Notes on Celestial Bodies 2.

The Sun
1. Night Sky after Sunset  Centre of the solar system.
 Bright dots (stars) appear, increasing in number.  Huge, made of extremely hot gases.
 Sky looks studded with diamonds – some twinkling, some glowing steadily.  Provides gravitational pull binding the system.
 Moon also visible – appears in different shapes, times, and positions.  Ultimate source of heat & light.
2. Moon Phases  Distance from Earth: ~150 million km.
 Full Moon (Poornima): Once in a month.  Nearest star to Earth.
 New Moon (Amavasya): About 15 days after full moon, moon not visible.
 Best night sky viewing on New Moon night (clear sky). 3. Planets
3. Day vs. Night Visibility  Total: 8 planets.
 Cannot see stars/moon in daytime → sunlight is too bright.  Order from Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune.
4. Celestial Bodies
 Mnemonic: My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts.
 Sun, Moon, stars, planets, satellites = celestial bodies.
 Move in elongated fixed paths → orbits.
5. Stars
(a) Mercury
 Very big, hot, made of gases.
 Nearest to Sun.
 Have their own heat & light.
 Completes orbit in 88 days.
 Sun is also a star.
(b) Venus
 Other stars look tiny because they are very far away.
 Called “Earth‟s Twin” (similar size & shape).
6. Constellations (c) Earth
 Constellations: Patterns formed by groups of stars.
 Our home planet.
 Ursa Major (Big Bear): A famous constellation. (d) Mars → Neptune
 Saptarishi (Seven sages): Part of Ursa Major, group of seven stars.
 Outer planets.
 Pole Star (North Star): (e) Pluto
o Always fixed in position.
o Shows North direction.  Earlier considered 9th planet.
o Located using Saptarishi (imaginary line through pointer stars).  In 2006, International Astronomical Union reclassified it as a dwarf planet
(like Ceres, 2003 UB313).
7. Planets
 Do not have their own heat and light.
 Shine due to reflected starlight. 4. Interesting Facts
 Word „planet‟ → from Greek “Planetai” = wanderers.  Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus → have rings (belts of small debris).
 Earth = a planet, receives heat & light from Sun.  Rings visible with powerful telescopes.
 Earth looks like a shining body from Moon.  Word origin:
o Sol (Roman mythology) = Sun God.
8. Moon
o Solar = related to the Sun. → Solar System.
 Natural satellite of Earth.
 Astronomy: Study of celestial bodies & their movements.
 Moves around Earth.
o Aryabhatta (ancient India): Said Moon & planets shine due to
9. Solar System reflected sunlight.
 Earth + 8 other planets revolve around the Sun. o Modern astronomers continue to explore the universe.
 Some planets also have moons (satellites).
�Notes: The Solar System �Notes: The Earth and Beyond
1. Solar System 1. The Earth
 Components: Sun + 8 planets + satellites + asteroids + meteoroids.
 3rd nearest planet to the Sun.
 Also called solar family with Sun as the head.
 5th largest planet in size.
  Shape: Geoid (slightly flattened at poles).  Our solar system is part of it.
 Only known planet with favourable conditions for life:  Ancient India: imagined as a river of light → Akash Ganga.
o Right temperature (neither too hot nor too cold).
o Presence of water & air.
o Oxygen in air supports life.
7. Universe
 Composed of millions of galaxies (billions of stars, dust, gases).
 Called Blue Planet → ⅔ surface covered with water.
 Very vast, size still uncertain.
 Scientists continue to explore it.
2. The Moon (Earth‟s Satellite)  All living beings, Earth, stars → part of the Universe.
 Earth has one natural satellite → Moon.
 Diameter: ~¼ of Earth.
 Distance from Earth: ~3,84,400 km.
�Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes
 Appears large because it is closer than other celestial bodies.
 Time to orbit Earth = 27 days. 1. Globe
 Time to complete one spin = 27 days → same side always visible.  True model (miniature form) of the Earth.
 No conditions for life: no water, no air.  Shows countries, continents, oceans in correct size.
 Surface: mountains, plains, depressions (cause shadows).  Different types: big globes, pocket globes, inflatable balloon globes.
Facts:  Can be rotated like Earth‟s spin.
 Speed of light: ~300,000 km/s → sunlight takes 8 minutes to reach Earth.
 Neil Armstrong → first man on Moon, 21 July 1969. 2. Shape of the Earth
 Not a perfect sphere.
 Slightly flattened at poles and bulging at the equator.
3. Satellites
 Natural Satellite: Celestial body moving around a planet (e.g., Moon
around Earth).
3. Axis & Poles
 Human-made Satellite: Artificial body, launched by rockets into Earth‟s  Axis: Imaginary tilted line through the Earth.
orbit.  Poles: Two ends of axis → North Pole & South Pole.
o Used for information, communication, weather, education.  Earth rotates west to east around its axis.
o Examples (India): INSAT, IRS, EDUSAT.  On the globe → shown by a needle (but real Earth has no needle).

4. Equator
4. Asteroids  Imaginary line dividing Earth into two equal halves.
 Numerous tiny bodies moving around Sun.  Halves = Northern Hemisphere & Southern Hemisphere.
 Found between Mars & Jupiter.  Important reference line for location.
 Believed to be remnants of an exploded planet.
5. Latitudes
5. Meteoroids  Parallels of latitude = all circular lines parallel to the equator.
 Small rock pieces moving around Sun.  Measured in degrees (°).
 When entering Earth‟s atmosphere → friction causes burning → flash of  Equator = 0° latitude.
light (meteor/shooting star).  Distance from equator to pole = 90° (¼ of 360° circle).
 If not completely burnt → falls on Earth → creates a crater/hollow. o North Pole = 90° N.
o South Pole = 90° S.
 Latitudes north of equator = North latitudes (N).
6. The Milky Way Galaxy  Latitudes south of equator = South latitudes (S).
 Appears as a whitish broad glowing band in night sky. Example:
 A cluster of millions of stars.  Chandrapur (India): 20° N.
  Belo Horizonte (Brazil): 20° S. Prime Meridian
 Passes through Greenwich, UK.
6. Size of Latitudes  Value = 0° longitude.
 Equator → largest circle.  Divides Earth into:
 Size decreases as we move towards poles. o Eastern Hemisphere (0°–180° E).
o Western Hemisphere (0°–180° W).
Here are concise and well-structured notes on Important Parallels of Latitudes & Heat  180° E & 180° W → same line.
Zones of the Earth: Locating a Place
 Latitude + Longitude = Grid system to find exact position.
�Important Parallels of Latitudes & Heat Zones  Example: Dhubri (Assam) → 26° N, 90° E.
1. Important Parallels of Latitudes
 Equator (0°) → divides Earth into Northern & Southern Hemispheres. 2. Longitude and Time
 North Pole (90° N) & South Pole (90° S).  Earth rotates 360° in 24 hrs = 15° per hr = 1° in 4 minutes.
 Four major parallels:  When it is 12 noon at Greenwich (GMT):
1. Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) – Northern Hemisphere. o 15° E → 1 hr ahead (1 p.m.).
2. Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) – Southern Hemisphere. o 15° W → 1 hr behind (11 a.m.).
3. Arctic Circle (66½° N).  Thus, time difference = 4 minutes per degree longitude.
4. Antarctic Circle (66½° S).  All places on the same longitude → same local time.

