KISII UNIVERSITY

IMPACT OF MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS ON INCARCERATED WOMEN.

A CASE STUDY OF KISII WOMEN PRISON, KISII COUNTY, KENYA.

KISII WOMEN PRISON

AS25/00105/20

SUPERVISOR: MR KEARI

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELORS DEGREE OF ARTS IN COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY

JUNE 2024
 DECLARATION
This research project report is my original work and has not been presented for any examination in any other

institution.

ODINGA SHEILLAH ONGACHI

AS25/00105/20

Signature...................... Date.......................

The research project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the university supervisor.

MR. DAVID KEARI

Signature......................... Date.........................

Senior Lecturer

Department of Psychology.
 ABSTRACT
This study was to accomplish the effects of imprisonment on female inmates in Kenya. The study was conducted
at Kisii women prison. This research was grounded on the assumptions of the classical theory of punishment that
states that crime is a rational behaviour that individuals enter into knowing all the consequences of their action.
This involves a cost benefit analysis; pleasure versus [Link] main objective of this study was to understand
the prevalence and consequences of mental health disorders with a focus on identifying the interventions and
support systems to address their needs. The study was guided by the following specific objectives, to assess the
prevalence of mental health disorders among incarcerated women, including the range of disorders and their
severity, to investigate the impact of mental health disorders on various aspects of incarcerated women's lives,
such as their well-being, rehabilitation and reintegration into the society ,to examine the existing intervention
and support systems available for addressing mental health needs among incarcerated women, investigate
the factors contributing to high rates of mental health disorders in incarcerated women, including prior trauma,
substance abuse, socioeconomic background, and co-occurring physical health conditions.

This study employed mixed method research design based on the Creswell model (Creswell, 2007).Both
quantitative and qualitative data was collected at the same time from different sources using different methods.
This is study used descriptive design and used both probability and non-probability sampling procedures. The
respondents under study were 16 [Link] qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were used
in this study. Qualitative methods employed the use of personal interviews while quantitative method was
illustrated through the use of questionnaires; both open ended and closed questions. The data revealed that there
existed variations on these effects of imprisonment on inmates by age, period of confinement, gender, marital
status, occupation and parental [Link] period of confinement also had an impact on the psychological effect
of imprisonment since female inmates who had been sentenced for longer sentences were psychologically
affected the most by imprisonment than short term prisoners. The study also revealed that gender also plays a
significant role more so in the psychological and not in the physical effects of imprisonment. Theere study
recommends the need for increased visitations to mitigate the social effects on the inmates. There is also need
for the recruitment of more wardens to curb the physical effects such as assault and harassment. The study also
recommends that the government should build more houses for the wardens and offer them a better
remuneration package. Some prisoners had not gotten a chance to learn skills due to unavailability of prison
industries. The study recommends that the government should build more industries and come up with a better
curricular of courses that is in tandem with the dynamic business environment. Counsellors should also be
recruited to counsel the stressed and depressed inmates. This may be achieved through partnership with non-
governmental organisations that provide such assistance. The study also recommends that prisoners of the same
age group should be housed together to discourage victimization where old inmates harass younger inmates.
 DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to my family and my brilliant daughter (Elsie Ayanna). Your prayers, perseverance and

great love have made me complete this scholarly task.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
May God be glorified above all for his great providence and for walking and working by my side all through

this study. Be glorified and may your love and grace last forever. I would like to express my deep gratitude to

all my undergraduate class mates.I also wish to immensely appreciate my supervisor; Mr Keari for his

guidance and support that enabled me complete this study. Thanks also to all my lecturers (Mr Abel, Mr

Keari) I say thank you so much. To my parents (Priscilla Okwaro and Wellington Manoa), appreciation is

also due to both of you for the financial assistance that enabled me complete my studies. God bless you. My

appreciation also goes to the inmates for the priceless and enormous contribution accorded to this research.

Thank you and God bless you all.

