Principles of Project

Management
Project Skills
By Chools Consulting Services
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Preface
Organizations are increasingly using project management techniques within their
operations and the specialist language of project management has become more and
more commonplace in managerial and executive meetings. This trend is here to stay and
it means that managers need to be familiar with project management roles, terms and
processes.

You will learn:

● How projects are defined and why they differ from business processes
● How the structure of an organization impacts project management
● How project management roles and responsibilities are defined
● How all projects can be mapped to the same basic life cycle structure
● How project management can be organized into functional areas
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

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 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

introduction
The impact of technology and its influence on organizational processes is an essential
aspect of any growth strategy. It is hard to find any development or procedural change
that does not have an information technology aspect and in many cases it is actually the
changes in available technology that drive the need to change organizational processes.

This has led to a merging of IT working practices into that of general management
including the useof project management.

IT
Processes
• Information • IT specialist • the most
Technology terms significant
(IT) now plays integrate with methodology
a significant management is
role in vocabulary
Strategic Project
Growth Management

Managers now find that they are frequently involved in projects that are being managed
using a formalized project management methodology. Communications forms a key part
of such projectsand ifyou are going to be successful in your roleas a manager itis essential
that you have a thorough understanding of project management terminology, processes,
and procedures.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Project Management Principles

There are various ways in which projects can be approached and a host of ‘methodologies,’
‘frameworks,’ and ‘processes’ have been developed over the past 60 years or so. Some
of these have their origins in academic research whereas others have grown out of
proprietary methods developed by organizations that are highly project focused, for
example management consultancies.

Key Project Management Methodologies

PRINCE2 COBIT Critical Chain

PMBOK Agile Six Sigma

Each of these approaches has its own way of looking at projects and its own terminology
for the documents and processes that make up project management. There has been
some rationalization in recent years but there are still a dozen widely used methods. The
ones you are most likely to encounter are PMBOK®, PRINCE2, Critical Chain, and Agile.

PMBOK® is short for Project Management Body of Knowledge, which describes project
management practices that are common to ‘most projects, most of the time.’ The
PMBOK® is published by the Project Management Institute (PMI), which was formed in
the USA in 1969. The PMI also offers various levels of certification and the PMBOK® is
widely used andrespected.

PRINCE2 is a process-based approach for project management, providing an easily

tailored and scalable methodology for the management of all types of projects. The
method is the standard for public sector projects in the UK and is practiced worldwide.
The acronym stands for Projects in a Controlled Environment and this is a project
management program that shares more of the functional and financial authority with
seniormanagement, not just the project manager.

The Critical Chain method is not fundamentally different from the current mainstream
approaches but it differs in the way that it handles risk and contingency. Developed in
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

1997 it is a method of planning and managing project execution designed to deal with
uncertainties inherent in managing projects, while taking into consideration the limited
availability of resources.

The Agile approach uses an iterative method of determining requirements for engineering
and software development projects in a highly flexible and interactive manner. It is most
often used in small-scale projects or in cases where the final deliverables are too complex
for the customer to understand and specify before testing prototypes.

The project management eBooks on this website are for anyone who wants to find out
more about a structured approach to project management. So much work is now run as
projects and so few people have the necessary skills to manage them properly that there
is a huge demand for good project managers and that demand is increasing all the time.

In summary, organizations are increasingly using project management techniques within

their operations and the specialist language of project management has become more
and more commonplace in managerial and executive meetings. This trend is here to stay
and it means that managers need to be familiar with project management roles, terms
and processes.

Our free Project Management Principles eBook will help you to understand the principles
of project management.

KEy POINtS
 Managers now find that they are frequently involved in projects that are being
managed using a formalized project management methodology.
 Each of these approaches has its own way of looking at projects and its
own terminology for the documents and processes that make up project
management.
 The project management eBooks on this website will be helpful if you are
relatively new to thesubject.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Project Management Definition

Before concerning ourselves with the details of project management documents and
processes, it is a good idea to take a step back and think about what makes something
a project and why it needs to be managed differently from the day-to-day work of the
organization. In otherwords,

‘Whydo weneed project management?’

There are many different definitions of what constitutes a project:

Project Management Institute—‘A project is a temporary endeavor

undertakento create a unique product,serviceor result.’

PRINCE2—‘A Project is a temporary organization that is created for the

purpose of delivering one or more business products according to an agreed
BusinessCase.’

Association for Project Management (APM)—‘An endeavor in which human

material and financial resources are organized in a novel way to deliver a
unique scope of work of given specification often within constraints of
cost and time to achieve beneficial changes defined by quantitative and
qualitative objectives.’

H. Kerzner—‘Project management is the planning, organizing, directing and

controlling of company resources for a relatively short-term objective that
has beenestablished to completespecific goals [Link],
project management utilizes the systems approach to management by
having functional personnel (the vertical hierarchy) assigned to a specific
project(the horizontal hierarchy)’(2009).