2. Heat Zones of the Earth 3. Why Standard Time is Needed?

(a) Torrid Zone (Hot Zone)  Local time differs by longitude → confusion (e.g., trains, communication).
 Between Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) and Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S).  India:
 Midday Sun is directly overhead at least once a year. o Longitude of 82½° E taken as Standard Meridian.
 Receives maximum heat → hottest region. o Its local time = Indian Standard Time (IST).
(b) Temperate Zones (Moderate Climate) o IST = GMT + 5 hrs 30 min.
 Northern Hemisphere: Between Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) & Arctic Circle (66½°  Example:
N). o Match at 2 p.m. London (GMT) → 7:30 p.m. in India.
 Southern Hemisphere: Between Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) & Antarctic Circle  Some countries with large east-west extent → multiple standard times.
(66½° S). o Example: Russia = 11 standard times.
 Midday Sun never overhead here.
 Moderate temperatures → neither very hot nor very cold. 4. World Time Zones
(c) Frigid Zones (Cold Zones)  Earth divided into 24 time zones (1 hour each).
 Northern Hemisphere: Between Arctic Circle (66½° N) & North Pole (90° N).  Each zone = 15° longitude.
 Southern Hemisphere: Between Antarctic Circle (66½° S) & South Pole (90° S).
 Sun‟s rays slanting, never high above horizon.
 Very little heat → very cold regions.

Here are well-structured notes on Longitudes and Time: �MOTION OF EARTH

1. Types of Motions
�Longitudes and Time 1. Rotation
1. What are Longitudes? o Movement of earth on its axis.
o Earth‟s axis → imaginary line, tilted at 66½° with orbital plane.
 Imaginary lines running from North Pole → South Pole.
o One rotation = 24 hours (1 day).
 Called meridians of longitude. o Effect: Causes day & night.
 Measured in degrees (°), minutes („), seconds (“). o Circle of illumination: Line dividing day and night.
 All meridians are semi-circles of equal length. �If Earth did not rotate → one side continuous day & heat, other side continuous
 Distance between meridians decreases polewards → meet at poles. night & cold → life not possible.
 2. Revolution
o Movement of earth around the sun in elliptical orbit. Maps
o One revolution = 365¼ days (1 year). Globe vs Map
o For convenience → year taken as 365 days.  Globe advantages: Useful to study the earth as a whole.
o Extra ¼ day x 4 years = 1 extra day → added to February (29 days).  Limitations of globe: Not useful for studying smaller areas (country, state, district,
o Such a year = Leap Year (366 days). town, village).
 Maps: Representation/drawing of earth‟s surface (whole or part) on a flat surface
2. Seasons on Earth according to a scale.
 Change in seasons → due to revolution + tilt of Earth‟s axis.
 Earth‟s axis always inclined in the same direction during revolution. Uses of Maps
(i) Summer Solstice (21st June)  Show small or large areas.
 Northern Hemisphere tilted towards sun.  Contain fewer or many facts.
 Sun‟s rays directly fall on Tropic of Cancer (23½° N).  Collection of maps = Atlas.
 Northern Hemisphere → summer, longer days, shorter nights.  Maps provide more information than globes.
 Longest day & shortest night in Northern Hemisphere.
 Arctic Circle → continuous daylight for ~6 months. Types of Maps
1. Physical Maps – Show natural features (mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans,
 Southern Hemisphere → winter (shorter days, longer nights). etc.).
(ii) Winter Solstice (22nd December) 2. Political Maps – Show boundaries of countries, states, cities, towns, villages.
 Southern Hemisphere tilted towards sun. 3. Thematic Maps – Show specific information (roads, rainfall, forests, industries,
 Sun‟s rays directly fall on Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S). etc.).
 Southern Hemisphere → summer (long days, short nights).
 Northern Hemisphere → winter (short days, long nights). Components of Maps
 Fun fact: �Christmas in Australia = Summer. 1. Distance
o Maps are reduced drawings.
(iii) Equinox (21st March & 23rd September)
o Scale = ratio of actual ground distance to map distance.
 Sun‟s rays fall directly on Equator (0°). o Example: If 10 km = 2 cm on map → 1 cm = 5 km (Scale = 1 cm: 5 km).
 Neither pole tilted towards the sun. o Small scale maps: Show large areas (continents/countries), less detail.
 Whole Earth → equal days and equal nights.  Example: 5 cm = 500 km.
 21st March: o Large scale maps: Show small areas (village/town), more detail.
o Northern Hemisphere → Spring.  Example: 5 cm = 500 m.
o Southern Hemisphere → Autumn. o Large scale maps give more information than small scale maps.
 23rd September: 2. Direction (explained in next part of chapter, not fully here).
o Northern Hemisphere → Autumn. 3. Symbols (explained later in chapter).
o Southern Hemisphere → Spring.

3. Summary Components of Maps (continued)

 Rotation → causes Day & Night. 2. Direction
 Revolution → causes Seasons (Summer, Winter, Spring, Autumn).  Most maps have an arrow marked „N‟ → shows North direction (called north line).
 Knowing North helps to find: South, East, West → called Cardinal Points.
 Intermediate directions: NE, SE, SW, NW → help to locate places more
accurately.
 Compass: Instrument to find directions (its magnetic needle always points North-
South).

3. Symbols
 Actual shapes & sizes of features (buildings, roads, bridges, trees, wells, railways,
etc.) cannot be drawn on maps.
  Represented by: letters, colours, pictures, lines, shades.  Solid portion of Earth → rocks of crust + thin soil layer.
 Benefits:  Soil contains nutrients needed for organisms.
o Provide lots of information in limited space. Divisions of Earth’s Surface
o Maps become simple & easy to read. 1. Continents → Large landmasses.
o Can be understood without knowing the local language.
2. Ocean Basins → Huge water bodies.
 Universal language → Conventional symbols (internationally agreed).
 All oceans are connected to each other.
 Colours in maps:
o Blue → Water bodies
o Brown → Mountains
o Yellow → Plateau
o Green → Plains

Other Types of Drawings

Sketch
 Rough drawing of an area based on memory & observation.
 Not to scale.
 Used to show location with respect to nearby places.
 Example: Showing the way to a friend‟s house.
Plan
 Drawing of a small area on a large scale.
 Large-scale maps show details, but for specific measurements (e.g., length/breadth
of a room), plans are used.
 Plans are drawn to scale. Measurement of Elevation
 Sea level is taken as zero reference point.
 Highest peak: Mt. Everest → 8,848 m above sea level.
 Greatest depth: Mariana Trench (Pacific Ocean) → 11,022 m below sea
level.
Major Domains of the Earth  Depth of ocean > height of mountains.

