons can exist in one orbital (box).
The third shell is titled ‘M shell’ (can hold 18 electrons). According to Hund’s Rule, electrons occupy the orbitals
The fourth shell is titled ‘N shell’ (can hold 32 electrons). singly before pairing takes place. This means that two
This can go up to more than 7 shells. electrons cannot exist in one orbital when there are
The shells are further divided into sub shells called s, p, d other empty orbitals in different subshells.
and f and can hold 2, 6, 10 and 14 electrons respectively. According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, two electrons
The K shell, for example, has a configuration of 1s2 can only exist in one orbital if they have opposite spins
subshell (2 represents the number of electrons it can (hence the up and down arrows).
hold) so the K shell holds 2 electrons. For an element with more than 18 electrons, like calcium,
The L shell will have a configuration of 2s2 2p6 so it the electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
can hold a total of 8 electrons. rather than 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 .
Similarly, the M shell has a configuration of This is because the 3d subshell is at a higher energy
3s2 3p6 3d10 and it can hold 18 electrons. level than the 4s subshell, thus the electrons tend to
These sub shells can be divided even further to orbitals. occupy 4s before 3d.
Namely, the p and d subshell can be divided further into Chromium (24) and copper (29) are two anomalies when
3 and 5 orbitals respectively (each orbital holding 2 it comes to their electronic configurations
electrons only). Chromium: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
The s orbital has a spherical shape while the p orbital has Note how rather than 4s2 it is given as 4s1 , this is
a dumbbell-like shape. because the 3d orbital takes an electron from the 4s
orbital to complete its shell (the d subshell has 5
Electronic Configuration orbitals).
Copper: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
The electronic configuration of an element is the number of Similarly, the 3d subshell of copper takes an electron
electrons it holds in the order of successive shells (K, L, M…). from 4s to obtain a complete shell.
The electronic configuration of magnesium (an element 3d4 and 3d9 do not exist in electron configurations
with 12 electrons) is 2, 8, 2. of elements, only ions.
2 electrons in the K shell, 8 in the M shell and 2 in the L Electronic configuration can also be written by using
shell. symbols for noble gases:
When dealing with the subshells and orbitals, however, Neon has 10 electrons (1s2 2s2 2p6 )and so can be
the configuration becomes: used for configurations for elements with more than
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 10 electrons.
Example, magnesium (12): [Ne] 3s2 and manganese
The electronic configuration of an element can also be (25): [Ar] 4s2 3d5 because argon has 18 electrons.
represented using box notation: The following depicts the electronic configuration of
some common elements:
The box notation configuration for oxygen is:

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There are four stages a vaporised sample undergoes in

a mass spectrometer:
Ionisation: the sample is bombarded by high energy
electrons, which removes an electron and form an
ion (only ions can be affected by the magnetic and
electric fields in the following stages).
Acceleration: an electric field speeds up the ions, so
they’ll have the same kinetic energy and will travel in
the same direction.
Deflection: an electromagnetic field changes the
course of the ions, and the magnitude of deflection
depends on the mass of the ions (lower masses
deflect more and greater masses deflect the least).
1.3. Mass Spectrometry Detection: the ions that have just the right mass-to-
charge ratio reach the screen and are detected,
A mass spectrometer is an instrument that measures the producing a mass spectrum.
mass-to-charge ratio of ions. A mass spectrum of an element provides information
It can be used for various applications, including carbon about the isotopes and their relative abundances.
dating, checking for drug use in sports, etc. From the details provided in the mass spectrum, it is
possible to calculate the relative molecular mass of that
element:

The above mass spectrum belongs to bromine, which

has two isotopes: Br-81 and Br-79.
The peaks at the right are molecular masses of 160
(79+81), 158 (79+79) and 162 (81+81).
The ratio of Br-79 to Br-81 is 1:1, which explains why the
molecular masses have a ratio of 1:2:1 (approximately).

1.4. Ionisation Energies

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The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to

remove one electron from each atom in one mole of
gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions
(measured in kJ mol− ).
The first ionisation energy of an element, M, is:
M(g) → M+ (g) + e−
Second ionisation energy:
M+ (g) → M2+ (g) + e−
The outer electrons are removed before the inner ones
as the electrons are harder to remove the closer they are
to the nucleus.
The successive ionisation energies of an element
increase because the electrons removed progressively The vertical columns are called groups.
get closer to the nucleus. The horizontal rows are called periods.
The periodic table also has blocks:
The s-block consists of elements in groups 1 and 2
The outer electrons in an s-block element are in
an s-orbital.
The p-block consists of elements in groups 3 to 8
The outer electrons in a p-block element are in a
p-orbital.
the d-block consists of elements Sc to Zn in period 4
and Y to Cd in period 5.