Table of Contents
DECLARATION.................................................................................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION.....................................................................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................................8
1.1Background information.............................................................................................................................................8
1.2 Statement of problem.................................................................................................................................................9
1.3 Objectives of the study.............................................................................................................................................10
1.3.1 Main objective/general objective......................................................................................................................10
1.3.2 Specific objective...............................................................................................................................................10
1.4 Research questions/hypothesis................................................................................................................................10
1.5 Justification/significance of the study.....................................................................................................................11
1.6 Scope and limitations...............................................................................................................................................12
1.6.1 Definition of terms.............................................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................................13
2.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................13
2.2 Prevalence of psychological disorders in prison set up..........................................................................................15
2.3 Unique challenges in women prisons.......................................................................................................................17
2.4 Mental health in prison............................................................................................................................................18
2.4.1 Overcrowding....................................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER THREE...........................................................................................................................................................23
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................................23
3.1 .Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................23
3.2 Research design........................................................................................................................................................23
3.3 Population/ target population..................................................................................................................................23
3.5 Sample size and sampling procedure......................................................................................................................25
3.6 Research instruments...............................................................................................................................................25
3.6.1 Beck'sAnxietyInventory....................................................................................................................................26
3.6.2 Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale................................................................................................................26
3.8 Data analysis.............................................................................................................................................................27
CHAPTER FOUR..............................................................................................................................................................27
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................................27
 4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................27
4.2 Return rate of the questionnaires............................................................................................................................27
4.3 Age of the respondents.............................................................................................................................................28
4.4 Marital status of the respondents............................................................................................................................29
4.5 Parental status of the respondents..........................................................................................................................29
4.6 Types of offenses committed by respondents..........................................................................................................30
4.7 Period of confinement..............................................................................................................................................31
4.8 Psychological effects of incarceration.....................................................................................................................31
4.9 Frequency affected by stress and anxiety...............................................................................................................32
CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................................................................33
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................33
5.1 Summary...................................................................................................................................................................33
5.3 Areas for Further Research.....................................................................................................................................35
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................................................35
Questionnaire.....................................................................................................................................................................41
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Showing Psychological effects of incarceration...................................................................................................28

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Return rate of the questionnaires............................................................................................................................25

Table 2: Age of the respondents...........................................................................................................................................26
Table 3: Marital status of the respondents............................................................................................................................26
Table 4: Parental status of the respondents...........................................................................................................................27
Table 5: Types of offenses committed by respondents.........................................................................................................27
Table 6: Period of confinement............................................................................................................................................28
Table 7: Frequency of inmates affected by stress and anxiety..............................................................................................29
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1Background information

Mental health disorders have been on the rise among female remandees. Some of the

disorders include depression, anxiety, substance use and psychotic disorders. These issues are

as a result of separation from family and no longer having freedom. According to research

female offenders in Kenya make up to 20% of the prison population annually and they also

account to 4% of violent crimes in Kenya (Kenya police crime statistics, 2011). Studies have

shown that mental illness is more common in the prison population compared to the general

population. A mental disorder is a malfunctioning of the mind which affects mood, emotion

and ability to function effectively.

Female remandees represent a unique and understudied population within the criminal justice

system. Despite constituting a minority of the overall prison population, female prisoners face

distinct challenges and vulnerabilities that call for attention. Research suggests that female

remandees are more likely than their male counterparts to have experienced trauma, including

physical and sexual abuse, prior to incarceration. These preexisting vulnerabilities, put

together with the stressors that are found in prison environment contribute to the rising rates

of mental health disorders among female prisoners.

Before, studies focused on male offenders leaving a significant gap in the understanding of

the psychological effects of imprisonment on female remandees. Addressing this gap is

important for developing gender responsive interventions and policies that promote the well-

being of incarcerated women and address the root causes of their involvement in the criminal

justice system.
According to Haney and Lynch (1997), prisons does affect prisoners sometimes to an extent

that some inmates do lose the capacity to initiate behaviors on their own and judgement to

make decisions on their own. Institutionalizes persons may become extremely uncomfortable

when and if their previous freedom and autonomy is returned.

Prisoners who are on solitary confinement are the ones who are psychologically affected the

most as described by Johnson(1996) when he states that solitary confinement leads to

episodes delusions, life dissatisfaction, depression and feelings of panic. In other cases, with

time they get used to life in prison and find it more desirable than life outside prison

Haralambos and Holborn, (1995)

1.2 Statement of problem

Women might come into conflict with the law and end up facing deprivation of liberty. While

in detention they end up having mental health issues that has had a negative effect on their

health status. Most of these women come from vulnerable populations, are illiterate and at

times from broken families and abusive background. This case study seeks to find out ways

on how to improve mental well-being.

Prisons are not meant to cause more harm but rather educate and rehabilitate and reform the

prisoners from a crime life to living a life where one abides to being a law respecting citizen.

The prison staff work is to empower the inmates by engaging then in various training

programs to add on to their skills and make good use of them. This is done even though some

prisoners are highly educated. Wardens are underpaid and some have poor housing making it

hard for them to take good care of inmates. They are the immediate caretakers of inmates and

due to the poor conditions are unable to work efficiently (KNCHR 2005).

There have also emerged issues of indiscipline in prisons reported by various committees and

commissions. Actions like drug peddling and even extortions occur inside prison walls and

9
this is considered a malpractice. Reports like this conclude that prison conditions continue to

be harsh thus contributing to mental disorders. Torture, inhuman treatment, overcrowding and

other problems are common in the prison (GOK, 2008; KNHCR 2012).The challenges in

prison contribute to the prison being viewed as a burden to most inmates and this increases

consequence and suffering emotionally contributing to psychological disorders.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The research aimed to

1.3.1 Main objective/general objective
1. To understand the prevalence and consequences of mental health disorders among

Incarcerated women, with a focus on identifying interventions and support systems to

address their mental health needs.

1.3.2 Specific objective

1. To assess the prevalence of mental health disorders among incarcerated
women, including the range of disorders and their severity.
2. To investigate the impact of mental health disorders on various aspects of incarcerated

Women’s lives, such as their well being, rehabilitation and reintegration into the

society.