Introduction Important Facts

 Earth: only planet with life.  First to climb Mt. Everest:
 Life exists because of presence of land, water, air. o Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) & Tenzing Norgay Sherpa (India),
 Earth‟s surface = complex zone where 3 main components meet & interact: 29 May 1953.
o Lithosphere (land/rocks/soil)  First woman to climb Everest: Junko Tabei (Japan), 16 May 1975.
o Atmosphere (air/gases)  First Indian woman to climb Everest: Bachendri Pal, 23 May 1984.
o Hydrosphere (water in all forms) Continents
 Biosphere: Narrow zone where land, water & air overlap, supports life.  Seven continents: Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America,
Australia, Antarctica.
Word Origin (Greek)  Most landmass lies in the Northern Hemisphere.
 Lithos → Stone Asia
 Atmos → Vapour  Largest continent (covers ⅓ of total land area).
 Hudor → Water  Lies in Eastern Hemisphere.
 Bios → Life  Tropic of Cancer passes through it.
 Separated from Europe by Ural Mountains.
Lithosphere  Combined landmass of Europe + Asia = Eurasia.
Europe
  Smaller than Asia. Hydrosphere
 Lies west of Asia.  Earth = Blue Planet (71% water, 29% land).
 Arctic Circle passes through it.  Hydrosphere includes all forms of water:
 Surrounded by water on three sides. o Oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, underground water, water vapour.
Africa  97% of Earth‟s water → oceans (too salty for human use).
 Second largest continent.  Rest mostly in ice sheets & glaciers or underground.
 Equator (0° latitude) runs almost through the middle.  Only a tiny fraction is fresh water available for human use.
 Only continent crossed by Tropic of Cancer, Equator & Tropic of  Despite being the blue planet → shortage of usable water.
Capricorn. Oceans
 Sahara Desert – world‟s largest hot desert.  Major part of Hydrosphere.
 Surrounded by oceans and seas.  All oceans are interconnected.
 River Nile – world‟s longest river – flows through Africa.  Ocean waters always moving → three chief movements:
North America 1. Waves
 Third largest continent. 2. Tides
 Linked to South America by Isthmus of Panama (narrow strip). 3. Ocean currents
 Lies completely in Northern & Western Hemisphere. Five Major Oceans (in order of size)
 Surrounded by three oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic. 1. Pacific Ocean
South America o Largest ocean (covers ⅓ of Earth‟s surface).
 Lies mostly in the Southern Hemisphere. o Contains Mariana Trench (deepest part of Earth).
 Surrounded by Atlantic Ocean (east) & Pacific Ocean (west). o Shape: Almost circular.
o Surrounded by: Asia, Australia, North & South America.
 Andes – world‟s longest mountain range.
2. Atlantic Ocean
 Amazon River – world‟s largest river (by volume).
o Second largest ocean.
Australia o Shape: „S‟ shaped.
 Smallest continent. o Surrounded by:
 Lies entirely in Southern Hemisphere.  West → North & South America
 Surrounded by oceans and seas.  East → Europe & Africa
 Called an “Island continent”. o Coastline: Highly indented → natural harbours & ports.
Antarctica o Busiest ocean (commerce & trade).
 Lies completely in Southern Hemisphere. 3. Indian Ocean
 South Pole lies almost at its centre. o Only ocean named after a country (India).
 Permanently covered with thick ice sheets. o Shape: Almost triangular.
 No permanent human settlement. o Boundaries:
 Many research stations; Indian stations: Maitri & Dakshin Gangotri.  North → Asia
 West → Africa
 East → Australia
4. Southern Ocean
o Encircles Antarctica.
o Extends northward to 60° South latitude.
5. Arctic Ocean
o Located within the Arctic Circle, surrounds North Pole.
o Connected to Pacific by Bering Strait (narrow, shallow water
stretch).
o Bounded by northern coasts of North America & Eurasia.
Atmosphere
 Definition: Thin blanket of gases surrounding the Earth.
  Importance:  Need: Limit overuse of Earth‟s resources → maintain balance between
o Provides air for breathing. lithosphere, atmosphere & hydrosphere.
o Protects from harmful sun rays.
Extent & Layers
 Extends up to ~1,600 km.
 Divided into five layers: Major Landforms of the Earth
1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere Variation in Earth‟s Surface
:93:.+^ 3. Mesosphere  Earth‟s surface is not uniform → variety of landforms.
4. Thermosphere
 Some parts → rugged, others → flat.
5. Exosphere
Composition of Air Processes Shaping Landforms
 Nitrogen → 78% (helps growth of organisms). 1. Internal Processes
o Cause upliftment and sinking of Earth‟s surface.
 Oxygen → 21% (breath of life).
o Continuous movements take place inside the Earth.
 Other gases → 1% (CO₂, argon, etc.).
2. External Processes
 Carbon dioxide → small amount but important: o Wearing down and rebuilding of land surface.
o Absorbs heat radiated by Earth → keeps planet warm. o Erosion → wearing away of Earth‟s surface.
o Essential for plants (photosynthesis). o Deposition → rebuilding of surface.
Properties o Agents: Running water, ice, wind.
 Density: Maximum at sea level, decreases with height → reason climbers
carry oxygen cylinders. Classification of Landforms
 Temperature: Decreases as we go upward.  Based on elevation & slope:
 Air Pressure: 1. Mountains
o Varies from place to place. 2. Plateaus
o Air moves from high pressure → low pressure. 3. Plains
o Moving air = Wind.
Extra Fact
Biosphere – The Domain of Life
 Hill: Land surface rising higher than surrounding area.
 Definition: Narrow zone of contact between land, water & air → supports
 Mountain: Steep hill with elevation > 600 metres.
life.
 Mountains above 8,000 m: (Examples: Mt. Everest, K2, Kangchenjunga).
 Contains all living organisms: microbes → humans → large mammals.
 Organisms divided into:
o Plant kingdom Mountains
o Animal kingdom Definition & Features
Interaction of Domains  Natural elevation of the earth‟s surface.
 Human activities:  Higher than surrounding areas.
o Deforestation/land clearance → soil erosion.  May have small summit & broad base.
o Industrial & vehicle emissions → air pollution.  Climate: colder as altitude increases.
o Waste discharge into rivers/lakes → water unsuitable for use.  Some mountains have glaciers (permanently frozen rivers of ice).
 Natural calamities:  Some mountains exist under the sea.
o Earthquakes → land submergence (e.g., Tsunami – Andaman &  Sparse population due to harsh climate & steep slopes.
Nicobar Islands submerged).  Less land for farming.
Global Warming
 CO₂ is essential but excessive increase → rise in global temperatures. Mountain Ranges
 Known as Global Warming.  Mountains may be arranged in a line = Range.
  A system of ranges = Mountain System. o Rivers create waterfalls (Hundru falls – Subarnarekha, Jog falls –
 Examples: Karnataka).
o Himalayas (Asia) o Lava plateaus → black soil (fertile for cultivation).
o Alps (Europe) o Tourism → scenic beauty.
o Andes (South America)
Plains
Types of Mountains  Definition: Large stretches of flat land, generally ≤200 m above sea level.
1. Fold Mountains  Types:
o Formed by folding of earth‟s crust. o Extremely level.
o Young fold mountains: Himalayas, Alps → high peaks, rugged o Slightly rolling or undulating.
relief.  Formation: By rivers & tributaries.
o Old fold mountains: Aravalli (India), Appalachians (North o Rivers erode mountains → carry stones, sand, silt → deposit in
America), Ural (Russia) → rounded features, low elevation. valleys → plains form.
2. Block Mountains  Importance/Uses:
o Formed by faulting → large blocks displaced vertically. o Fertile soil → ideal for cultivation.
o Uplifted blocks = Horsts, Lowered blocks = Grabens. o Easy to build transport network.
o Example: Rhine Valley & Vosges (Europe). o Thickly populated (dense human settlements).
3. Volcanic Mountains
 Examples:
o Formed due to volcanic activity.
o Asia: Ganga-Brahmaputra plains (India), Yangtze plains
o Examples: Mt. Kilimanjaro (Africa), Mt. Fujiyama (Japan).
(China).
o North America: large river plains.
Importance of Mountains o India: Indo-Gangetic plains → most densely populated.
 Source of rivers (glaciers).
 Water reservoirs → irrigation & hydroelectricity.
 River valleys & terraces → ideal for agriculture.
Landforms and People
 Forests → fuel, fodder, shelter, gum, raisins, etc.  Human life varies with landforms:
o Mountains: Difficult life, less population, harsh climate.
 Biodiversity → rich flora & fauna.
o Plains: Easy farming, housing, transport → dense population.
 Tourism & Sports → scenic beauty, adventure sports (paragliding, skiing,
o Plateaus: Rich in minerals, tourism, cultivation in some regions.
rafting, hang gliding).
 Natural calamities (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storms, floods) cause
destruction.
Plateaus  Human impact:
 Definition: Elevated flat-topped land (tableland) above surrounding areas. o Wasteful use of land (houses on fertile soil).
 Features: o Pollution of land & water (garbage dumping).
o Flat top, steep slopes on one or more sides.  Responsibility: Use natural resources carefully, leave earth better for future
o Height: a few hundred → several thousand metres. generations.
o Can be young or old.
 Examples: Swachh Bharat Mission
o Deccan Plateau (India) – one of the oldest.
 Government of India programme.
o East African Plateau – Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda.
o Western Plateau (Australia).  Aim: Clean water, air, hygienic surroundings.
o Tibet Plateau – world‟s highest (4,000–6,000 m).  Importance: Healthy mind → healthy body → requires clean environment.
 Importance/Uses:
o Rich in minerals → mining (Gold & diamond in Africa, iron, coal, � Extra fact:
manganese in Chhotanagpur, India).  Mauna Kea (Hawaii, Pacific Ocean) is an undersea mountain higher than
Mount Everest (10,205 m).
Physical Divisions of India 6. Islands
1. Himalayas (Mountains in the North)  Lakshadweep Islands → in Arabian Sea, coral islands, off Kerala coast.
 Meaning: Him + Alaya = Abode of Snow.  Andaman & Nicobar Islands → in Bay of Bengal, SE of Indian mainland.
 3 parallel ranges: o Affected by 2004 Tsunami.
o Himadri (Great Himalaya) → Northernmost, contains world‟s
highest peaks.
o Himachal (Middle Himalaya) → South of Himadri, many famous
hill stations.
o Shiwalik → Southernmost range.