Many organizations also have their own definition of what constitutes a project.
Whichever definition you prefer does not really matter; the important thing is to be able
to identify work that constitutes a project so that it can be properly managed.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

A definite start &

end point

Project Once the end point

is reached the
Characteristics project is over

It is attempting to
achieve something
new

Projects have some or all of the following characteristics:

● They have a definite start and endpoint

● Once the endpoint is reached the project is over
● They are attempting to achieve something new

Projects can vary in size and small projects can be planned and managed by the same
person whereas larger projects may employ thousands of people working on many sites
and require a dedicated group in order to manage and coordinate the activities.

Everything that an organization does can be categorized either as a project or process.

A process is something that happens continually and has a low risk associated with it,
whereas a project happens once and has a relatively high level of risk.

To illustrate this, imagine an organization that has an annual staff appraisal process in
which managers make a written assessment of their staff against criteria specified by the
HR department. This is a process because even if the criteria change from year to year
the procedure undertaken by everyone involved remains more or less the same.

PROJECT: occurs
once with high
degree of risk &
uncertainty Constitute
all activities
within an
organization
PROCESS: low risk
activity that happens
continually
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If the organization decided to introduce an IT system to facilitate this process then the
selection, implementation, and testing of the new system would represent a project
because it would be a one-off activity which carries the risk of exceeding the budget or
timescale allocated to it.

It is perfectly logical for different organizations to see the same activity in a different
way. For example, the supplier of the computer system may see this activity as a process
because it is something that it does every time it sells a system. Each time it does so, it
gains more experience, which allows it to plan and execute future installations based on
what it has learnedpreviously.

This distinction is important because project management is used where there is a high
degree of uncertainty and risk because there is no experience of performing the activity.

So in thisscenario,

Theorganizationbuying the systemwouldtreat it asa project.

Thevendorwouldtreat it as part of a process.

The vendor would see it as a process that could be refined with each iteration in order to
reduce costs and increase the quality. The distinction between projects and processes
depends on whether the organization repeats an activity often enough for it to become
routine. Once an activity is repeated often enough within an organization to become
routine it is no longer considered a project—it becomes one of their many management
processes.

Projects can be broadly classified into engineering projects and management projects.
Engineering projects encompass civil, electrical, and mechanical engineering and the
final deliverables are physical objects, for example a building, reservoir, bridge, refinery,
or pre-production sample. Specialist companies or consortia invariably undertake these
types of project.
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Engineering Projects Management Projects

Physical items Intangible items

Building, bridge Office move

Refinery New IT system

Pre-production Marketing
sample campaign

Management projects include things like: restructuring the organization, preparing for
an exhibition, developing an IT system, launching a new marketing campaign, moving
offices, or indeed anything where the objective is to produce an end result that is not
identifiable as a physical item. To gain a greater understanding of the different functions
within these type of projects look at the range of free PDFProjectManagementeBookson
this website.

A broad range of organizations perform projects of this type, including: commercial

companies, government departments, charities and NGOs (Non Governmental
Organizations), and other not-for-profit organizations. The differences between these
types of projectare:

UseofSpecialist Staff
Engineering projects almost always represent the day-to-day work of the organization.
For example, a construction company will employ people who specialize in building office
blocks, public buildings, houses, or roads.

Similarly, a manufacturing company will have design engineers to take a product from
conception, through the design process and prototyping before the work is handed over
to production engineers who will then be responsible for mass production.

This is quite different from a management project where people who don’t usually run
projects may find themselves doing much the work.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

EnvironmentalIssues
The challenges of engineering projects are often physical in nature. For example, a
construction project may be held up by bad weather, the discovery of archaeological
remains, orother unforeseen environmental problems.

Management projects on the other hand usually take place on the organization’s own
premises and are not subject to these sorts of issues.

Specificationof FinalDeliverable
In the case of engineering projects the final deliverable is usually specified in detail at
the beginning of the project because it will need to comply with existing standards or
legislation. If the deliverable is a mechanical or electronic part then it will need to fit with
the rest of the finishedproduct.

This is not usually the case with management projects where the exact form of the final
deliverable may not become clear until some of the work of the project has been done.
It may also alter as the project develops, or in response to market research or other
developments.

Generally speaking, engineering projects and management projects are quite different
things and our project management eBooks are aimed at managers undertaking
management projects rather than engineeringprojects.

KEy POINtS
 Everything that an organization does can be categorized either as a project
or process.
 A process is something that happens continually and has a low risk associated
with it.
 A project happens once and has a relatively high level of risk.
 Projects are attempting to achieve something new, they have a definite start
and endpoint, and once the endpoint is reached the project is over.
 Engineering projects encompass civil, electrical, and mechanical engineering
and the final deliverables are physical objects, for example a building, reservoir,
bridge, refinery, or pre-productionsample.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

 Management projects include things like: restructuring the organization,

preparing for an exhibition, developing an IT system, launching a new
marketing campaign, moving offices, or indeed anything where the objective
is to produce an end result that is not identifiable as a physical item.

Project Management Perspectives

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling
resources to achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary endeavor designed to
produce a unique product, service or result with a defined beginning and end (usually
time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or deliverables), undertaken to meet
unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or added value.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and
objectives while honoring the constraints on scope, time, quality and cost. Projects need
to be managed to meet their objectives, which are defined in terms of expectations of
time, cost, and quality.