3. To examine the existing intervention and support systems available for addressing

mental health needs among incarcerated women.

4. Investigate the factors contributing to high rates of mental health disorders in

incarcerated women, including prior trauma, substance abuse, socioeconomic background,

and co-occurring physical health conditions.

1.4 Research questions/hypothesis

The research sought to know:

1. What is the prevalence of mental health disorders among incarcerated women?
10
 2. How do mental health disorders among incarcerated women impact their overall well

being, behavior within the correctional facility?

3. What are the perspectives of incarcerated women, correctional staff, and mental

health professionals regarding effectiveness of existing mental health interventions

and support systems?

4. How can interventions be tailored to address the diverse needs of incarcerated women

with mental health disorders?

1.5 Justification/significance of the study

The prison population in Kenya had been on the increase over the past few years and this

study helped in establishing the impacts that imprisonment had on the female inmates. Mental

disorder is a risk factor for criminal behavior and can worsened over the course of the

inmates’ prison sentence. The study was able to assess the prevalence and associated factors

of psychological distress among women inmates.

Prisoners were at a high risk of causing self-harm like suicide due to some factors. This study

helped in identifying such factors and found ways on how to prevent and reduce incidences

of self-harm. It is also important as it assisted in development of policies that met the mental

needs of women in prison.

The case study was important as it created awareness to the society and inmates as well as on

importance of mental wellness. Some methods of intervention were used like, screening, staff

training on how to handle the risk population. Improving the physical environment and social

support was also important. It was very crucial to know the mental health needs of women in

prison. This was in order to enable the prison system to develop appropriate care programs

for them.

11
In ethical terms this study was important and should be considered a public health priority to

read, understand and study psychological distress in prison. Women who are in conflict with

the law in Kenya experience a lot of challenges and it was even worse for those with

psychological disorders.

According to the Mental Health Act of 989 from section 16(1) Of the act it is in clear that on

the basis of mental or psychological disorder, a person is seen as incapable of making a

decision on whether or not to seek mental health treatment, and therefore, a substituted

decision maker (police officer or chief officer in charge) steps in to make that decision for the

person. This study will identify how women in prison deal with such challenges and

availability of equal representation before the law.

This study was also useful as it was able to ascertain negative attitudes and assumptions

about women who have psychological disorders. In most cases they were viewed as

unreliable and not capable of giving evidence or participating in criminal justice proceedings.

At times these attitudes were reflected in the law.

Once someone was imprisoned, she was stripped off her rights and fundamental freedom.

Article 51 Of the Kenyan constitution states that the parliament should provide further

legislation to ensure that prisoners are treated humanely taking into account the relevant

international human rights (GOK 2010).

This study was able fill the knowledge gap on the effects of imprisonment on female inmates

in Kisii women prison and also of value to policy makers.

1.6 Scope and limitations

The study was conducted at the Kisii women prison, located in Kisii [Link] aimed to find

out the effects of imprisonment on female inmates and how they were coping with the

12
situation. It majored deeply on the psychological effects like depression, stress, suicidal

thoughts.

These inmates also had families they left back home. In some cases it was more worrying that

they were arrested while pregnant and they gave birth in prison so they had to stay with their

children inside prison. The prison environment was not very good for the kids.

1.6.1 Definition of terms

Incarceration- confinement in prison or jail.

Psychological disorders- conditions characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings and

behaviors.

13
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

This study reviewed different literatures and lay out the theoretical content of the problem

under study and how others had studied it. This section reviewed different literatures and

theories by presenting the underlying theoretical and methodological rationale for the study

and research.

According to Rutere (2003) stated that there were very few literatures on issues related to

prisoners. The information available are figures of police records, prison records and

statistical abstracts. The records did not provide us with enough insights into prison life and

effectiveness of imprisonment as a rehabilitative institution as they are figure oriented.

According to McMahon et al. (1994), behavior of a person was the product of learning and

associations since he is the end result of all the different events he had been exposed to

throughout his life and the types of responses he made to these events. Bandura (1977)

asserted that social learning can occur by exposure and imitation.

Society was organized around individuals and small group interests permitting crime to exist

and persist. Sutherland (1939) noted that if the society was organized with the reference to

the values expressed in the law crime is eliminated but if it was not organized, crime would

persist and develop.

According to Rutere (2003) the age at which an offender was arrested plays a major role in

whether the person will reoffend. This observation was supported by Cressy and Ward (1969)

who argued that the younger a first offender is arrested and charged in court the higher the

possibility that she would relapse into the crime upon release. Muga (1975) also found out

that crime was committed mostly by those aged between 18-25 years.