2. Northern Plains
 Lies south of the Himalayas.
 Level & flat land.
 Formed by alluvial deposits of rivers: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra &
tributaries.
 Highly fertile → dense population.

3. Great Indian Desert (Thar Desert)

 Located in western India.
 Dry, hot, sandy region.
 Very little vegetation.

4. Peninsular Plateau
 Triangular in shape, highly uneven relief.
 Contains hill ranges & valleys.
 Important ranges:
o Aravali Hills (oldest range, NW side).
o Vindhyas & Satpuras (central India).
 Rivers:
o Narmada & Tapi → west-flowing, drain into Arabian Sea.
 Boundaries:
o Western Ghats (Sahyadris) → continuous.
o Eastern Ghats → broken & uneven.
 Rich in minerals → coal, iron ore.

5. Coastal Plains
 Between plateau & seas.
 Western Coastal Plains: narrow.
 Eastern Coastal Plains: broader. 31-1X
 Rivers draining into Bay of Bengal: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
Kaveri.
 Fertile deltas formed at mouths (e.g., Sunderban Delta → world‟s largest, o
triangular in shape, formed by Ganga & Brahmaputra).
 o Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in this season.

Indian Climate Characteristics

 Broadly described as Monsoon type of climate.
 Monsoon = Arabic word „Mausim‟ → seasons.
 India‟s location in tropical region → monsoon brings most rainfall.
 Agriculture highly dependent on monsoon rains.
o Good monsoon → good crop.
o Poor monsoon → crop failure.

Factors Affecting Climate in India

 Location (latitude).
 Altitude (height above sea level).
 Distance from sea.
 Relief features (mountains, plains, deserts).

Regional Differences in Climate

 Rajasthan (Jaisalmer, Bikaner) → very hot desert.
 Jammu & Kashmir (Drass, Kargil) → freezing cold.
 Coastal areas (Mumbai, Kolkata) → moderate climate, humid.
o  Mawsynram (Meghalaya) → world‟s highest rainfall.
 Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) → sometimes no rainfall at all.

India: Climate Natural Vegetation

Weather vs Climate Definition
 Weather → day-to-day atmospheric conditions (temperature, rainfall,  Natural vegetation: Grasses, shrubs, and trees that grow on their own
sunshine, wind). without human interference.
 Climate → average weather condition of a place, measured over many  Types differ due to climatic conditions, especially rainfall.
years.
Types of Natural Vegetation in India
Major Seasons in India 1. Tropical Evergreen Forests (Rain Forests)
1. Cold Weather Season (Winter) → December – February o Found in regions with heavy rainfall.
o Sun rays do not fall directly. o Very dense, sunlight hardly reaches ground.
o Low temperatures, especially in northern India. o Trees shed leaves at different times → always green.
2. Hot Weather Season (Summer) → March – May o Important trees: Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood.
o Sun rays fall more directly. o Location:
o Very high temperatures.  Andaman & Nicobar Islands
o Hot dry winds called loo blow during the day.  Parts of North-Eastern states
3. Southwest Monsoon Season (Rainy) → June – September  Narrow strip on western slopes of Western Ghats
o Marked by onset & advance of monsoon winds. 2. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)
o Winds blow from Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal → carry o Cover large part of India.
moisture. o Less dense compared to evergreen.
o Rainfall occurs when winds strike mountain barriers. o Trees shed leaves at a particular time of year.
4. Season of Retreating Monsoons (Autumn) → October – November o Important trees: Sal, Teak, Peepal, Neem, Shisham.
o Winds move back from mainland to Bay of Bengal. o Location:
  Madhya Pradesh
 Uttar Pradesh Wildlife in India ���
 Bihar
 National Animal: Tiger (found across India).
 Jharkhand
 Other important animals:
 Chhattisgarh
o Asiatic Lion → Gir Forest (Gujarat).
 Odisha
o Elephants → Assam, Kerala, Karnataka.
 Parts of Maharashtra
o One-horned Rhinoceros → Assam.
Natural Vegetation (continued) o Camels → Great Indian Desert.
3. Thorny Bushes o Wild Ass → Rann of Kachchh.
 Found in dry areas. o Wild goats, snow leopards, bears → Himalayas.
 Leaves are spines → reduce water loss. o Common: Monkey, wolf, jackal, nilgai, cheetal.
 Important plants: Cactus, Khair, Babool, Keekar.  Bird Life:
 Locations: o National Bird: Peacock.
o Rajasthan o Others: Parrots, pigeons, mynah, geese, bulbul, ducks.
o Punjab o Bird sanctuaries → Protect birds from hunters.
o Haryana  Reptiles: Many snakes; important: Cobra, Krait.
o Gujarat
o Eastern slopes of Western Ghats Threats to Wildlife
 Deforestation (loss of natural habitat).
4. Mountain Vegetation  Hunting & poaching.
 Varies with altitude.  Many species extinct, many endangered.
 Higher altitude = lower temperature.
 At 1500 – 2500 m → Coniferous trees (cone-shaped).
 Important trees: Chir, Pine, Deodar.
Conservation Efforts �
 Protected Areas: National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere
Reserves.
5. Mangrove Forests
 Projects: Project Tiger, Project Elephant.
 Grow in saline (salty) water.
 Awareness: Wildlife Week (first week of October).
 Found mainly in:
 Responsibility: Avoid buying animal products (horns, fur, skins, feathers).
o Sunderbans (West Bengal)
o Andaman & Nicobar Islands
 Famous species: Sundari tree (name origin of Sunderbans). Migratory Birds �
 Birds migrate to India in winter.
Why are Forests Necessary? �  Examples: Pintail Duck, Curlew, Flamingo, Osprey, Little Stint.
 Little Stint: Smallest migratory bird (~15 g), travels from Arctic region →
 Oxygen release: Plants give oxygen, absorb CO₂.
8000 km to India.
 Prevent soil erosion: Roots bind soil.
 Resources: Timber, fuel wood, fodder, medicinal plants, herbs, lac, honey,
gum.
 Wildlife habitat: Provide shelter and food to animals.
 Threat: Reckless tree cutting → loss of vegetation.
 Solutions:
o Plant more trees.
o Protect existing forests.
o Create awareness.
o Programmes: Van Mahotsav (tree plantation).
 Environment: Basic Life Support System Ecosystem
 Provides:  Definition: A system formed by the interaction of living organisms with each other
o Air we breathe and with physical & chemical surroundings, linked by transfer of energy &
o Water we drink material.
o Food we eat  Components:
o Land for living & activities o Biotic (living): plants, animals, humans.
o Abiotic (non-living): soil, air, water, sunlight.
Modification of Natural Environment by Humans  Types:
 Air pollution → car fumes. o Large: rainforest, grassland, desert, mountains, river, ocean.
o Small: pond, lake.
 Water → collected in pots, used for drinking & activities.
 Importance: Shows interdependence of living beings & their environment.
 Food → served in vessels (human-made).
 Land → used for factories, mills, buildings.
Human Environment
 Human creations: cars, mills, factories, containers → show human interaction with
environment. Early Humans
 Adapted to natural surroundings.
Types of Environment  Lived a simple life, directly dependent on nature.
1. Natural Environment Development Over Time
 Combination of biotic (living) & abiotic (non-living).  Grew crops → Domesticated animals → Settled life.
o Biotic: plants, animals, microorganisms.  Inventions: wheel, tools.
o Abiotic: land, air, water, sunlight.  Barter system → trade → commerce.
2. Human Environment  Industrial Revolution: large-scale production.
 Human activities, creations & interactions (factories, settlements, technology, etc.).  Transportation: faster movement of goods & people.
 Information Revolution: quick & easy communication worldwide.
Domains of Natural Environment
Lithosphere Balance Between Natural & Human Environment
 Solid crust / hard top layer of Earth.  Humans must use environment in a harmonious way.
 Made of rocks & minerals, covered with soil.  Example: Watermelon in summer, peanuts in winter → shows adaptation to
 Landforms: mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys. seasons.
 Importance: forests, grasslands, agriculture, settlements, minerals.
Hydrosphere
 Domain of water. Interior of the Earth
 Includes rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, groundwater.  Earth has concentric layers (like an onion):
 Essential for all living beings. o Crust:
Atmosphere  Outermost, thinnest layer.
 Thin layer of air around Earth, held by gravity.  Thickness: ~35 km (continents), ~5 km (oceans).
 Functions:  Composition:
o Protects from harmful rays & heat of the sun.  Continental crust → Silica + Alumina (SIAL).
o Contains gases, dust, water vapour.  Oceanic crust → Silica + Magnesium (SIMA).
o Changes in atmosphere → weather & climate.  Forms only 1% of Earth‟s volume.
Biosphere o Mantle:
 Plant & animal kingdom = living world.  Beneath crust, extends up to 2900 km depth.
 Narrow zone of Earth where land, water, air interact.  Makes up 84% of Earth‟s volume.
 Supports life. o Core (NIFE):
World Environment Day  Radius ~3500 km.
 Composition: Nickel (Ni) + Iron (Fe).
 Celebrated on 5 June every year to raise awareness about environmental protection.
 Very high temperature & pressure.
  Makes up 15% of Earth‟s volume.  Definition: Naturally occurring substances with definite chemical composition &
� Radius of Earth = 6371 km. physical properties.
 Uses:
o Fuels: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas.
o Industries: Iron, Aluminium, Gold, Uranium.
o Medicine, Fertilisers, etc.
Lithospheric Plates
 Earth‟s crust (lithosphere) is broken into rigid plates (large & small).
 Plates carry continents + ocean floor.
 Move very slowly (few mm per year).
 Caused by circular movement of molten magma inside Earth.