Periodic Properties
There are certain recurring patterns or trends in the periodic
table.
The graph shows the successive ionisation energies of
sodium.
The log value of I.E. is used because the actual values are
too large to plot.
The innermost two electrons are the hardest to remove,
and the outermost electron is the easiest.
The graph shows that sodium has three shells; this is
represented by a “big jump” after the first electron and
after the ninth electron.
The electronic configuration of sodium is thus 2, 8, 1

1.5. The Periodic Table

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The atomic radii of the elements increase down the

group and decrease across the period. 2.1. Ionic Bonds
The atomic radii is the distance from the center of the
nucleus to the outer electron of an atom. Ionic bonding is the strong electrostatic force of
attraction between positive and negative ions.
The trend is explained by the increasing number of
Ionic bonds typically occur between metals and non-
protons across the period, which increases the
effective nuclear charge (the force of attraction metals.
between the nucleus and the electrons). All elements try to achieve a full outer shell of eight
Thus, the outer electrons are “pulled” closer to the electrons (octet rule).
Metals usually lose electrons and are thus called positive
nucleus, reducing the atomic radii in the process
ions or cations while non metals usually gain electrons
(additionally, the number of shells remains the
same). and are thus called negative ions or anions.
Despite the increment in the number of protons Dot and cross diagrams are used to represent the
down the group, the size decreases because the formation of ionic bonds.
The ionic bond between sodium chloride:
number of shells increases, shielding effect
(repulsion of outer electrons away from the core
electrons) increases, meaning the outer electron is
further away from the nucleus.
The first ionisation energies increase across the period
and decrease down the group.

By losing one electron from its outer shell, sodium

remains with eight electrons in the outer shell.
Similarly, by gaining one electron, chlorine has also
achieved the octet rule.

The structure of NaCl:

As the effective nuclear charge increases, the ionisation

energy increases (across the period) because it is harder
to remove an electron.
Down the group, the number of shells increases, which
increases the shielding effect and decreases the
attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons,
thus making it easier to remove an electron so the
ionisation energy decreases.

2. Bonding and Structure

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There are certain factors that affect the strength of the Down the group, the ionic radii increases due to the
ionic bond: increasing number of shells.
The strength of the bond is inversely proportional to Across the period, the ionic radii (for both cations and
the ionic radii (size of the ion). anions) decrease due to the increased number of
The strength of the bond is directly proportional to protons.
the charge of the ions. Isoelectronic ions are those with the same number of
Anions are always bigger than its parent atom while electrons and electronic configuration (M g 2+ and F − ).
cations are always smaller than its parent atom. Polarisation is the distortion of the electron density of a
Example: Cl− is larger than Cl and N a+ is smaller negative ion (anion).
than N a. Polarising power is the ability of a positive ion (cation) to
This is because of the attraction between the nucleus distort the electron density of its neighbouring negative
and electrons. ion (anion).
Ionis structures form giant ionic lattice in the solid state. Cations (small in size) are stronger than anions in an
ionic bond, so electrons are attracted more toward the
Evidence for the Existence of Ions cations, distorting the electron cloud of anions in the
process.
Migration of ions observed during the electrolysis of ionic
Note that anions do not give up their electrons, but
compounds is a convincing evidence for the existence of
rather only lean toward cations.
ions.
The compound being decomposed by the passing of
electricity is called the electrolyte.
When direct current is passed through a green solution
of copper (II) chromate (IV) solution in a U-tube, blue
copper ions (positive) migrate to the negative electrode
and yellow chromate ions (negative) migrate to the
positive electrode.
The negative electrode is the cathode and the positive
electrode is the anode.
Cations have the polarising power and anions are
polarised.
Factors affecting polarisation:
For cation: (i) small size (ii) large charge
For example, M g 2+ is more polarising than N a+
For anion: (i) large size (ii) large charge
For example, O2− is polarised more than S −

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Ionic Radii and Polarisation

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They have high melting and boiling points.

A large amount of energy is required to overcome the
strong electrostatic force of attraction between the
ions.
They cannot conduct electricity in the solid state.
They only conduct electricity in molten or aqueous
states when the lattice breaks and ions are free to
move and carry charge.
There are no free ions to carry charge in the solid
state.
Many are soluble in water.
The energy to break apart the lattice is supplied by
hydration.
The distance between the nuclei of two covalently
The diagram depicts the hydration of KCl by water
bonded atoms is called the bond length.
molecules:
The strength of a covalent bond is affected inversely by
the bond length.
A triple bond, despite being shorter than a double or
single bond, is generally stronger than both.

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract
shared pair of electrons toward itself in a covalent bond.
Across the period, the electronegativity increases
because the effective nuclear charge increases, the
size of atoms decreases and the shielding effect
remains the same.
Down the group, the electronegativity decreases
2.2. Covalent Bonding because the effective nuclear charge decreases, the
size of atoms increases and the shielding effect
Covalent bond is the electrostatic force of attraction increases.
between two nuclei and the shared pair of electrons. The distribution of electrons in the electron density map
Covalent bonds arise from the overlap of atomic orbitals. of similar atoms (like Cl2 ) will show no distortion and is
An end-on-end overlap forms a sigma (σ) bond and a
​

evenly distributed.
sideways overlap forms a pi (𝛑) bond. Conversely, when there is a difference in
Sigma bonds are symmetrical and in line with the electronegativity, the electron density map is unevenly
nucleus, it forms single bonds. distributed in favour of the most electronegative atom in
Pi bonds are non-symmetrical and not in line with the the bond (like in HCl where Cl is more electronegative
nucleus, it is responsible for double and triple bonds. than H).
A pi bond is weaker than a sigma bond because pi Such bonds are called polar covalent bonds, where
bonds have poor orbital overlap. the more electronegative atom has a partial negative
A pi bond always follows a sigma bond. charge:

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This is the dot and cross diagram for HCl, representing a

full outer shell for chlorine (octet rule).
Octet rule should be met in order to obtain stability.
There are some compounds exempted from the octet
rule, however.
Elements like Si, P, S, Cl can have more than eight
electrons (they are in the third row, so they can have
up to 18 electrons).
Elements like C, N, O and F can have an incomplete
shell but nor more than eight electrons.