Time

Quality Scope Cost

For example, Project Scope: To move the organization’s head office to another location.
Its requirementsare:

Time: Complete by March2017

Quality: Minimize disruption to productivity
Cost: Notspend more than $125,000
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The scope of the project is defined as: ‘the totality of the outputs, outcomes, and benefits
and the work required to produce them’.

This can change over time, and it is the project manager’s responsibility to ensure the
project will still deliver its defined benefits. Consequently, a project manager must
maintain focus on the relative priorities of time, cost, and quality with reference to the
scope of theproject.

The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines project management in the following
way:

‘Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and

techniques to meet projectrequirements.’

This definition begs the question ‘Exactly what knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques
will I need to successfully manage a project?’ In order to answer this question, it is helpful
to look at project management from three different perspectives.

1. How the project fits into the organization – This refers to both the project and
the individuals who will be involved in it, including how their responsibilities are
defined and how they interact with each other.
2. How the project will evolve over time—This is referred to as the project life
cycle and is the chronological sequence of activities that need to happen in order
to deliver the project. Whatever their differences, all projects will by definition
share a similar life cycle; they will all have a beginning, middle, and an end.
3. What skills are required to successfully manage the project—These are usually
referred to as ‘Project Functional Areas’ because there are discrete areas within
project management that can be considered in isolation even though they are
interdependent.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

3 Key Questions to ask:

[Link] does the project fit into

the organization?

2. How will it evolve over time?

[Link] skills are needed to

successfully manage the project?

This might sound unnecessarily complicated, but looking at a project from each of these
three viewpoints will give you a much better understanding of the whole process than
using any one of them individually.

To use an analogy:

Imaginethat a ship is travelling fromLondonto NewYork.

The organizational perspective would be concerned with which members of the crew were
responsible for doing what and how they communicated and interacted with each other.

The life cycle of the voyage would be concerned with where the ship was and what it was
doing at any point from the beginning to the end of the journey.

The functional areas would be things like navigation, collision avoidance, routine
maintenance, etc. Even though these activities would be taking place continuously and
interdependently, it is still possible to think about them as discrete areas of knowledge.

Organizational

Project
Functional Areas
Perspectives

Life Cycle
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This analogy is not perfect but it does illustrate that when you are studying a complex
activity it can be helpful to look at it from a variety of perspectives in order to gain a
better understanding of thewhole.

KEy POINtS
 Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, motivating, and
controlling resources to achieve specificgoals.
 The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project
goals and objectives while honoring the constraints on scope, time, quality
and cost.
 Project management can be thought of in terms of organizational, life cycle,
and functional areaperspectives.

Project organization & Structure

The way in which an organization is structured is largely a result of whether its day-to-
day work is process driven or project driven.

Project-Based Process-Based
Organizations Organizations

Construction Utilities

Consultants Manufacturers

Software
Developers N G O ’s

Advertising Government
Agencies Departments

Charities
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ProjectFocused
These organizations’ day-to-day work involves delivering unique projects for external
customers for a set time period. Their management structure is designed to support
projects and everyone working in the organization is assigned to one or more projects.
Examples include: Construction companies, Consulting organizations, Software
developers, and Advertisingagencies.

ProcessFocused
The day-to-day work of these organizations predominantly involves continually
delivering products or services for external customers. Their management structure is
designed to support the process required to deliver the product or service to the end
customer. Examples include: Utility companies, Manufacturing companies, Government
departments, Charities, and NGOs.

In reality, even the most process-focused organizations will run occasional projects and
some may have parts of the organization that are dedicated to project-based working. The
vast majority of the staff in public utilities (electricity, gas, and water) will be employed
to provide an ongoing service to their customer base. But there will be some areas of the
business concerned with physical or management infrastructure that are wholly project
driven. For example:

Staff responsible for the developmentof newinformation systemsand those

responsible for theconstruction of newphysical infrastructure, like electrical
substations and water treatmentplants.

The extent to which your organization has the necessary assets and processes to conduct
successful projects will play a significant role in your project costs and level of risk. The
less experience it has, the higher your project costs will be and the greater degree of risk
compared to a project-drivenorganization.

Every organization is unique and these classifications are only useful in that they illustrate
the fact that project management is likely to present more of a challenge in process-
focused organizations than in those that are project focused.

It is better to think of organizational structures existing on a continuum as described

below. This is not only more realistic but it allows us to begin thinking about how exactly
the organizational structure will impact a project in practical terms.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

At oneextremeareorganizationsinwhichemployeesareisolated withintheirdepartment
or division asshown.

Corporate Management

Division A Division B Division C

Business Line Business Line Business Line

Business Line Business Line Business Line

Finance, HR, Business Line Finance, HR,

IT, etc IT, etc

Finance, HR,
IT, etc

In this scenario, senior management allocate capital to each division, which then
operate autonomously to return as much profit as possible. Each division is completely
independent of the others and there is no mechanism to allow communication across
divisions other than by going up the hierarchy to senior management who would then
have to pass the decision down to the other divisions.

This type of structure makes producing a limited amount of products or services efficient
and predictable, but would make it almost impossible to run a project that cut across
divisional boundaries.