14
Skinner (1974) described imprisonment as a form of positive punishment. He stated that

imprisonment used “punishment by application”. He continued to explain that positive

punishment used an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior had occurred. Eventually prisoners

were molded into well behaved individuals through positive psychological conditioning. He

continued by saying punishment was more likely to lead to a reduction in behavior if not

immediately if it follows the behavior. Criminals sent to prison were the most difficult group

of people to reform despite the fact that their rehabilitation would be beneficial to the society

(Hood & Sparks 1970).

Mental well-being represents someone’s ability to express and regulate different emotions,

maintain relationships, engage in self-acceptance and more (U.S. Department of Health &

Human Services, 2022; mental health: Strengthening our response, 2018). Mental well-being

falls under the mental health category of one’s overall health. In addition to this form of well-

being, an individual's health can be assessed through physical and social well-being.

Physical well-being was measured by one’s ability to sustain a healthy diet with active rest,

hydration, and exercise which will minimize risk of disease and illness (Physical Wellness

Toolkit, 2021). Social well-being, on the other hand, was measured by one's sense of

belonging to social environments and the ability to develop and maintain relationships

(Larson,1993). The skills required to foster good physical and social well-being were

typically observable by others suggesting a higher likelihood of identifying cases of poor

physical and social well-being.

However, skills that foster better mental well-being were less observable leading to a lack of

identification and understanding for such well-being. A proper balance of all well-being

helped a person engage in daily activities with a positive approach and minimized distress.

Therefore, understanding of all states of well-being was crucial for good overall health. An

15
imbalance in any state of well-being increased one’s difficulty in engaging in everyday

activities. For example, when someone felt that they do not belong or feel supported, the

would further struggle to express their emotions or sustain healthy habits.

This stemmed from a lack of belonging or a sense of unworthiness to be part of a community.

Those who had better mental well-being reflected the ability to control their feelings through

acquired skills and positive coping mechanisms. These individuals were equipped to handle

stressful situations through healthy manner.

2.2 Prevalence of psychological disorders in prison set up

Women in prison were five times more likely to have mental health disorder than women in

the general population. They experienced psychological disorders like poor mental health,

depression, stress, aggressiveness. Such mental disorders were characterized by symptoms

which were seen as non-psychotic. The high prevalence reasons included;

 Higher risk of incarceration for people with mental health disorders.

 Insufficient assessment by courts.

 Non-identification of mental problems in the moment of imprisonment.

 Inefficient healthcare services.

According to research, prisons were clearly associated with mental health problems and the

reason could be many of the incarcerated women had search disorders before. Others

developed emotional problems during the incarceration period due to the regime and

conditions in prison environment. Prisons had been reported to have high prevalence of

mental disorders. It was estimated that about 20% of prisoners in jail have serious mental

illness (Torrey, 2014).

Mental health problems were also associated with increased chances of self-harm, suicide and

even reoffending. The disorders were risk factors for elevated suicide rates in prisons. These
16
mental issues caused or contributed to premature mortality upon release from prison and

reoffending rates among prisoners (Fazelet et al,.2016). In reference to the above statistics

mental health and well-being is important.

According to statistics Kenya had a prison population of 53,348 prisoners spread over one

hundred and five penal institutions in the country (World Prison Brief, 2019). Despite many

interventions involved many prisoners walked out of prison with various mental health

disorders with 22.5% with post-traumatic stress disorder, 21.9% with obsessive compulsive

disorder and 19.3% suicidality ( Othieno , 2013)

2.3 Unique challenges in women prisons.

Women were viewed as vulnerable group in prison and they faced unique challenges

compared to men (Braithwaite et al., 2009). Some of them were even sexually abused which

causes them to have low self-esteem, stress leading to depression. Imprisoned women had

usually experienced physical, sexual and even administrational problems with the

correctional institutions (Cook and Davis 2006).

The gender specific needs that were not adequately met by this included pre-natal care, post-

natal care, deprivation of conjugal rights which led to lesbianism hence higher chances of

HIV/AIDS (Bloom &Covington 2005). Women undergo stress adapting to the new

environment of prison life where they had to follow rules without questioning. The

detachment from the world and family was a major source of stress, loneliness and

depression.

Social dynamics in women prison was shaped and affected by gender, motherhood and need

for survival within a confined environment. Women in prison encountered power dynamics

that were influenced by gender and some experienced exploitation and even abuse. They

17
formed support networks in order to cope with the challenges of incarceration. They also

provided material, emotional and social support to one another.

Many incarcerated women were mothers and the separation from their children and the

separation from children intensified emotional stress. The prison environment was damaging

to the mental health due to disconnection from the family, society and social support. Living

conditions in prison also contributed to the development of psychological disorders. For

example isolation and confinement, being confined in a small cell for long periods often led

to feelings of isolation, loneliness, claustrophobia which contributed development of

depression and anxiety disorders.

2.4 Mental health in prison

Imprisonment had significant negative impacts on mental health that included depression,

anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation. Some situations also exacerbated

pre-existing mental health issues or even led to development of new ones. Not all prisons had

well established mental health support systems. Prison environment was very damaging to

mental health due to the consequent disconnection from family and social life. There was loss

of autonomy and one had diminished meaning of life purpose.