The Paling scale (0-4) is the numerical scale used to Dative Covalent Bond
measure electronegativities.
0 is the least electronegative and 4 is the most A dative bond is formed when two atoms share a pair of
electronegative. electrons, both electrons being donated by one atom.
Halogens are the most electronegative group in the
periodic table and fluorine is the most electronegative
element.
When the difference in electronegativity between two
atoms in the covalent bond is more than 1.9 (approx.),
the bond becomes ionic.

Dot and Cross Diagrams

The diagram shows a dative covalent bond formed in
Covalent bonds can be represented using dot and cross
diagrams (lewis structures): ammonium.
Al2 Cl6 is another example of a dative bond.
​ ​

Here, the empty orbital of Al overlaps with the orbital of

Cl containing a lone pair.

Shapes of Molecules and Ions

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Diamond
The electron-pair repulsion theory states that:
The shape of a molecule or ion is caused by repulsion
between pairs of electrons, that surround the central
atom.
The electron pairs tend to occupy areas around the
central atom so that the repulsion between them is
at a minimum.
lone pair-lone pair repulsion is greater than bond
pair-bond pair repulsion.
The table shows the shape and bond angles for
molecules and ions:

Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms

(sigma bonds only)
Giant, 3-D, rigid, tetrahedral arrangement, with bond
angle= 109.5∘
Extremely hard due to strong C-C bonds
High melting point due to great number of C-C bonds

Graphite:

The presence of a lone pair (electron pair not involved in

bonding) reduces the bond angle by about 2.5∘ .

Polarity of Molecule
When a separation of charges occur in a covalent
molecule due to the difference in electronegativity, it is
referred to as a dipole.
If a molecule is symmetrical, the dipoles cancel out and
the molecule is non-polar despite having polar bonds.
The table below gives information about bond polarity: Layered structure
Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms
Shape Polarity Explanation (sigma bonds only)
Linear Non-polar Dipoles cancel out
Trignonal Planar Non-polar Dipoles cancel out Interlocking hexagonal rings
Tetrahedral May or may not be polar
Dipoles may cancel out (like in CCl4 ) or may
​

Layers can easily slide over each other when gas

reinforce one another (like in CHCl3 ) ​

molecules are absorbed on the surface (used as a

Trigonal Pyramidal Polar Dipoles reinforce one another
V-shaped Polar Dipoles reinforce one another lubricant)
Fair conductor of electricity
2.3. Giant Covalent Lattices High melting temperature
Weak forces despite the giant covalent structure
Giant Covalent Lattices consist of several atoms bonded Bond angle=120∘
to each other covalently.
The stricture and information of some giant covalent
lattices:

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Graphene:
High melting temperature
A lot of energy is needed to overcome the strong
electrostatic force of attraction.
When there are more delocalised electrons per atom,
the melting temperature increases.
Good electrical conductivity
Delocalised electrons can carry a charge when a
potential difference is applied.
Good thermal conductivity
They can conduct heat.
Malleability
Very thin sheet; one atom thick (used in electrical Can be hammered into thin sheets.
devices) Layers are able to slide over each other while still
Similar properties of graphite being held by delocalised electrons.
Single hexagonal layer Ductility
Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 others They can be drawn into wires.
It has delocalised electrons Bond angle=120∘
2.5. Structure and Properties
2.4. Metallic Bonding
The table below gives information about how the properties
Metallic bonding refers to strong electrostatic force of of a material depends on its structure:
attraction between positive ions and delocalised Giant Ionic Giant Covalent Giant Metallic Simple
Molecular
electrons. Bonds Present Strong Ionic Bonds Strong Covalent Strong Metallic Weak Covalent
Bonds Bonds Bonds
Melting/Boiling Points High Very High Fairly High Low
Hardness Hard but brittle Very Hard Hard but Soft
malleable
Electrical Conductivity Conducts in molten or Non-conductor Conductor Non-conductor
aqueous states
Solubility in water Often soluble Insoluble Insoluble Generally
insoluble
Solubility in non-polar
solvents Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble Usually soluble

3. Alkanes
3.1. Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Metallic compounds have:

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The only condition for a compound to be an organic The rules for naming are assigned by the IUPAC
compound is that is contains a carbon atom. (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) and
Hydrocarbons are a set of organic compounds with they are as follows:
carbons and hydrogens only. Locate the longest chain (parent chain).
Alkanes are organic compounds with the general formula Count the number of carbon atoms in this chain and
Cn H2n+2 (n is the number of carbon atoms).
​ ​ assign the appropriate root word.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they do When locating the branch, make sure you start
not have a carbon-carbon double bond and only contain counting from the carbon that is closest to the
carbons and hydrogens. branch.
The lack of carbon-carbon double bonds indicate that all Prioritize the functional group (if) present.
alkanes contain sigma (σ) bonds only. The name of the compound must begin with the
Methane, CH4 , is the simplest alkane.
​
branch present.
Here, one carbon atom is bonded to four hydrogen Prefixes such as di, tri and tetra are used in the case
atoms (remember: carbon can make four bonds). of multiple similar branches or functional groups.
In the case where two branches are located in the
same position, the branches are names in
alphabetical order.