Forces Causing Earth Movements

1. Endogenic Forces (from inside the Earth)
o Cause sudden movements → Earthquakes, Volcanoes.
o Cause slow movements → Mountain building, continental drift.
2. Exogenic Forces (on Earth‟s surface)
Rocks and Minerals o Example: Weathering, erosion, deposition.
 Rock: Any natural mass of mineral matter forming Earth‟s crust.
 Types of Rocks: Volcano �
1. Igneous Rocks (Primary rocks)  Definition: Opening/vent in Earth‟s crust through which molten material erupts.
 Formed by cooling of molten magma.
 Extrusive Igneous → Formed from lava cooling on
surface (fine-grained). Example: Basalt (Deccan Plateau).
 Intrusive Igneous → Formed by slow cooling inside \URIGTOI3KX[VZOUT3SGZKXOGR3

Earth (large grains). Example: Granite.

6_XUIRGYZOI3JKHXOY
2. Sedimentary Rocks 狤3'YN3GTJ3J[YZ

 Formed from compression & hardening of sediments 狥34OZXUMKT3IUSVU[TJY

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(deposited by wind, water, etc).

 Often contain fossils.
 Example: Sandstone.
3. Metamorphic Rocks
 Formed from igneous/sedimentary rocks under heat &
pressure.
 Examples:
 Clay → Slate Earthquake �
 Limestone → Marble  Definition: Vibrations of Earth‟s surface caused by movement of lithospheric plates.
 Focus: Place inside crust where movement starts.
Rock Cycle  Epicentre: Place on surface above the focus.
 Waves spread outward from epicentre → damage highest near epicentre.
 Magma cools → Igneous rocks
Types of Earthquake Waves
 Igneous rocks weather & deposit → Sedimentary rocks
1. P waves (Primary / Longitudinal)
 Igneous/Sedimentary under heat & pressure → Metamorphic rocks 2. S waves (Secondary / Transverse)
 Metamorphic rocks under heat & pressure → melt into magma 3. L waves (Surface waves)
➡�Cycle repeats. Measurement
 Seismograph → records earthquakes.
Minerals  Richter Scale → measures magnitude:
 o 2.0 or less → very mild, barely felt. o Examples: Angel Falls (Venezuela – highest), Niagara Falls (Canada–
o 5.0+ → causes damage. USA), Victoria Falls (Zambia–Zimbabwe).
o 6.0+ → strong earthquake. 2. Meanders → Large bends formed by twisting river in plains.
o 7.0+ → major earthquake. 3. Ox-bow Lake → Cut-off meander loop.
4. Floodplain → Fertile flat plain formed by deposition during floods.
5. Levees → Raised banks along river.
6. Delta → Deposits at river mouth forming distributaries and triangular land.

Work of Sea Waves �

Earthquake Preparedness �  Sea Caves → Hollow structures formed in rocks.
 Safe Spots: Under kitchen counter, desk, table, inside corner/wall.  Sea Arches → Roof remains after caves widen.
 Avoid: Fireplaces, chimneys, windows, mirrors, picture frames.  Stacks → Walls left after roof of sea arch breaks.
 Be Prepared:  Sea Cliff → Steep rocky coast.
o Spread awareness.  Beaches → Deposits of sediments along shore.
o Stay calm & face disaster confidently.
o Observe animal behaviour (local prediction method: e.g., snakes surface,
fish agitated). Work of Ice (Glaciers) �
 Glaciers = “Rivers of ice” → erode landscape.
 Carve deep hollows → lakes when filled with water.
 Deposit rocks, sand, silt → glacial moraines.

Work of Wind (in Deserts) �

 Mushroom Rocks → Narrow base, wide top (wind erodes lower part more).
 Sand Dunes → Hills of sand formed by wind deposition.
 Loess → Fine, light sand carried long distances and deposited in large areas.
Major Processes Shaping Landforms o Found in China.
 Weathering → Breaking up of rocks on Earth‟s surface.
 Erosion → Wearing away of landscape by water, wind, ice.
 Deposition → Carried material deposited by agents → new landforms.