There was very little attention paid to how incarceration contributed to the onset of

psychological disorders. From trauma, prison can even have more detrimental effects on

women’s mental health than men. Other effects of imprisonment depended with the lifetime

one was serving and period related to release. For example the first week was associated with

high rates of suicide. Some effects of long term imprisonment included, institutionalized

personality traits, like social sensory disorientation, difficulty maintaining relationship and

social temporal orientation.

According to General Strain Theory (GST) individuals experienced three types of strain;

18
 i. Failure to achieve positively valued goals.

ii. The removal of positively valued stimuli.

iii. The presence of negative stimuli.

Investigating the psychological effects of imprisonment was important in order to reduce

inmates’ pain and suffering and to prevent long lasting consequences beyond prison sentence

(Van Ginneken et. al., 2019; Ward & Stewart, 2003). Some of the factors associated with

inmates health were traceable overcrowding (Haney, 2012), family deprivation (Hagan &

Dinovitzer, 1999). Fear of the unknown and the emotional climate of distrust.

Incarcerated women felt or experienced existential crisis by feeling anxiety, distress

concerning their past and future life goals. Long term effects of imprisonment were not the

same for everyone.

The concern for poor mental well-being was greater amongst incarcerated women both

because they enter prison with prior risk of mental duress through notable experiences

mentioned above, and the prison environment exacerbated women’s risk of mental duress

through institutional factors such as overcrowding and a lack of specialized staff for

treatment identification. In 2005, “more than half of all prison and jail inmates had a mental

health problem” with female prisoners reflecting higher reports compared to male inmates

(James & Glaze, 2006). Women’s incarceration rates had increased twice as fast as men’s

between 1978 and 2015 which had reflected a concern for accessible resources and

overcrowding within women’s prisons (Sawyer, 2018). Further difficulty in identifying

inmates with poor mental well-being had contributed to a lack of accessibility to services as

well.

2.4.1 Overcrowding

The rapid increase in women entering the prison system had led to overcrowding and

19
difficulty accessing treatment within prison facilities (Severson, 2019). These problems were

re very prevalent amongst women’s facilities as the “average number of female prisoners

grew faster than the average male prisoners between 2000-2008” (Barrick et al., 2014). This

increase exacerbated women’s risk of poor mental well-being for many reasons.

Overcrowding had minimized women’s access to treatment services because of an increased

demand for limited resources. Resources currently in place became a demand for severe or

noticeable conditions leaving those with fewer symptoms unrecognized. Consequently mental

health problems such as the risk of suicide had increased within these facilities (Sharkley,

2010). Overcrowding had forced women to experience a lack of privacy that they had never

been accustomed to which had increased their feelings of stress and anxiety as well.

This experience had pushed many women to end their life to stop these feelings rather than

struggle to live in facilities that neglected their state of mental well-being. Research had

shown that the scarcity of resources further delays treatment for inmates who attempted to

access it (Holsinger, 2014). This could be a consequence of strict budgeting amongst prison

institutions .When faced with strict budgets, the amount of money allocated towards mental

health needs and treatment services were minimized (Severson, 2019). With increasing

numbers of women entering the system, strict budgets further impacted women’s ability to

access necessary resources to treat poor mental well-being.

The rapid increase in women entering the prison system had led to overcrowding and

difficulty accessing treatment within prison facilities (Severson, 2019). Those problems were

very prevalent amongst women’s facilities as the “average number of female prisoners grew

faster than the average male prisoners between 2000-2008” (Barrick et al., 2014). This

increase exacerbated women’s risk of poor mental well-being for many reasons.

Overcrowding had minimized women’s access to treatment services because of an increased

20
demand for limited resources. Resources currently in place became a demand for severe or

noticeable conditions leaving those with fewer symptoms unrecognized. Consequently,

mental health problems such as the risk of suicide had increased within these facilities

(Sharkley, 2010). Overcrowding had forced women to experience a lack of privacy that they

had never been accustomed to which had increased their feelings of stress and anxiety as well

(Sharkley, 2010). This experience had pushed many women to end their life to stop these

feelings rather than struggle to live in facilities that neglected their state of mental well-being.

Research had shown that the scarcity of resources further delayed treatment for inmates who

attempted to access it (Holsinger, 2014). That could be a consequence of strict budgeting

amongst prison institutions. When faced with strict budgets, the amount of money allocated

towards mental health needs and treatment services were minimized. With increasing

numbers of women entering the system, strict budgets further impacted women’s ability to

access necessary resources and to treat poor mental well-being.

In addition to overcrowding issues, correctional officers in women’s facilities lacked the

proper training to detect and assess mental health concerns. The officers supervised prisoners

through scheduled routines while maintaining prison regulations. They often responded to

health problems before health specialists in facilities because of their primary detection of

cases and responsibility to alert specialists of health issues in the general population.

According to the National Commission on Correctional Health Care, prison staff were trained

in “response to life threatening situations” (Health Training for Correctional Officers, n.d.).