A refinement of this structure is shown below and is referred to as a weak matrix. This
is because although each division operates independently, they no longer have direct
control over support functions like IT, finance, and human resources.

This type of structure makes sense because these support functions do not need to be
duplicated and can be shared between the divisions. This saves money and enables the
support departments to be bigger and employ more specialist staff.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Corporate Management

Support Departments

Human
Finance Resources

Information Strategic
Technology Planning

Legal
Counsel etc.

Division A Division B Division C

Business Line Business Line Business Line

Business Line Business Line Business Line

Business Line

The implication for project management is that there will be mechanisms for
communicating across divisions and that people will be more accepting of working with
others outside of their own division.

KEy POINtS
 Organizations may be either process driven or project driven.
 Even the most process-focused organizations will run occasional projects
and some organizations may have parts that are dedicated to project-based
working.
 There are various ways of structuring the project environment depending
onthe type of organization.
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Projects in a Matrix-Management environment

This type of structure can be taken further to give what is known as a pure matrix-
management environment.

Department A Department B Department C Department D

Project X

Project Y

Project Z

This is a type of structure in which even though an individual may ‘belong to’ a
particular department, they will be assigned to different projects and report to a project
manager while working on that project. Therefore, each individual may have to work
under several managers whilst performing their role.

For example,

Someonewho is working in Department C and who is assigned part-time to

projects X and Z will find themselves reporting to three different managers,
all of whomwill havesomedegreeof authority overthem.
• Theirline manager(DeptC)
• ProjectManager for projectX
• ProjectManager for projectZ

Matrix management is now fairly common and exists at some level in most large
organizations, particularly those that have multiple business units and international
operations.
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Advantages of Matrix Management

• Efficient exchange of data
• Democratic leadership style
• Improved satisfaction & motivation for
individual

Disadvantages of Matrix Management

• Conflict between line & project managers
• Issues of resource allocation
• Lack of recognition for individuals

One of the advantages of implementing a matrix structure is that it can lead to a more
efficient exchange of information as people from different areas work closely together.
This enhances overall productivity because it facilitates quick decision-making. For
example,

Individuals from the customer support and production departments may

confer with one another to fix problems as soon as they [Link] than
the production department remaining unaware that there is a problem until
it surfacesmonths later in a managementreportor memo.

The matrix structure also encourages a democratic leadership style that incorporates
the input of team members before managers make decisions. The ability to contribute
valuable information before decisions are made leads to employee satisfaction and
increased motivation.

A disadvantage of the matrix structure is that it is a recipe for disagreement between

the line manager and the project managers. This is because the latter will often try to
minimize each department’s billing to the project, whereas the departmental managers
will usually try to secure as much of the project’s budget as possible.

There can also be disagreements about resource allocation and prioritization. This occurs
because project managers tend to view their own project as the most important activity
and forget that the line manager may have other commitments that his department is
expected to meet.
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Firstly, line managers have finite resources at their disposal and often have to juggle
these in such a way as to ‘satisfy most of the demand for most of the time.’ In addition,
they often have numerous deadlines, relating to both departmental work-in-progress as
well as to each project that they are supplying resources to.

Secondly, projects in progress may be subject to changes, following the agreement and
commitment of the line resources required. This may result from a failure to achieve the
expected progress in any area of work and is likely to have a knock-on effect on the ability
of the line manager to supply the resources they are committed to. As a line manager,
you may also have to accommodate unexpected resource shortages due to absenteeism
and staff turnover.

All of these factors mean that conflict is unavoidable in organizations that are structured
in this way and many of these issues described may be complicated further if staff are
working on more than one project at a time.

Another feature of the matrix structure is that it can lead to staff members becoming
concerned about the extent to which the efforts they expend on project-related work will
be recognized and rewarded financially. This problem may be compounded if they feel
their project-related work will not be recognized within their own department and no
matter how hard they work on the project it will not affect their chances of advancement.

This concern is primarily an issue with staff seconded to projects on a full-time basis as
they may feel increasingly isolated and left behind in relation to their long-time colleagues
and the departmental practices with which they are familiar. Also, individuals involved
with long-term projects may have worries about what happens to them at the end of the
project. Their fear could be that their department has learnt to cope without them, or
developed new procedures whilst they were assigned to the project.

As a project manager you should ensure each individual’s performance is recorded and
reported to their line manager so that it can be assessed in their annual appraisal. You
can check out the complete range of Project Management PDF eBooks free from this
website.

Projects are all about utilizing existing resources and expertise in an efficient and effective
way to get things done. The downside of this, from a staff perspective, may be thatprojects
are not seen as training-oriented environments in which to develop personal skills.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

The questions raised by the problem of establishing a sound project management

structure revolve around the creation of effective reporting lines. There are two
organizational extremes that can beadopted:

● All of the personnel working on the project remain in their normal situation,
reporting to their line managers. In this case, the project management staff will
need to coordinate the required project work through the line managers.
● A project team is created and all personnel working on the project are drawn into
a project team and report exclusively to the project manager.

In practice a combination of these approaches is often found to be the best solution,

and is by far the most common method. However, this organizational framework risks
breaking one of the tenets of good management—that of matching responsibility with
authority. The project manager will be responsible for performance on the project but
may lack sufficient authority where contributors report to their own line managers.