Work of a River �
1. Waterfall → River tumbles at steep angle over hard rocks/valley.
Atmosphere – Importance 4. Thermosphere (80–400 km)
o Temperature rises rapidly with height.
o Contains Ionosphere → reflects radio waves → aids radio transmission.
 Blanket of air surrounding Earth. 5. Exosphere (above 400 km)
 Functions:
o Outermost, very thin air.
o Provides air for breathing. o Light gases like helium & hydrogen escape into space.
o Protects from harmful sun rays.
o Regulates Earth‟s temperature → makes life possible. Weather vs Climate
 Weather → Hour-to-hour, day-to-day atmospheric condition.
Composition of Atmosphere  Climate → Average weather condition over a long period.
 Nitrogen (78%) → Most abundant.
o Plants need nitrogen but cannot use directly. Temperature
o Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert it into usable form.  Degree of hotness/coldness of air.
 Oxygen (21%) → Essential for respiration.  Changes: day-night & seasonal variation.
o Produced by plants during photosynthesis.  Insolation: incoming solar energy.
o Balance maintained by respiration & photosynthesis. o Higher at equator, decreases toward poles.
 Other Gases (1%) → Carbon dioxide, helium, argon, ozone, hydrogen, etc.  Cities hotter than villages (due to buildings, roads trapping heat).
 Dust particles & water vapour also present.
Air Pressure
Carbon Dioxide & Global Warming  Pressure exerted by weight of air.
 Role: Absorbs heat radiated from Earth → greenhouse effect → keeps Earth warm.  Highest at sea level, decreases with height.
 Excess CO₂ (from factories, vehicles, burning fuels):  High Temp → Low Pressure (air rises, cloudy/rainy).
o Traps more heat → global warming.
o Effects:  Low Temp → High Pressure (air sinks, clear/sunny).
 Melting of polar ice & glaciers.  Air moves from high pressure → low pressure.
 Rising sea levels → floods in coastal areas.
 Climate change → extinction of species. Winds
Movement of air due to pressure difference.
Balance of Gases 1. Permanent Winds → Trade winds, Westerlies, Easterlies.
2. Seasonal Winds → Change direction with season (e.g., Monsoon in India).
 Plants use CO₂ and release O₂. 3. Local Winds → Blow in small areas for short duration (e.g., land breeze, sea
 Humans/animals use O₂ and release CO₂. breeze, loo).
 Cutting trees + burning fuels → disturbs balance.
Moisture & Humidity
Air Movement  Humidity → Moisture in air.
 Hot air → expands, lighter → rises.  Warm air holds more water vapour.
 Cold air → denser, heavy → sinks.  On humid days: clothes dry slowly, sweat doesn‟t evaporate easily.
 Movement of hot & cold air → air circulation / wind. Cloud Formation
Structure of the Atmosphere (Layers)  Water evaporates → rises → cools → condenses → droplets form clouds.
1. Troposphere (up to ~13 km)  When droplets become heavy → precipitation (rain, snow, hail).
o Most important layer. Rainfall Types
o Air we breathe exists here. 1. Convectional Rainfall → due to rising warm air.
o All weather phenomena (rainfall, fog, hailstorm). 2. Orographic Rainfall → due to mountains (windward side rain, leeward dry).
2. Stratosphere (13–50 km) 3. Cyclonic Rainfall → due to cyclones/depressions.
o Almost cloud-free → ideal for flying aircrafts.  Rainfall brings fresh water → vital for plants & animals.
o Contains ozone layer → protects from harmful sun rays.
3. Mesosphere (50–80 km)  Less rainfall → drought.
o Meteorites burn in this layer.  Excess rainfall → floods.
Cyclone – Odisha (1999)
Background
 Odisha → prone to cyclones from Bay of Bengal.
 Two major cyclones in 1999:
o 17–18 Oct 1999 (affected 5 districts).
o 29 Oct 1999 → Supercyclone (devastated large parts of the state).

Factors of Damage
1. Wind Velocity
o Winds up to 260 km/h.
o Lasted 36 hours.
o Uprooted trees, destroyed kutcha houses, blew away rooftops.
o Industrial sheds & power/telecom lines damaged.
2. Heavy Rainfall
o Continued for 3 days.
o Caused flooding in major rivers.
3. Tidal Surge
o 7–10 m high waves.
o Swept 20 km inland.
o Destroyed standing paddy crops. Water
o Caused salinisation of agricultural land.
Water Cycle
Origin & Path  Continuous circulation of water between oceans, atmosphere, and land.
 Originated as a depression in Gulf of Thailand (25 Oct 1999).  Processes:
 Moved northwestward, intensified into supercyclone. o Evaporation → Water turns into vapour.
 Struck Erasama–Balikuda region (Odisha) on 29 Oct, 10:30 a.m.. o Condensation → Vapour cools to form clouds.
o Precipitation → Rain, snow, sleet fall back to Earth.
Impact  Earth acts like a terrarium → same water keeps circulating for centuries.
 Human impact → 13 million people affected, many deaths, livestock
killed. Sources of Fresh Water
 Agriculture → Paddy, vegetables, fruits destroyed; land infertile due to  Rivers, ponds, springs, glaciers.
salinisation.  Oceans & seas → salty water (not drinkable).
 Forests → Loss of sal, teak, bamboo plantations; mangroves (Paradeep–
Konark) vanished. Salinity
 Urban impact → Cities like Bhubaneshwar, Cuttack & 28 coastal towns  Definition → Amount of salt in grams per 1000 grams of water.
heavily damaged.  Average salinity of oceans → 35 parts per thousand.
 Dead Sea (Israel) → 340 g per litre; dense water → swimmers float.

Distribution of Water on Earth

 Total Earth‟s surface: 3/4 covered by water.
 But most is salty → very little usable fresh water.
Water Source %
Oceans 97.3%
Ice-caps 2.0%
Groundwater 0.68%  High tide → water rises to highest level.
Freshwater lakes 0.009%  Low tide → water recedes to lowest level.
Inland seas & salt lakes 0.009% Cause → Gravitational pull of moon & sun.
Atmosphere 0.0019%  Spring Tides ��
Rivers 0.0001% o During full moon & new moon.
Total 100% o Earth, Sun & Moon in a straight line → highest tides.
 Freshwater → tiny fraction compared to total.  Neap Tides ��
 Leads to water scarcity in many countries. o During first & last quarter of moon.
o Sun & Moon pull in opposite directions → lowest tides.
Importance of Water Uses of High Tides
 Essential for survival → quenches thirst, supports life.  Helps in navigation (ships reach harbours easily).
 Limited usable water → must be conserved.  Fishing (more fish near shore during high tide).
 Tidal Energy → electricity generation.
Ocean Circulation
Movements of Ocean Water Ocean Currents
 Continuous movement; never still. Definition
 Broad categories: Waves, Tides, Currents.  Streams of water flowing constantly on ocean surface in definite
directions.
1. Waves
 Formed when winds scrape across ocean surface. Types of Ocean Currents
 Stronger wind → bigger waves. 1. Warm Currents
o Originate near the equator.
 During storms → huge destructive waves.
o Flow towards the poles.
 Causes of waves:
o Example: Gulf Stream.
o Wind (primary).
2. Cold Currents
o Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater landslides →
o Originate in polar / higher latitudes.
may cause Tsunami.
o Flow towards the tropics / lower latitudes.
Tsunami �
o Example: Labrador Current.
 Japanese word → "Harbour waves".
 Huge tidal wave caused by undersea disturbances.
Effects of Ocean Currents
 Speed: 700–900 km/h, height: up to 15m (largest recorded 150m).
 Influence climate & temperature of coastal regions.
 Example: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami o Warm currents → warm climate on nearby land.
o Origin: Earthquake (magnitude 9.0) near Sumatra. o Cold currents → cool climate on nearby land.
o Caused displacement of ocean floor (10–20m).
 Fishing grounds �
o Indira Point (southernmost tip of India) submerged.
o Best fishing grounds where warm & cold currents meet.
o Affected India (TN, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Puducherry,
o Examples: Seas around Japan & Eastern coast of North
Andaman & Nicobar).
America.
o Casualties: 10,000+ people killed; lakhs of houses destroyed.
 Navigation difficulties �
o Reason for devastation → no early warning system, lack of
o Meeting of warm & cold currents → causes foggy weather,
awareness.
hampers navigation.
o First indication: rapid withdrawal of water from coast before
wave arrival.