These incidents included emergency situations where officers observed blood or other

extreme injuries. Officers were trained to assess situations based on what they visibly

reported. Despite their high interaction with inmates, lack of documentation suggested that

these officers were not trained in detecting symptoms of mental health conditions such as

decreased appetite or engagement which are indicative of poor mental well-being (Parekh,

21
2021). Instead, officers were specialized to intervene once symptoms have reached a cry for

help through extreme visible injuries.

A lack of training in health related problems led to fewer inmates being diagnosed and

treated. In a study comparing mental health disorders amongst prisoners, only some

were“screened positive” to receive treatment throughout their sentencing (Tyler et al, 2019).

This study revealed common disorders amongst prisoners to evaluate whether current

treatment services were equipped to address negative mental well-being in prison (Tyler et al,

2019).

Findings of this research emphasized complications in screening processes as they attempted

to screen inmates for treatment; suggesting professional training was required to be able to

detect poor mental well-being and accurately refer prisoners to proper treatment. Correctional

officers who are regularly in contact with inmates were not qualified to detect specialized

concerns; therefore issues remained undetected or misdiagnosed. Inmates were often

unidentified as having poor mental well-being from trauma such as abuse and are overlooked

by prison staff (Macdonald, 2013).

22
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 .Introduction
This section described the methodology that was used in carrying out the study. The research

site, research and sampling design, target population as well as sources and methods of data

collection and analysis were also discussed.

3.2 Research design

A research design was defined by Orodho(2003) as the scheme, outline or plan that is used to

generate answers to research questions. Kothari (2004) also defined it as what constitutes the

blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. This study employed mixed

method research design based on the Creswell model (Creswell, 2007).Both quantitative and

qualitative data was collected at the same time from different sources using different

methods. The various data was converged for comparison, interrelation and validation of

results. The study population was the prisoners at Kisii women's prison. For the qualitative

methods used FDGs (focus group designs).The descriptive design determines and reports the

way things are(Mugenda&Mugenda, 2003).The design also had enough provision for

protection if bias and maximized reliability (Kothari, 2008).Descriptive design used a

preplanned design for analysis(Mugenda&Mugenda, 2003).Descriptive research is a method

of collecting information by interviewing or administering questionnaires to a sample of

individuals(Orodho, 2003).The study majorly focused on the life of women while in prison

and identified the negative experiences that they go through while in prison.

3.3 Population/ target population

According to Kornand and Tromp (2006), a population is a group of individuals, objects or

items from which samples are taken form [Link] and Mugenda(2003)

23
defined the target population as these to find individuals, cases or objects with some common

characteristics from which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study.

Kisii main prison consists of two sections, men prison and women prison. General

population in male prison is 300 and women prison is 160. This consisted of those who were

sentenced and those held in remand. This study targeted the women prisoners and target

population was 16 inmates. Kisii women’s prisons have both prisoners and wardens. This

study aimed to focus only on prisoners who were serving different sentences.

3.4 Study area and site description

The study was conducted in Kisii women’s prison.

Kisii Women Prison, situated in Kisii County,Kenya,is a correctional facility dedicated to

housing and rehabilitating female offenders. This prison plays a crucial role in the criminal

justice system, focusing on the holistic development and reintegration of its inmates into

society. This research project aimed to explore the various aspects of Kisii Women Prison,

including its infrastructure, rehabilitation programs, health care services, and the overall

impact on inmates 'lives.

This site description was tailored to a research project on mental health disorders with in the

facility, highlighting the infrastructure, health care services, and psychosocial support

available to inmates. Despite the efforts, Kisii Women Prison faced several challenges in

addressing mental health disorders which included resource limitations: There were often

shortages of qualified mental health professionals and limited access to advanced psychiatric

care. Another one was stigma: Mental health issues still carried stigma, which prevented

inmates from seeking the help they needed.

24
Overcrowding: Like many correctional facilities, Kisii Women Prison faced issues of

overcrowding, which exacerbated stress and mental health problems among inmates. It had a

total of 160 prisoners as of May 2024.

The penal institution is under the department of prisons headed by the Commissioner of

Prisons. The department of prisons is one of the departments that are under the Office of the

Vice-President and Ministry of Home Affairs.

3.5 Sample size and sampling procedure

The study applied simple random sampling to select respondents. According to this sampling

technique all members of the target population had an equal chance of being selected. The

sample size for this study was computed by taking 10% of the target population. Mugenda

and Mugenda (1999) stated that when the population is big and the resources are limited, then

10% of the target population will be the sample size .For this study the sample size was 10%

of 160 female inmates. Therefore the sample size was 16 female prisoners.

3.6 Research instruments

The study utilized both open ended and closed questions in one questionnaire for gathering

information concerning the effects of mental health disorders in inmates.