Functional Groups
Functional groups are atoms or groups of atoms that
determine the properties of the compound they are
attached to.
Homologous series is a group of organic compounds
with the same general formula, functional groups and
chemical and physical properties.
The suffix of the name of an organic compound depends
on the functional group present:
Nomenclature and Representation
Functional Group Suffix
Alkane -ane
The names of organic compounds reveal a lot. Alkene -ene
The number of carbon atoms, the number and position Alcohol
Aldehyde
-ol
-al
of branches (if there are any), the functional groups Carboxylic Acid -oic acid
present, etc. are information one can get from the Ketone -one

names assigned to the organic compound.

According to the number of carbon atoms, the Methods of Representation
compound can have different root words.
Displayed formulae:
No. of carbon atoms Word root
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-
9 Non-
10 Dec-

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This is the displayed formula of butane.

Every bond is shown in solid lines.

Skeletal Formulae:

This is the skeletal formula of 1,2-propandiol.

Every intersect represents a carbon atom.
The bonds between carbons and hydrogens are not
shown. (ii) skeletal structure

Structural Formulae:

The structural formula for this displayed structure is

CH3 ​C H2 C H(CH3 ​)CH2 ​C H3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The general formula for cycloalkanes Cn H2n like that of ​ ​

The branches (in this case; the methyl group) is written alkenes. Despite the same general formula, cycloalkanes
inside brackets. do not behave like alkenes do.
Molecular Formulae:
Isomers
C4 H10 , C6 H12 , C5 H10 etc.
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

No information about branches will be give by the

molecular formula. formula but with different arrangements of atoms or
groups.
Empirical Formulae: Alkanes exhibit structural isomerism.
Isomers of hexane:
The empirical formulae for the above molecular
formulae are C2 H5 , C3 H6 , CH2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of

the compound.

3.2. Cyclic Structures and Isomers

Cycloalkanes
Alkanes can be arranged in ring-like structures.
These are called cycloalkanes.

Cyclobutane:
(i) displayed structure

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Reduction is the opposite of oxidation.

C2 H 4 + H 2 ​ → C2 H 6
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Alkanes do not usually undergo reduction reactions.

Substitution Reactions:
When two reactants come together to form two
products (by displacement).
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + HCl
​ ​ ​

Alkanes undergo free radical substitution [type:

substitution, mechanism: free radical].

3.4. Free Radical Substitution Reaction

Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but
different structural arrangement. Bond Fission
Example: butane and methylpropane
Structural isomerism can be of two types: (i) Chain Bond breaking is called bond fission.
Isomerism (ii) Position Isomerism They can be of two types:
Chain isomers have different chain lengths like that
seen in butane and methylpropane. (i) homolytic fission
Position isomers differ in the position of double
bonds, functional groups or branches like 2- Homolytic fission is even bond breaking.
ethylpentane and 3-ethylpentane. Cl2 → Cl∙ + Cl∙
​

The electrons shared in the covalent bond are split

evenly between both chlorine atoms, thus forming
3.3. Chemical Reactions free radicals.
Free radicals are species with an unpaired electron
Organic compounds undergo addition, oxidation, reduction
and is represented with a dot (Cl∙ ).
and substitution reactions.
Addition Reactions: (ii) heterolytic fission
When two reactants come together to form a single Heterolytic fission is uneven bond breaking.
product. HCl → H + + Cl−
C2 ​H4 ​+ Br2 ​→ C2 H4 B r2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The electrons shared between the two atoms in the

General equation: A + B → C covalent bond are split unevenly, with the chlorine
Alkanes do not undergo addition reactions due to the receiving both of them (since it is more
absence of multiple bonds in their structure. electronegative), thus forming ions.
Addition polymerisation is a type of reaction where large
numbers of monomers (reactants) form a polymer Mechanism for Free Radical Substitution Reaction
(product).
Alkanes react with halogens or hydrogen halides in the
Oxidation Reactions: presence of sunlight (UV light).
Organic compounds can be oxidised (gain oxygen or lose CH4 + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + HCl
​ ​ ​

hydrogen) by reacting with inorganic reagents like certain There are three steps to this reaction:
oxidising agents [O]. Initiation
Common oxidising agents are K2 C r2 O7 and KM nO4 .
​ ​ ​

Combustion of alkanes is an example of an oxidation

reaction.
Reduction Reactions:

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The arrow used here is called a half-curly arrow and it

represents the movement of one electron.
Sunlight is used in the initiation step of the reaction to
provide energy for the homolytic bond fission of
chlorine. 3.6. Fuels
Only little sunlight is necessary because the chlorine
radical can be recycled. A fuel is a source of energy.
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons and have very
Propagation little use if unprocessed.
Crude oil undergoes fractional distillation, cracking and
CH4 + Cl∙ → CH3⋅ + HCl
​ ​

eventually reforming to produce alkanes which are in

CH3∙ + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + Cl∙
​ ​ ​ demand.
CH3 Cl + Cl∙ → CH2 C l∙ + HCl
​ ​
Fuels are typically produced from crude oils through
CH2 C l∙ + Cl2 → CH2 C l2 + Cl∙
​ ​ ​ ​
fractional distillation. But, this method is non-renewable
Propagation can continue until all the hydrogen is and toxic.
replaced by chlorine. In fractional distillation, the compounds evaporate
and condense. The separation of the compounds into
Termination fractions depend on the difference in boiling
temperatures.
Cl∙ + CH2 Cl∙ → CH2 Cl2
​ ​ ​

Termination marks the end of the reaction.

Two free radicals react and form a stable species, thus
terminating the reaction.
H ∙ is never formed.

3.5. Hazards, Risks and Risk Assessment

Hazards are fixed, bust risk can vary.
Hazards refers to the innate properties of a chemical.
Risk refers to how the chemicals are used.
Risk assessment refers to identifying, and analysing
potential risks to minimise them.
Hazard symbols and their meanings:

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After fractional distillation, long hydrocarbon chains (less S + O2 → SO2 ​ ​

demand) undergo cracking to produce shorter chains. 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

​ ​ ​

The catalyst used for cracking is usually zeolite (Al, Si and SO3 + H2 O → H2 S O4 ANDSO2 + H2 O → H2 S O3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

O). N + O2 → 2NO
Possible Reactions:
​

2NO + O2 → 2N O2
Alkane → Alkene + Alkane
​ ​

2N O2 + H2 O → HN O2 + HN O3
Alkane → 2Alkene + Hydrogen
​ ​ ​ ​

Being one of the major sources of air pollution, exhaust

If an alkane is one of the products, hydrogen cannot
systems of cars have catalytic converters that improve
be another possible product.
the air quality in the presence of catalysts like rhodium,
Example: C8 H18 → C4 H8 + C4 H10
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

platinum or palladium.
Reforming follows cracking and it involves the conversion Carbon monoxide and other unburnt hydrocarbons
of long, unbranched hydrocarbons to branched/cyclic (harmful) react with nitrogen oxides to form carbon
hydrocarbons (the latter gives more energy). dioxide and water (less harmful).
The catalyst used usually is platinum.
Example: C4 H10 → C4 H8 + H2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Alternative Fuels
Combustion of Alkanes There are increasing attempts to produce fuels from.
renewable sources (sources that do not necessarily run
Alkanes undergo complete combustion in the presence out).
of excess oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide. carbon-neutral sources that gives out the carbon dioxide
C5 H12 + 8O2 → 5CO2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

during combustion that it absorbed in its lifetime so that

It helps to start by balancing the carbon, followed by the total amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
the hydrogen and eventually oxygen. has no change.
In the presence of limited oxygen, alkanes undergo Trees are carbon neutral
incomplete combustion, producing water and carbon Bioalcohols (like bioethanol) , despite being produced
monoxide. from plants, are not carbon-neutral as the processing of
C5 H12 + 5.5O2 → 5CO + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​

these plants to the factory level involves the use of

Carbon monoxide is a harmful gas that binds with the energy and release of carbon dioxide.
haemoglobin in the blood instead of oxygen, thus
causing death. 3.7. Comparing Fuels
Acid Rain
Biofuels Fossil Fuels
Renewable Non-renewable
Acid rain (rain with acidic pH) can be caused by both Closer to being carbon neutral Far from being carbon neutral
oxides of sulfur and that of nitrogen. Much land is required for growing (prompts
ethical concerns)
Comes from underground sources, so no land
is needed
Low yield Significantly high yield
Sulfur: Costs in growing, processing and transport Costs in exploration and drilling

4. Alkenes

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Alkenes are simply hydrocarbons with one or more Geometric Isomerism is one of the two types of
carbon-carbon double bond. Examples: ethene, but-1- stereoisomerism.
ene, pentene, and so on. It arises when compounds differ due to differently
They have a general formula of Cn H2n
​ ​
arranged atoms or groups across a C=C bond.
The C=C bond in an alkene molecule consists of both a This type of isomerism is possible in alkenes because of
sigma (σ ) and a pi (π ) bond (a pi bond always follows a the restricted rotation about the C=C bond, meaning
sigma bond). there can be no rotation around the double bond.
A sigma bond indicates an end-to-end overlap. For geometric isomerism to occur in alkenes, non-
A pi bond indicates a sideways overlap and is typically identical groups must be attached to each carbon atom
weaker than a sigma bond. in the C=C bond.
For example, you cannot say chloroethene exhibits
geometric isomerism because of its identical
hydrogen atoms.
Geometric isomers can be named using the prefixes -cis
and -trans.
-cis is used when the identical atoms/groups are on
the same side
-trans is used when the identical atoms/groups are
on different sides.