2. Tides
 Rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice daily.
� Types of Forests – Tabular Summary �Grasslands & Other Vegetation Types
Forest Type Location Climate Features Trees Wildlife / Special Notes Type Location Climate Features Vegetation Wildlife Special
Crops / Uses Notes
Tropical Near equator Hot, No dry Rosewood Anaconda – Tropical On either side Hot, Tall grasses Savannah Elephants, Known by
Evergreen & tropics heavy season; , Ebony, , diverse Grasslands of equator, till moderate (3–4 m) grass Zebras, different
(Rainforests) rainfall evergreen; Mahogany birds & tropics → to low Giraffes, names:
throughou dense animals Africa rainfall Deer, Savanna,
t the year canopy (Savanna), Leopards Campos,
blocks Brazil Llanos
sunlight (Campos),
Tropical India, Seasonal, Shed Sal, Teak, Tiger, Used for Venezuela
Deciduous Northern with dry leaves in Neem, Lion, furniture, (Llanos)
(Monsoon Australia, season dry season Shisham Elephant, transport, Temperate Mid-latitudes, Moderate Short, Steppe-type Wild Best
Forests) Central to Langur, construction Grasslands interiors of rainfall, nutritious grass buffalo, grazing
America conserve Monkey continents → extreme grass Bison, lands of
water Argentina seasonal Antelope the world
Temperate Mid- Moderate Mix of Oak, Pine, – – (Pampas), N. climate
Evergreen latitudinal hardwood Eucalyptu America
Forests coasts → SE & s (Prairie), S.
USA, South softwood Africa (Veld),
China, SE Central Asia
Brazil (Steppe),
Temperate NE USA, Moderate, Shed Oak, Ash, Deer, – Australia
Deciduous China, New seasonal leaves in Beech Fox, (Downs)
Forests Zealand, dry season Wolf, Thorny Dry desert- Very hot, Scanty Cactus, Camels, Adapted to
Chile, Pheasant, Bushes like regions, scanty vegetation, thorny Snakes, conserve
Coastal W. Monal esp. western rainfall thorny shrubs Lizards, water
Europe margins of bushes, Fox
Mediterranea Mediterranea Hot dry Thick Olives, Limited Known as continents → cactus
n Vegetation n basin, summers; bark, Grapes, wildlife “Orchards of e.g., Thar
California, mild rainy waxy Citrus the World” Desert (India)
SW Africa, winters leaves fruits, Tundra Polar regions Extremely Very Mosses, Seal, Animals
SW South (adaptatio Figs Vegetation → Europe, cold, very limited Lichens, Walrus, have thick
America, SW n to dry Asia, North short vegetation Small Musk-ox, fur & skin
Australia summer); America summer shrubs Arctic owl, for
natural (Arctic zone) Polar bear, protection
vegetation Snow fox
mostly
replaced
by crops
Coniferous Higher Cold, Tall, Pine, Polar Wood used for
Forests latitudes long softwood Cedar, bear, pulp, paper,
(Taiga) (50°–70° N); winters evergreen Chir Silver newsprint, �Settlements
Himalayas trees; fox, Mink match &
(high useful for packing 1. Definition
altitudes) industry boxes; Taiga  Places where people build homes.
=
pure/untouche  Early humans → lived on trees & caves.
d (Russian)  With agriculture → permanent homes → settlements near river valleys
(water + fertile land).
 Civilizations: Indus, Tigris, Nile, Hwang-He.

2. Types of Settlements
 Temporary Settlements
o Occupied for short time.
 o Found in: deep forests, deserts (hot & cold), mountains.
o Activities: hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, transhumance 3. History
(seasonal movement of people with animals for pastures).  Early traders → took months to reach India (sea or land routes).
 Permanent Settlements  Now → aeroplanes make it possible in 6–8 hours (India–Europe).
o Most common today.
o People build permanent homes and live in them.
4. Major Means of Transport
1. Roadways
3. Factors for Ideal Site o Most commonly used, especially for short distances.
1. Favourable climate. o Types:
2. Availability of water.  Metalled (pucca).
3. Suitable land.  Unmetalled (kutcha).
4. Fertile soil. o Features:
 Dense in plains.
4. Rural Settlements  Built even in deserts, forests, high mountains.
 People engaged in: agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work, trading.  Manali–Leh highway → one of highest roadways.
 Types:  Roads underground = subways/underpaths.
o Compact settlement → closely built houses, on flat land.  Roads above = flyovers.
o Scattered settlement → houses spread over large area; common o India:
in hilly tracts, forests, extreme climate regions.  National & State highways.
 Houses in rural areas:  Expressways → latest development.
o Heavy rainfall → slanting roofs.  Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi, Mumbai,
o Flood-prone areas → houses on raised platforms/stilts. Chennai, Kolkata.
o Hot climate → mud walls + thatched roofs. 2. Railways
o Local materials used: stone, mud, clay, straw. o Carry heavy goods & people quickly & cheaply.
o Development boosted by steam engine & Industrial Revolution.
5. Urban Settlements o Today → Diesel & electric engines; superfast trains.
 Include towns & cities. o Best in plains, but also built in mountains (limited).
o India: Largest railway network in Asia.
 People engaged in: manufacturing, trading, services.
o World examples:
 Problems:
 Xining–Lhasa (Tibet): at 4,000 m (highest point 5,072 m).
o Traffic jams, air pollution.
 Trans-Siberian Railway: longest in the world, from St.
o Slums & squatter settlements.
Petersburg (W. Russia) to Vladivostok (Pacific coast).
o Shortage of water, power, clean environment.
Here are the notes on Waterways, Airways & Communication in structured form:
 Attractions: jobs, better education, hospitals, modern facilities.
�Transport
�Waterways
1. Definition
 Oldest & cheapest means for heavy, bulky goods over long distances.
 Means by which people & goods move.
 Types:
 Early days → walking, animals used for carrying goods. 1. Inland Waterways → Navigable rivers & lakes.
 Invention of wheel → transport became easier.  Examples:
 Today → modern means save time & energy.  Ganga–Brahmaputra river system (India).
 Great Lakes (North America).
2. Use of Animals  River Nile (Africa).
 India: Donkeys, mules, bullocks, camels. 2. Sea Routes/Oceanic Routes → For international trade &
 Andes (S. America): Llamas. transport.
 Tibet: Yaks.  Connected with ports.
  Important Ports:
 Asia → Singapore, Mumbai.
 North America → New York, Los Angeles.
 South America → Rio de Janeiro.
 Africa → Durban, Cape Town.
 Australia → Sydney.
 Europe → London, Rotterdam.

✈�Airways
 Fastest mode of transport (developed in 20th century).
 Most expensive (high fuel costs).
 Limitations: Affected by fog, storms, bad weather.
 Importance:
o Reaches remote, inaccessible areas.
o Useful in calamities for rescue & relief (food, water, medicines).
o Helicopters → vital in emergencies.
 Important Airports: Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt,
Cairo. �People of the Rainforests (Amazon Basin)
�Communication � Agriculture & Food
 Definition: Process of conveying messages.  Practice slash and burn agriculture.
 Evolution: From personal messages → newspapers, radio, TV → satellites  Main crops: Tapioca, Pineapple, Sweet Potato.
→ internet.  Staple food: Manioc (Cassava) → root crop like potato.
 Uses: Information, education, entertainment.  Cash crops: Coffee, Maize, Cocoa.
 Mass Media: Newspapers, radio, TV (communicate with large no. of  Men: Hunt & fish (uncertain).
people).  Women: Grow crops, feed families.
 Role of Satellites:  Other food: Queen ants, egg sacs.
o Faster communication.
o Oil exploration, forest & mineral surveys. � Housing
o Weather forecasting & disaster warnings.  Thatched houses shaped like beehives.
 Modern Communication:  Maloca: large communal houses with steeply slanting roofs.
o E-mails, internet, cellular phones.
o Online booking (railways, airways, hotels, cinema). � Transport & Change
 Impact:  Earlier: Forest interior accessible only by rivers.
o Created a global society → people, services & institutions  Since 1970: Trans-Amazon Highway → easier access.
interconnected worldwide.
 Aircrafts & helicopters also used.
 Indigenous people displaced, forced to resettle, but continue traditional farming.