All of these factors mean that unless your organization is completely project focused
then you can expect conflict, disagreement, and compromise to be an integral part of
organizing a project.

KEy POINtS
 In a matrix environment, an individual may ‘belong to’a particular department
but they will be assigned to different projects and report to a project manager
while working on thatproject.
 An advantage of the matrix structure is that it can lead to a more efficient
exchange of information as people from different areas work closely together.
 A disadvantage of the matrix structure is that it is a recipe for disagreement
between the line manager and the project managers.
 Unless your organization is completely project focused then you can expect
conflict, disagreement, and compromise to be an integral part of organizing
a project.
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Project Stakeholder Definition

Irrespective of how the organization is structured, there are certain roles and
responsibilities that are required in all projects. Different organizations may use different
names for these roles but the responsibilities of each one will be the same.

Sponsor

Stakeholders Manager
Essential
Project Roles

It is important that you understand the rationale for each of the roles in the project
along with their responsibilities as these are used extensively throughout the Project
Management Skills eBooks series. You will hear the term ‘stakeholders’ used with
reference to a particular project and it is important to understand what this term means.
Stakeholders are anyone who will gain or lose from the project.

Project
Stakeholders

Project
Team

Project
Management Team

Project
Manager

Project
Sponsor
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

The project management team must identify the stakeholders, determine their
requirements and expectations, and, to the extent possible, manage their influence in
relation to the requirements to ensure a successful project.

Those with Those who have vested

authority to interest in the change
allocate resources the project offers
& set priorities

Project Manager

Senior Project Team Members

Management

Project Customer
Project
Stakeholders
Product User Group

Line
Managers Project Testers

Suppliers & Customers

There are narrower views of the term stakeholder, focusing on the influencers and
decision-makers of a business or technological change. In this context, stakeholders are
managers who have the organizational authority to allocate resources (people, money,
services) and set priorities for their own organizations in support of a change.

One of the keys to a successful project is successfully managing the relationships

between everyone involved—the stakeholders.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

may be
affected by
project

could Stakeholders
impact can be
project
identified as
People, Groups
or Bodies who

There are three processesinvolved:

1)Identify the ProjectStakeholders

This involves identifying the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be
impacted by a decision, activity, or outcome of the project. It analyzes and documents
their interests in and influence on the project. A stakeholder is defined as anyone with an
interest in the project, irrespective of whether that interest is positive or negative. They
may be individuals or organizations that are actively involved in the project, or whose
interests may be affected by the execution or completion of the project.

Stakeholders
Employees Competitors Labor unions
may be:

Local Potential
Government Communities Investors Employees

National Industry Regulatory

Communities Shareholders Groups Bodies

Professional Prospective
Associations Public Customers Suppliers
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

A project manager must be sure to identify and list all potential stakeholders for a project.
In addition to those on the project team potential stakeholders include those shown in
the diagram.

Stakeholders can be internal to the organization or external. In many projects the public
at large will become a stakeholder to be considered during the project. The challenge
for the project manager when the public is a stakeholder will be to act while considering
public needs. Often there is no direct representative of the public to be consulted during
project planning and execution.

2)Analyze their potential involvementwiththe project

This is the process that develops appropriate management strategies to effectively
engage stakeholders throughout the project. Stakeholder analysis is so important that
a wide variety of experts are consulted to help analyze the actual level and the desired
level of engagement level of the various stakeholders. These experts are the same ones
that were consulted in the previous process to identify the stakeholders and analyze their
interest and/or influence on the project in order to determine the general strategy for
engaging them.

3)Manage their engagementwiththe project

This is the process that communicates and works with stakeholders to meet their needs and
expectations, address issues as they occur, and support stakeholder engagement. It details
how you communicatewith stakeholders and ensures appropriateengagement levels.

If you intend to manage a project then you will need a detailed knowledge of these
roles and their responsibilities. However, in order to understand the basic principles of
project management there are only two roles that you need to know about in any detail,
the project sponsorand the project manager.

KEy POINtS
 Irrespective of how the organization is structured, there are certain roles and
responsibilities that are required inall projects.
 Project stakeholders are individuals and organizations that are actively
involved in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively
affected by execution of the project or project completion.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Project Sponsor & Project Manager Definitions

The sponsor is responsible for securing the financing and overall resource budget approval
and owns the opportunities and risks related to the financial outcome of the project.
They may be referred to as the ‘business sponsor,’ ‘project sponsor,’ or ‘executive’ and are
usually a senior manager with a direct interest in the business case behind the project.

Even though this implies that the project sponsor can be a group of people, it is usually far
better if there is one named individual who has been given this role. An effective sponsor
will be someone with the authority and personal drive to overcome major obstacles to
completing the project.

Presenting the business case

Approving the budget funds

Project Identifying & defining project

Sponsor –
an individual
responsible for: Managing senior stakeholders

Appointing project manager

Authority & drive to overcome

issues or cancel project

The sponsor does not concern himself or herself with the day-to-day running of the
project (that is the responsibility of the project manager), but represents the ‘buyer’ of
the project on behalf of the organization. It can be helpful to think about this in terms of
the project manager working for the sponsor who is in turn working for the organization.