The presence of the relatively weaker pi bond in an

alkene makes it much more reactive than an alkane.

4.1. Geometric Isomerism

Isomers are compounds with the same molecular
formula but with different arrangements of atoms or
groups.
Alkenes exhibit both structural and stereoisomerism.
Stereoisomers share the same structure but differ in the
spatial or three-dimensional arrangements of their
atoms.

Isomers of butene:

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The cis-trans naming system can only be used in the Reactant: Hydrogen
presence of one set of non-identical groups attached to Catalyst: Nickel
each carbon in the C=C bond.
In cases of two or more non-identical atoms/groups, the
E-Z naming system is used.
The E-Z naming system is more comprehensive than cis-
trans system and here’s how it works:
Using the Priority Rule, the priority of the different
groups/atoms should be determined.
Priority is determined by the atomic number. Hydration:
Example: H has a priority of 1, CH3 has a priority
​

of (12+1x3) 15. Here, CH3 has a higher priority

​
Reactant: Water
than H. Catalyst: H+ (phosphoric acid/Sulphuric acid)
Determine the atom or group with the higher priority
on each of the two carbons.
Finally, check if the higher priority groups are on the
same side (Z isomer) or on opposite sides (E isomer)
of the carbon.

Hydration:

Reactant: Any halogen

Catalyst: (NA)

Oxidation of alkenes:
4.2. Addition Reaction
Addition reactions in alkenes typically involve the
breaking of the pi (𝛑) bond and replacing it with another
atom.
C2 H4 + Br2 → C2 H4 Br2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Brown bromine water, when added to an alkene,

undergoes an addition reaction, causing the
solution to become colourless (decolourised). This
is used as a common test for alkenes.

Addition Reactions of an alkene:

Hydrogenation:

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This example is one of both addition and oxidation,

producing a diol (two hydroxyl/-OH groups).
Similar to how H+ represents an acid, [O] represents an
oxidising agent.
The oxidising agent (like potassium permanganate)
produces an oxygen atom and the water in the solution
contributes another oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms.
In the reaction with KMN O4 , purple potassium
Despite being the same atoms, Br − Br is a dipole
​

permanganate turns colourless and so, can be used as a

chemical test for alkenes (similar to bromine water). because of the induced dipole forces.
In the above example, both the minor and major
products would be the same.
4.3. Mechanism of Addition Reaction On the other hand, if the electrophile was H − Br, the
Alkenes undergo electrophilic addition reactions. This major product would be 2-bromopropane and the minor
product would be 1-bromopropane.
reaction involves addition and an attack by an
Carbocations:
electrophile.
An electrophile accepts or seeks an electron pair
from another atom or molecule during a chemical
reaction.
Example: C2 H4 + HBr → C2 H5 B r
​ ​ ​ ​

Here, HBr serves as an electrophile

Complete reaction of an alkene with a hydrogen halide:
Diagram (A) is a primary carbocation, having one alkyl
group attached to the carbon with the positive charge.
Diagram (B) is a secondary carbocation, having two alkyl
groups attached to the positive carbon.
The order of stability of carbocations from the least to
most stable is as follows:

Primary carbocation < secondary carbocation < tertiary

carbocation

H − Br is a dipole (separation of charges), with H being As a result, the major product arises from the
partial positive and Br being partial negative. attachment of the negative part of the electrophile to the
Hydrogen halides and halogens react in this same way. most stable carbocation in the alkene molecule.
When dealing with alkenes other than ethene, which is a
symmetrical molecule, it is important to consider the 4.4. Addition Polymers
Markovnikov’s Rule.
According to this rule, generally, the partial negative part Polymerisation Reactions
of the electrophile will attach itself to the carbon with the
fewer number of hydrogens. Alkene molecules used in polymerisation are referred to
This forms what is called the “major product” as monomers.
The remaining products are called “minor products” Ethene monomers form poly(ethene) or polythene
Example: Monomer: the building blocks of a polymer.

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Repeating unit: the sequence of atoms repeating in the As the ratio of C:H atoms are same for a monomer and
polymer (always depicted without the double bond). its respective polymer, both have the same empirical
formula.
Polymerisation is a process with 100% atom economy
because no side products are formed.

4.5. Dealing With Polymer Waste

Polymers are lightweight, unreactive, cheap and can be
manufactured on a large scale. This is what makes them
desirable.
Incineration (burning) is one of the methods to get rid of
polymer waste.
Incineration, though widely used, leads to the release of
toxic and greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide that
Polymer: the ultimate product of addition polymerisation contribute to global warming.
reaction and can be n number of chains long. Due to the increased awareness of the harmful effects of
polymers, scientists are developing biodegradable
polymers that can be broken down by microbes.