A test was carried out on the questionnaire to test its validity and reliability as a data

collection tool so as to ensure its effectiveness was not in doubt. It was then administered to a

small but representative sample to find out if the questions measured what they were intended

to measure. The reason was to check if the wording was clear, all the questions were

interpreted in the same way by the respondents, if the questions provoked a response and if

there was any researcher bias. After the questionnaire test, the amendments were made to it.

Finally, the questionnaire was self-administered to the respondents by the researcher. At the

end of the interviews, the questionnaires were gathered for analysis.

25
3.6.1 Beck'sAnxietyInventory
BAI was developed by Aaron T. Beck and colleagues in 1988 as a self-report inventory to

measure the severity of anxiety. It consists of 21 items, each describing a common symptom

of anxiety (e.g., numbness, hot/cold sweats). Respondents rate how much they had been

bothered by each symptom over the past week on a scale from 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely).

Specificity: BAI focused on somatic and cognitive aspects of anxiety, making it particularly

relevant for detecting anxiety in incarcerated women, who experienced high levels of stress

and trauma. Validity and Reliability: Highlight the BAI's strong psychometric properties,

including high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) and test-retest reliability, which had

been established in diverse populations.

It was administered through a group setting through paper and pen format.

3.6.2 Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale

To comprehensively assess the mental health issues among incarcerated women, the

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) was utilized. The DASS-42 allowed us to measure

the severity of depression, anxiety, and stress within this population. This instrument’s robust

psychometric properties ensured reliable and valid results, which were crucial for developing

targeted interventions. The DASS was administered at intake and at one week intervals to

track changes over time, providing valuable insights into the mental health trajectories of

these women.

3.7 Data collection procedures

Both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were used in this study.

Qualitative methods employed the use of personal interviews. Quantitative method was

illustrated through the use of questionnaires; both open ended and closed questions.

26
3.8 Data analysis
In this study data was analyzed using qualitative analysis through the close ended questions

and analyzed using quantitative. All this was achieved by use of the Statistical Package for

Social Scientists (Version 23.0). Content analysis was also used on qualitative data. The

analyzed data was then presented in the form of pie-charts, bars and tables of frequency

distribution.

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discussed the manner in which the data collected was analyzed and presented.

The findings are presented in form of tables, charts, and graphs. The interpretations of the

findings were in accordance with the effects of imprisonment on

psychological effects of imprisonment on the inmates.

4.2 Return rate of the questionnaires

Table 1: Return rate of the questionnaires

Instruments Issued Returned Percentage

Questionnaires 16 16 100

BDI 16 16 100

DASS 16 16 100

4.3 Age of the respondents

Muga (1975) findings are slightly similar in that that crime is committed mostly by those

individuals aged between 18-25 years, and in this study most offenders are below 40 years.

Figure 2 showed that female respondents who were aged 41-50 represented 18.85% of the

total female respondents. In total, 81.25% of the female respondents were aged below 40

years. A majority of the female respondents (43.75%) were between the ages of 26-40. 37.5%

fell in the 18-25 years age bracket.

28
Table 2: Age of the respondents

Age Frequency % (percentage)

18-25 6 37.5

26-40 7 43.75

41-50 3 18.75

Total 16 100

4.4 Marital status of the respondents

A majority of the female respondents (43.75%) were single while 25% were married. Only

18.75% and 12.5% of them were separated and widowed respectively. None was a divorcee

as shown on figure 3below.

Table 3: Marital status of the respondents

Marital status Frequency Percentage (%)

Married 4 25

Single 7 43.75

Separated 3 18.75

Widowed 2 12.5

Total 16 100

29
4.5 Parental status of the respondents
62.5% of the total female respondents were parents while 37.5% were not parents as

illustrated in figure 4 below.

Table 4: Parental status of the respondents

Parental status Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 10 62.5

No 6 37.5

Total 16 100

4.6 Types of offenses committed by respondents

Figure 5 below showed that stealing was the most common offence that was committed by

female respondents representing 25% followed closely by murder at 18.75% The least

common offence was robbery with violence and impersonation.

Table 5: Types of offenses committed by respondents

Types of offenses Frequency Percentage (%)

Assault 2 12.5

Impersonation 1 6.25

Murder 3 18.75

Neglecting child 2 12.5

Obtaining money by false 1 6.25

pretense

Possession of illicit brew 2 12.5

30
Robbery with violence 1 6.25

Stealing 4 25

Total 16 100%

4.7 Period of confinement

Figure 6 showed that majority of the female respondents were serving short term which

represented 56.25% of the total respondents. 18.75% had been confined between 6-9 years

and 25% had been confined above 10 years as illustrated below.

Table 6: Period of confinement

Period of confinement Frequency Percentage

0-5 years 9 56.25

6-9 years 3 18.75

Above 10 years 4 25

Total 16 100

31
4.8 Psychological effects of incarceration

Figure 1: Showing Psychological effects of incarceration

The pie showed that 65% of the inmates showed they had no Psychological problem but 35%

had issues of stress and anxiety. The findings show that most inmates are not experiencing

Psychological issues despite the congestion and poor living conditions.