The project sponsor may be either internal or external to the organization that will be
undertaking the project work. Many different permutations are possible—for example,
an internal sponsor may commission a project that will call only on resources within the
organization. Alternatively, the entire project may be outsourced to a third party.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

The role of the project sponsor is to approve and fund the project, but not to get involved
in day-to-day management or financial control. The project sponsor should appoint a
project manager to take on the responsibility for delivering the project in accordance
with its objectives.

Project Sponsor
Identifies & defines
project. Produces
business case & can
cancel if no longer Project Manager
meets needs. Responsible for
delivery of defined
project & its day-to-
day management.

There are two main differences between project sponsorship and project management.
Firstly, project sponsorship includes the identification and definition of the project,
whereas project management is concerned with delivering a project that is already
defined, if only quiteloosely.

Secondly, the project sponsor is responsible for the project’s business case and should
not hesitate to recommend cancellation of the project if the business case no longer
justifies the project.

It is important for every project to have a sponsor to:

● Ensure separation of decision-making responsibilities between project manager

and projectsponsor
● Ensure accountability for the realization of project benefits
● Ensure oversight of the project management function
● Carry out senior stakeholdermanagement

The project manager is appointed to deliver the project as it is defined in the project
charter or project plan. They have the authority to use cash and other resources up to
the limit set in the project charter. If they believe at any stage that the project cannot be
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

delivered within the assigned budget and timescale then they must notify the project
sponsor so that remedial action can be taken.

• Delivery of defined project

Project
• Use of $’s & resources up to
Manager project charter limits
responsible • Day-to-day management
for: • Reporting significant issues to
Project Sponsor

Project • Experience in domain of the

Manager project
• Knowledge of project
must have: management processes

A project manager should have experience in the project domain and should also be
familiar with the processes that make up project management.

You should now have an understanding of some of the problems involved when setting
up a project that needs to run ‘across’ organizations, which tend to have vertical
management structures. You should also be aware of some of the issues that are raised
when assigning people to projects, particularly if they have continuing duties in their own
department, and you can bring attention to potential issues before they arise.

Finally, with the knowledge of the specific roles and responsibilities of the project sponsor
and the project manager you can ensure that others within your organization are aware
of these requirements when developing a project.

The project manager should be appointed, by the project owner, to assume day-to-day
management of the project. The project manager should be responsible for planning at
the project and sub-project level, exercising control, ensuring product delivery and for
management and motivation of staff working on the project.

Successful projectmanagementinvolvesdealingeffectivelywithmanagers and supporting

personnelacross departmentalandfunctionallines,oftenwithlittleornoformalauthority.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

The project manager should work with the project owner to appoint the sub-project
managers and to define their responsibilities. Thereafter, the sub-project managers will
report directly to the project manager, via regular progress reports. These progress
reports represent an up-to-date summary of the status of the project and should be
compiled on a regular basis, usually weekly of every two weeks.

It is the project manager’s responsibility to analyze and collate the progress reports and
to summarize this information in regular highlight reports, which should be presented to
the project owner. Highlight reports should be produced at regular intervals, for example
monthly, and may also be produced in response to exceptional circumstances.

The project manager will need to maintain clear communications with other management
bodies, appropriate to the size of the project. They should submit the project plans and
sub-project plans to the project owner for approval and then advise the owner if there
are any significant deviations from them. If tolerances are being exceeded then remedial
plans may also need to be submitted for the approval of the project owner.

An important function of the project manager is to establish an appropriate environment

within which the project is to operate. A number of issues need to be addressed early on
to ensure that the project can proceed efficiently and effectively from the outset.

In addition to preparing the project plan, the project manager should specify or create
a configuration management method for the project. Configuration management covers
the tracking, documentation and issue of all project documents and products, throughout
the project lifecycle.

The project manager should agree the technical and quality strategy for the project, with
the section that is responsible for organizational policy. It is important that the project
manager also maintains clear communication with any related projects to ensure that
work is neither overlooked nor duplicated.

Decisions which effect the strategic direction of a project will almost certainly need to
be referred to a senior management body or individual, but it is the project manager who
will have to make the recommendations and then put into effect the decisions made.

The project manager should be aware that disagreements have the potential to arise at
all levels. The intensity of any particular conflict may be affected by a variety of factors
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

including approaching deadlines, a squeeze on resources or the individual characteristics

of those involved.

The issue that underlies a particular conflict may not be immediately apparent.
Personality clashes are a classic underlying problem that very few people feel able to raise
and discuss. It is common for personality conflicts to manifest themselves as a dispute
over some project issue—for example a technical stand-off. This is where experience is
invaluable, enabling the project manager to identify the real issues and then to address
them effectively.