5. Formulae, Equations and

Amount of Substance
5.1. Atoms, Elements, and Molecules
Element:

Chemically, the simplest substances that cannot be

n represents the number of repeating units broken down using chemical reactions
While alkenes are normally drawn with 120° angles, Atom:
polymer structures should be drawn with 90° angles.
The smallest part of an element that has the properties
of that element

Molecule:

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A particle made of two or more atoms bonded together Chemical equations should be balanced to ensure that
the number of atoms of each element in the reactants is
Molecule of an element: equal to the number of atoms of each element in the
A molecule that contains atoms of the same element products
This is done by adding coefficients that denote the
Molecules of a compound: number of the particular molecule participating in a
reaction
A molecule that contains atoms of two or more different For example:
elements H2 S O4 + N aOH → N a2 S O4 + H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

There are two sodium atoms on the right (product)

Compound:
side. Thus, N aOH should be multiplied by 2 to
a substance containing atoms of different elements ensure that the amount of sodium atoms is equal on
combined together the left and right sides of the reaction
Thus: H2 S O4 + 2N aOH → N a2 S O4 + H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Ion: Now, the sodium atoms are equal; counting the

A species consisting of one or more atoms joined number of oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H ) atoms
together and having a positive or negative charge would show that the left side of the reaction has two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom more than the
Monoatomic ion: right side. Thus, H2 O should also be doubled
​

This results in the final equation: H2 S O4 +

Ions that are made up of single atoms
​ ​

2N aOH → N a2 S O4 + 2H2 O with both sides

​ ​ ​

Diatomic ion: having the same number of atoms of each element

Ions that are made up of 2 atoms State Symbols

Polyatomic ions: When required, state symbols should be added to the
right of each molecule in a chemical formula to denote
Ions that are made up of 3 or more atoms
its state of matter during the reaction:
(s) is used to denote solid
5.2. Equations (l) is used to denote liquid
(g ) is used to denote gas
Writing Chemical Equations (aq ) is used to denote an aqueous state, that is, if the
Chemical equations show the molar amount of reactants molecule is dissolved in water
that react to form a molar amount of product An example of state symbols being used in a reaction:
When writing chemical equations, we must: 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3 (s) → CaCl2 (aq) +​ ​

use chemical symbols instead of names H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)

​ ​

ensure our chemical equations are balanced

include state symbols in needed Arrows in Equations
use the correct type of arrow

Using Chemical Symbols

For simple compounds, the chemical formula should be
used instead of the name
For example:
water is H2 O
​

iron(II) sulphate is F eSO4

​

calcium carbonate is CaCO3 ​

The chemical formula of each element can be found in

the periodic table

Balancing Chemical Equations

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The reactions above all involve the → symbol as the Acids react with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen
reactions all go to completion. However, some reactions, gas
especially reactions in organic chemistry, will not a general equation would be: metal + acid → salt +
complete as the products will react to form the reactants hydrogen
when the concentration of the products is high. Thus, Example: 2HCl(aq) + M g(s) → M gCl2 (aq) + ​

these reactions will involve the ⇋ symbol to show that H2 (g)

​

the reaction will not go to completion and is reversible.

Example: Reactions with Metal Oxides and Insoluble Metal
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇋ 2N H3 (g)
​ ​ ​

Hydroxides
Writing Ionic Equations Both of these reactions will react to form salts and water
The reactivity of the metal does not matter in these
The ionic equation shows only the ions involved in a reactions due to the reacting species being the metal
reaction and does not show any ions that do not ions instead of the metal atoms
participate in a reaction, otherwise known as a spectator The general equation would be: metal oxide/hydroxide +
ion acid → salt + water
Steps to writing an ionic equation: Example:
1. write out chemical formulas of ionic compounds Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2H + (aq) → Zn2+ 2+(aq) +
​

as ions if they are in an aqueous state H2 O(l)

2. remove the ions if they are present on both sides
​

of the reaction Reactions with Alkali

Example:
N aOH(aq) + HN O3 (aq) → N aN O3 (aq) +
​ ​
Acids react with alkalis to form salt and water
H2 O(l)​ A general equation would be: alkali + acid → salt + water
The chemical compounds can be written as ions: Example:
N a+ (aq) + HO− (aq) + H + (aq) + HCl + N aOH → N aCl + H2 O ​

N O3− (aq) → N a+ (aq) + N O3− (aq) + H2 O(l)

​ ​ ​
An ionic equation for a reaction between acid and alkalis
Notice H2 O is not broken down as it is not an ionic
​
will always be: H + + OH − → H2 O ​

compound in an aqueous state

Hence, after removing N a+ and N O3− as they ​
Reactions with Carbonates
appear at both sides of the reaction, we are left with:
carbonates are chemical compounds with a CO32− group
H + (aq) + HO− (aq) → H2 O(l)
​

acids will react with metal carbonates to produce salt,

​

water and carbon dioxide

Writing Ionic Half-Equations
this is shown by: metal carbonate + acid → salt + water +
Ionic half-equations are used when referring to redox carbon dioxide
reactions, where reduction and oxidation occur Example: M gCO3 + H2 S O4 → M gSO4 +
​ ​ ​ ​

simultaneously H2 O + CO2
​ ​

Example: 2H + (aq) + 2e− → H2 (g)

5.4. Reactions with
​

5.3. Reactions Hydrogencarbonates

Reactions with Metals (Acid)