When looking at Kisii women prison the women population was not that high compared to

other prisons in Kenya and that's why the respondents did not agree to be facing

Psychological issues.

4.9 Frequency affected by stress and anxiety

Table 7: Frequency of inmates affected by stress and anxiety

Psychological issues Frequency Percentage

Stress 9 56.25

Anxiety 7 43.75

Total 16 100

32
Most prisoners indicated stress and through the questionares and instruments, most causes

were how their children were doing back home. They were worried of their families and how

the society now percieves them.

They were also anxious of the life that awaits them since prison life is unpredictable. People

come from various places and who have committed different crimes. In prison there are also

fights that occur and they live in fear of being hurt.

They were also affected by the wardens’ insults at times. Also at times they received advice

and counseling from the wardens.

33
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

It is evident from the study that prison does indeed have a toll on the inmates. The inmates

undergo social, economic, psychological, and physical and health effects that are all related to

their confinement as attested by the findings of this research. There is thus need for measures

to be taken by the government in partnership with the private sector and members of the

public to mitigate these effects of imprisonment on the inmates. This is in order to improve

their mental well-being.

5.2 Conclusion and Recommendations

There is need for increased visitations so that the inmates may have an opportunity to interact

with the wider society. These visitations will help them interact with their family and

consequently alleviate the intensity of stress that they undergo while in prison. The study

found out that most of the inmates were married and this emphasizes the need for open days

and visitation to protect the inmates’ marriage from falling apart. Others even have children

and there is need of bonding .The non-governmental organizations should partner with the

prison authorities so that they may interact with those prisoners who are not fortunate to be

visited. To stop assault among inmates, it is important to recruit more wardens to boost the

few overstretched prison wardens.

This increase in warden population will enhance supervision and consequently eliminate

assault and other vices like drug abuse, and lesbianism. Assault and harassment that are

initiated by the wardens can eliminated through attitude change among the wardens. This

may be due to the poor social conditions that the wardens are operating in such as poor

housing and poor remuneration. The study thus recommends that the government should

build more houses for the wardens and offer them a better remuneration package. Cases of

34
the wardens harassing prisoners should be taken seriously by the prison authorities and the

study recommends that the wardens who are implicated in such vices should be immediately

interdicted to deter similar immoral behaviours from happening.

There should also be increased mental health awareness among prison set up and more

knowledge be spread on mental health issues. This will prevent issues like stress, anxiety,

depression and even suicidal cases among inmates. The society at large should also be

educated to avoid discrimination of inmates once they are released from prison. This makes

them feel unwanted.

5.3 Areas for Further Research

There is need for further studies to be carried out on the effects of imprisonment on wardens.

This is due to the shared environment and interaction with inmates in the penal institutions.

Another area for further research is on the effects of imprisonment on the ex-inmates. It will

be beneficial to know whether the ex-prisoners have been totally reformed and re-integrated

into the society and whether they have utilized those skills that they learned while in prison.

35
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Questionnaire
Tick for the appropriate information in the box

1. Gender

Male □ Female □

2. Please select your age category from the options:

18-25 □ 26-40 □ 41-50 □51 -60 □ 60 or over □

3. Marital Status before imprisonment

Married □ Single □ Divorced □ Separated □ Widowed □

4. What is your highest formal education level?

None □ Primary □ Secondary □ Vocational □ College □ University

5. Religious affiliation

Christian □ Muslim □ Hindu □

Others_______________

6. Offence sentenced for___________________________________________________

7. Is this your first time in prison?

Yes □ No □

INFORMATION ON THE EFFECTS OF IMPRISONMENT

41
8. How long have you been in prison? _______________________________ ____

9. Have you learnt any skill(s) or course(s) during this period of imprisonment?

Yes □ N on kindly explain

10. If yes in 9, how do you rate the quality of the courses you are getting or have got from

prison?

Excellent Average Terrible

11. Will the above skills in 9 be of any help to you after your sentence is over?

Yes □

Not:

Kindly explain

12. Overall, how satisfied are you with prison as a rehabilitative institution?

Very satisfied □ fairly satisfied □ neither satisfied or dissatisfied □

13. Have you been visited by your family?

Yes □ No □

14. If yes in 13, what is the frequency of your visitation?

Weekly □ Fortnightly □ Monthly □ Quarterly □Bi-annually Others □

15. Have your family members abandoned you since you were imprisoned?

Yes □ No □ kindly explain

16. Have you ever been to the prison clinic as a result of any illness?

Yes □ No kindly explain

17. Have you experienced any episodes of threats, fears or stress that you can associate to

imprisonment?

42
Yes □ No □ kindly explain

18. Have you ever been assaulted in prison?

Yes □ No □

19. If married, has prison affected your marriage negatively?

Yes □ No kindly explain

20. If you do not have a spouse, will it be easy to get one after your sentence is over?

Easy Hard kindly explain

21. Are you a parent?

Yes. No

22. If yes in 21, have you been negatively affected by imprisonment as a parent?

Yes No. Kindly explain

43