KEy POINtS
 The sponsor is responsible for securing the financing and overall resource
budget approval and owns the opportunities and risks related to the financial
outcome of theproject.
 The project manager is appointed to deliver the project as it is defined in the
project charter or projectplan.
 Duties include: submitting the project plans to the project owner for approval,
appointing team leaders and defining their responsibilities.
 The project manager will also need to liaise with project office staff to maintain
project integrity and make recommendations and put into effect the decisions
made.
 Be aware that disagreements have the potential to arise at all levels.
 Personalityconflictsoftenmanifestthemselvesas a disputeovera projectissue.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Project life cycle Definition

There is very little agreement about the life cycle phases of a project and many
organizations have their own internal definitions and templates. This is understandable
because of the complicated nature and diversity of projects, which can vary enormously
in size andcomplexity.

Project Life
Cycle

Closure– Initiation–
closing the starting the
project project

Execution– Planning–
carrying out organizing &
the work preparing

Despite this, all projects can be mapped to the following simple life cycle structure:

● Starting the project

● Organizing and preparing
● Carrying out thework
● Closing theproject

This is known as a four-phase life cycle and the phases are usually referred to as:

1. Project Initiation
2. Project Planning
3. Project Execution
4. Project Closure
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

Each of these phases is made up of discrete activities, each of which has anassociated
definition and guidelines. The number of activities depends on the scope of the project.

A simple project will involve only a few activities while a more complex project may
involve hundreds or thousands of individual activities. This model can be applied to a
variety of project scenarios although the cost and duration of each phase will vary
according to the particular project. Projects are temporary structures set up with the
specific aim of delivering an identifiable end-product. All projects will therefore have
an identifiable life cycle, the characteristics of which will vary according to the size and
complexity of theproject.

For example, in the case of a project whose aim is to evaluate, recommend and implement
a computerized accounts system. The costs of the project are restricted to the selection
of the most suitable system available and the training and implementation necessary for
its introduction. The actual purchase of the system is not within the terms of reference
of the project, as this capital cost will be taken from a separate budget.

A typical life cycle will run from the formal initiation of a project through to a post
implementation review (PIR)of the delivered end-product. This post implementation
review is not shown as it is usually held some months after the project has been formally
closed. There is often little agreement between industries, or even between organizations
within the same industry, about the life cycle phases of a project. This is understandable
because of the complicated nature and diversity of projects.

A five-phase project life cycle model can be applied to a variety of project scenarios
although the cost and duration of each phase will vary according to the particular project.
The conceptual phase includes the preliminary evaluation of an idea. It is common for
this phase to include a first cut feasibility study for the proposed project. This analysis
should also include a preliminary risk assessment.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

5 Phase Project Life Cycle

Conceptual phase

Definition phase

Production phase

Operation phase

Divestment phase

The definition phase is primarily a refinement of those areas considered in the conceptual
phase. The resources required by the project should be defined along with time, cost
and performance estimates. Project estimation is a difficult task—especially in this early
phase. However it is essential that costs are quantified, as this information is needed to
establish whether or not the project should proceed.

Once a project has received the funding and backing of senior management it can
proceed to the production phase. This incorporates the production, or acquisition, of
the end-product specified. This begins with the updating of detailed plans, started in
the preceding phases and encompasses the identification and management of the
resources required. This phase also includes the development of manuals, plans and
other documentation that will support the end product in its live environment.

The operation phase involves the integration of the end-product or service into the
organizational environment. If the end-product was a marketable product then this
phase would typically include the product life cycle phases of marketing and refinement.
The divestment phase involves the reallocation of resources that are no longer required
by the current project. The end-product of any project will have a finite lifespan and
therefore its ability to generate revenue will be limited. The organization will usually need
to run future projects to guarantee its revenue stream.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

It is therefore important to retain the services of staff and other resources that can be
used in forthcoming projects. This phase also incorporates the post implementation
evaluation of the delivered end-product, and this should serve as input to the conceptual
phase of futureprojects.

The use of resources over time will vary according to each particular project. Whilst it
may be possible to characterize life cycle profiles within different industry sectors, this
can give a false impression as individual projects can vary radically from the generic
profile.

KEy POINtS
 All projects can be mapped to the following simple life cycle structure: starting
the project, organizing and preparing, carrying out the work, and closing the
project.
 This is known as a four-phase life cycle and the phases are usually referred
to as: initiation, planning, execution, andclosure.
 Projects can also be thought of as having a five phase life-cycle consistsing
of conceptual, definition, production, operation and divestmentphases.
 This model can be applied to a variety of project scenarios although the
cost and duration of each phase will vary according to the particular project.
This model can be simplified into a three or four phase view to which formal
organizational processes can beapplied.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

functional areas of Project Management

So far in this eBook, we have dealt with the organizational aspects of the project and the
project life cycle, both of these ways of looking at projects can help you to appreciate the
principles of project management. However, you can also look at project management
from the perspective of the individual processes involved.

These processes can be organized into functional areas, for example:

● Managing theScope,
● Managing theCosts,
● Managing theSchedule,
● Managing Risk, etc.

Functional
Areas of a
Risk
Project
Mgmt

Quality Team

Budget Scope

Schedule

The reason for doing this is that it allows complex high-level tasks to be broken down
into smaller tasks, a common practice when learning something new. For example, when
learning to drive you concentrate on specific tasks, such as gear changing, hill starts etc.,
before you drive on an interstate road or motorway.