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metal hydrogen carbonates will react with acids to For example, potassium can displace sodium in a
produce carbon dioxide, water, and salt solution of sodium hydroxide as it is higher in the metal
hydrogencarbonates are compounds with the HCO3− ​
reactivity scale
group
the general equation is: metal hydrogen carbonate + acid 5.7. Displacement reactions involving
→ salt + carbon dioxide + water
halogens
5.5. Displacement reactions as with metals, halogens will displace each other based
on their reactivity (more reactive halogens will displace
displacement reactions are when a chemical species less reactive halogens)
replaces another chemical species in it’s original going down group 17, the reactivity of halogens
compound decreases
displacement reactions are redox reactions since the thus, fluorine can displace any halogen from its solution,
reagents undergo oxidation and reduction whereas iodine can only displace halogens below it
simultaneously
Example: Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
Example:
​ ​

M g + CuSO4 → Cu + M gSO4
​ ​

Precipitation
in the above reaction, Cu is displaced by M g
in terms of oxidation numbers, the oxidation number of Precipitation: a reaction where a solid is formed from
Cu changes from +2 in CuSO4 and 0 in Cu
​
reactants, not in a solid state
the oxidation number of M g changes from 0 in M g to
+2 in M gSO4 ​
Chemical Test for Carbon Dioxide
thus Cu undergoes reduction while M g undergoes
Carbon dioxide could be tested through a precipitation
oxidation
reaction involving limewater
The reaction occurs as follows: CO2 (g) +
5.6. Displacement reactions in metals
​

Ca(OH)2 (aq) → CaCO3 (s) + H2 O(l)

​ ​ ​

CaCO3 , which does not dissolve in water, is formed

in metals, the more reactive metal will displace the less
​

from the reaction

reactive metal in a solution
the reactivity of metals is shown in the metal reactivity Thus, the limewater turns cloudy
series
5.8. Chemical test for Sulphates
compounds containing sulphate groups can be identified
using barium ions, which can be supplied using barium
nitrate or barium chloride
barium ions will displace the metal ion bonded to the
sulphate group and form barium sulphate, which is
insoluble, forming a precipitate
Example: Ba(OH)2 (aq) + H2 SO4 (aq) →
​ ​ ​

BaSO4 (s) 2H2 O(l)

​

5.9. Relative Masses

Relative Atomic Mass
Ar ​

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relative atomic mass (RAM) is the weighted mean Calculations using Reacting Masses
(average) mass of an atom compared to 12 1 the mass of a
​

12 C isotope using the concept of moles, the amount of substance

the relative atomic mass is used to compare elements of from a reaction can be calculated from a balanced
different masses from each other equation
Example: H atom has a Ar of 1 as it is 12 times lighter Example:
than a 12 C atom N2 + 3H2 → 2N H3
​ ​ ​

from the equation, 1 mole of N2 reacting with 3 ​

Relative Molecular Mass moles of H2 can form 2 moles of N H3

​ ​

Mr ​

5.10. Yield of a Reaction

the combined Ar in a molecule or compound is called
Theoretical Yield
​

the relative molecular mass

Example: The Mr of CO2 is 12.0 + 2(16.0) = 44.0
theoretical field is calculated using the equation for the
​ ​

reaction
Relative Formula Mass
It is assumed that the reaction always go to completion
Mr ​
with no losses

while the symbol is the same as relative molecular mass, Actual Yield
relative formula mass refer to both molecules and ions,
such as when concerning hydrated ionic compounds the actual yield is found by weighing the product after a
reaction
Example: CuSO4 .5 H2 O has a relative formula mass of
Percentage Yield
​ ​

63.5 + 32.1 + 4(16.0) + 5[2(1) + 16.0] = 249.6

Molar Mass percentage yield is the percentage of actual yield that is

obtained from the reaction compared to it’s theoretical
Molar mass is the mass per mole of any substance yield
actual yield× 100
1 mole is equal to 6.02 × 1023 amount of substance theoretical yield
= Percentage yield
​

the use of the mole instead of atoms allows us to be able

to calculate chemical reactions in the scales the humans 5.11. Atom Economy
normally perceived in
further explanation on the mole is discussed below

Moles
A mole is defined as the amount of particles that
contains the same number of particles as the number of
carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of the 12 C isotope
1 mole of 12 C atoms will have the mass of 12 grams
As such, 1 mole will have the number of atoms in exactly
12 grams of 12 C atoms
This is known as Avogadro constant which has the value
of 6.02 × 1023 and is denoted L
thus, 6.02 × 1023 12 C atoms will have the mass of
exactly 12 grams
mathematically:
amount of substances in moles = mass in grams
molar mass​ =
m where M is the Molar Mass
M ​

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Atom economy is another method of comparing

chemical reactions to one another
A higher atom economy would mean that a larger
number of atoms from the reactants end up in the
desired product
A lower atom economy would mean that a lower number
of atoms from the reactants end up in the desired
product
If a reaction involves the addition of 2 reactants to form
1 product, which is the desired product, it has 100%
atom economy
Atom economy is calculated through the formula
Atom economy =
molar mass of the desired product
sum of the molar masses of all products × 100
​

Example:
Ca3 (P O4 )2 + 3H2 S O4 → 2H2 P O4 +
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

3CaSO4 ​

this reaction has an atom economy of

(98.0 × 2) × 100
(98.0 × 2) + (136.2 × 3)
​
= 32.4

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Edexcel IAL
Chemistry

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