Extending this approach to project management makes tasks easier to manage, resource,
and control. Thinking about project management activities like scoping, scheduling,
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

quality, and risk in isolation before trying to integrate them into a real project minimizes
the potential for misinterpretation, and makes each area easier to understand. However,
whilst these functional areas can be presented as being more or less self-contained, in
practice they overlap and interact in a unique fashion that reflects the nature of a project.

Consequently, the functional areas are not meant to be prescriptive activities that are
executed one after the other. You do not perform scoping, then scheduling, then costing,
then quality control, etc. in sequence. You need to be continually reviewing each area as
the project progresses and new information becomes available.

For example, looking at the scope management activity as something discrete makes sense
because even if it is being done at the same time as one or more of the other processes it is
always done in the same way. There is no need to do different types of scope management
at different stages of the project because scope management is scope management no
matter when you do it and no matter what else is happening at the same time.

The project management eBooks on this website include:

Managing the Projectteam

This includes all of the processes used to put together, develop, and manage the project
team. It also includes identifying what information needs to be communicated and to
whom, in order to ensure that the right people get the right information at the right time.

Managing the ProjectScope

This is the process by which the project manager defines the boundaries of the project
and ensures that any changes to the original scope are carefully managed. It defines
exactly what is included in the project and what is excluded.

Managing the ProjectSchedule

This involves making sure that things happen on time and keeping the project on schedule.
It includes techniques to estimate how long things will take, to plan accordingly, and then
to keep everything on track.

Managing the ProjectBudget

This involves keeping the project on budget and includes techniques for estimating
costs planning and budgeting as well as monitoring and controlling the costs. Some of
the materials and services required to complete the project may need to be obtained
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

from outside suppliers. If this is the case then the project manager will also need an
understanding of contract and supplier management.

Managing ProjectQuality
This ensures that the project meets its requirements and that the deliverables do what
is expected ofthem.

Managing ProjectRisk
This involves the identification and evaluation of risk as well as planning responses to
ensure that corrective action is taken if the risks materialize.

It would be much easier (although far less flexible) if it were possible to specify a simple
linear path involving preparing, planning, doing and reviewing. Unfortunately, this
approach is only possible in very simple projects and even then it falls apart as soon
as something unexpected happens. Looking at project management in terms of it’s
functional area approach is far more flexible, but it does require that you are able to
select the right tool at the right stage in the project and this requires judgment.

This judgment requires knowledge and experience, which is one reason why experienced
project managers are always in high demand. It also underlines the importance of
recording as much as possible about how projects are performing. This information can
be used to analyze how and why projects have succeeded or failed in the past.

By definition a project is going to change something in the way that the organization works
and this is something that needs to be explained to all of the project stakeholders in
order to get them on board and then to keep them there. This is easier said than done and
what makes the discipline of project management so complex is that in order to satisfy
all stakeholder requirements you need to manage interactions across organizational and
process boundaries.

Project
Managers must
manage interactions
between

Process Organizational
Boundaries Boundaries
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

A great deal of this management takes place at the boundary of the project and
involves resources other than those that are controlled directly by the project manager.
Consequently, a key part of project management is to gain commitment from others
outside of the project to provide these resources as and when necessary. This is something
that relies on highly developed interpersonal skills including persuasion and negotiation.
Complex projects need more management tools and techniques than small projects and
a project manager needs to know which tools to use and when.

Successful Project Managers

Gain commitment from outside the

project

Negotiate for necessary resources

Decides the best techniques to use

Aids decision for chosen tools to be

used by project team

Makes thorough assessment at each

project phase before progressing

The aim of every project manager should be to use the smallest number of project
management tools and techniques possible to deliver the project objectives. Remember,
project management must never become the focus of effort. It is always a means to an
end, not an end initself.

KEy POINtS
 Project processes can be organized into functional areas, for example: Managing
the Scope, Managing the Budget, Managing the Schedule, Managing Risk, etc.
 Thinking about project management activities like scoping, scheduling, quality,
and risk in isolation before trying to integrate them into a real/live project makes
them easier tounderstand.
 PrinciPleS o f P r o j e c t M a n a g e M e n t

 The Project Management eBooks on this website include: Managing the

Project Scope, Managing the Project Schedule, Managing the Project Budget,
Managing the Project Quality, Managing the Project Team, Managing the
Project Communications, Managing the Project Risk, and Managing the
Project Suppliers.
 A great deal of this management takes place at the boundary of the project
and involves resources other than those that are controlled directly by the
project manager.
 Project management must never become the focus of effort—it is always
a means to an end, not an end in itself.

Summary
Project management is a complex activity that requires a structure, procedures and
processes that are appropriate to your project. This will enable you to manage the
inevitable changes that occur throughout a project’s lifespan in a professional manner
to ensure success. Each project function describes the expertise, skills and tools needed
for your project.

So much work is now run as projects and so few people have the necessary skills to
manage them properly that there is a huge demand for good project managers and that
demand isincreasing all the time.

● Project Management Processes

● Managing a ProjectTeam
● Managing the ProjectScope
● Managing the ProjectSchedule
● Managing the ProjectBudget
● Managing ProjectQuality
● Managing ProjectRisk