� Environmental Impact
 Deforestation increasing due to development.
 Consequences:
o Loss of biodiversity.
o Topsoil erosion (heavy rains wash soil).
o Forest turns into barren land.
  Slash & Burn cycle: o Waterways → rivers (Kolkata = major port on Hooghly).
1. Trees cut & burnt → nutrients released. o Airways → many airports.
2. Crops grown for few years.
3. Soil loses fertility → land abandoned. � Cities & Industries '1<126
4. Young trees grow back → soil fertility restored.  Major cities: Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna, Kolkata.
5. Land reused later.
 Issue: Industrial & urban waste polluting rivers.
�Life in the Ganga–Brahmaputra Basin  Govt. initiative: Namami Ganga Programme for river conservation.

�Location & Features � Tourism

 Basin formed by Ganga & Brahmaputra tributaries (Ghaghra, Son, Chambal,
 Taj Mahal (Agra, Yamuna banks).
Gandak, Kosi, etc.).
 Allahabad (confluence of Ganga & Yamuna).
 Lies in sub-tropical region (10°N – 30°N).
 Buddhist stupas (U.P., Bihar).
 Covers plains of Ganga–Brahmaputra, Himalayas‟ foothills & Sundarbans delta.
 Lucknow (Imambara).
 Ox-bow lakes common in plains.
 Kaziranga & Manas (Assam) → wildlife sanctuaries.
 Climate: Hot summers, cool winters, monsoon rains (mid-June to mid-Sept.).
 Arunachal Pradesh → tribal culture.

�Population & Settlements

 Mountain areas → steep slopes, less population.
 Plains → fertile soil, flat land → dense population. �Life in the Temperate Grasslands – Prairies
� Location
�Agriculture  Temperate grasslands of North America = Prairies.
 Main crop: Paddy (needs high rainfall).  Boundaries:
 Other crops: Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram, millets. o West → Rocky Mountains
 Cash crops: Sugarcane, jute. o East → Great Lakes
 Plantations: Banana (plains), Tea (Assam, W. Bengal).  USA: drained by tributaries of Mississippi.
 Silk (sericulture) in Bihar & Assam.  Canada: drained by tributaries of Saskatchewan Rivers.
 Terrace farming on hill slopes.  Originally inhabited by Native Americans (Red Indians) → tribes: Apache, Crow,
Cree, Pawnee.
�Vegetation
 Plains: Tropical deciduous trees (teak, sal, peepal).
� Climate
 Brahmaputra plain: Bamboo groves.  Continental type → extreme temperatures.
 Delta (Sundarbans): Mangroves.  Summer: warm (~20°C).
 Hills (Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh): Conifers (pine, deodar, fir).  Winter: very cold (as low as -20°C in Winnipeg, Canada).
 Snowfall: thick snow in winters.
�Wildlife  Rainfall: moderate → suitable for grass growth.
 Local wind: Chinook → hot winter wind that melts snow quickly → pasture land
 Common: Elephants, tigers, deer, monkeys.
available.
 One-horned rhinoceros in Brahmaputra plain.
 Delta: Bengal tiger, crocodile, alligator.
� Flora
 Aquatic life: Rohu, catla, hilsa fish.
 Region mostly tree-less.
 Susu (blind dolphin) in Ganga & Brahmaputra → indicator of river health
(threatened by pollution).  Trees grow near water sources (willows, alders, poplars).
 Soil fertile where rainfall > 50 cm → farming possible.
�Transport  Main crops: Maize (primary), potatoes, soybean, cotton, alfalfa.
 Low rainfall areas → short/sparse grasses → suitable for cattle rearing.
 All 4 modes present:
o Roadways & railways → plains.
�Fauna
 Cattle rearing → large farms called ranches managed by cowboys.
 Key animals:
o Bison (American buffalo) → once near extinction, now protected.
o Others: rabbits, coyotes, gophers, prairie dogs.

�People & Economy

 People hardworking, technologically advanced.
 USA & Canada → highly developed nations.
 Agriculture:
o Scientific farming with tractors, harvesters, combines (3-in-1 sowing,
ploughing, threshing).
o Prairies = “Granaries of the world” (huge surplus wheat production).
 Dairy farming → major industry (Great Lakes → Atlantic Coast = Dairy Belt).
 Food processing industries developed.
 Rich in coal & iron → industrialisation.
 Transport: dense network of roads, railways, canals. � Climate
 Mild climate due to Indian Ocean influence.
�Important Cities  Winters (June–Aug) → cold & dry, 5–10°C (July coldest month).
 USA: Chicago, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Kansas, Denver.  Summers (Nov–Feb) → short & warm (~20°C in Johannesburg).
 Canada: Edmonton, Saskatoon, Calgary, Winnipeg.  Rainfall: mostly in summer months (Nov–Feb).
 Scanty winter rainfall → droughts possible.
�The Prairies are:
 Flat, treeless “sea of grass”. � Flora
 Highly fertile & resource-rich.  Vegetation sparse → grasses dominate.
 Known for wheat, dairy, cattle rearing, and industries.  Red grass in bush velds.
 Among the most industrialised & agriculturally advanced regions in the world.  High velds → acacia, maroola trees.

�The Velds – Temperate Grasslands of South Africa � Fauna

�Location & Geography  Typical animals: lions, leopards, cheetahs, kudu (antelope).
 Temperate grasslands of South Africa.
 Landscape: rolling plateaus (600–1100 m). � People & Economy
 Boundaries: � Agriculture
o East → Drakensberg Mountains  Soil not very fertile (discontinuous grasses, barren surfaces).
o West → Kalahari Desert  Where fertile → crops grown:
o Northeast → High Velds (>1600 m). o Food crops: maize, wheat, barley, oats, potato.
 Drained by tributaries of Orange River and Limpopo River. o Cash crops: tobacco, sugarcane, cotton.
 Countries covered → mainly South Africa, parts of Botswana, Zimbabwe. � Animal Rearing
 Sheep rearing → most important occupation.
o Famous Merino sheep → warm wool → strong wool industry.
 Dairy farming → important (butter, cheese for domestic use & export).
 Cattle rearing → in warmer, wetter regions.
�Mining & Industries
 Rich in minerals: coal, iron, gold, diamonds.
 Industries: iron & steel, wool, mining.
  Johannesburg → “Gold Capital of the World.”  Nomadic tribes: Bedouins & Tuaregs.
 Kimberley → famous diamond mines. o Livelihood → livestock rearing (goats, sheep, camels, horses).
 Mining of gold & diamonds → trade ties with Britain → colonisation of South o Animals provide → milk, hides (leather), hair (mats, carpets, clothes,
Africa. blankets).
 Well-developed transport network.
o Clothing: heavy robes protect from heat & dust storms.
 Settled population → near oases & Nile Valley (Egypt).
o Crops: date palms, rice, wheat, barley, beans.
�Extra Notes o Egyptian cotton → famous worldwide.
 Name “Veld” → given by Dutch settlers before British colonisation.
� Economic Activities
�Life in the Deserts – Sahara (Hot Desert)  Minerals: oil (Algeria, Libya, Egypt), iron, phosphorus, manganese, uranium.
�Location & Extent  Oil discovery → transforming Sahara (urbanisation, new jobs).
 World‟s largest desert (≈ 8.54 million sq. km).  Salt trade shifting → from camels to trucks.
 Larger than India (3.2 million sq. km).  Tuaregs now → guides for tourists, moving to cities for oil & gas jobs.
 Covers 11 countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco,
Niger, Sudan, Tunisia, Western Sahara. � Special Features
 Landscape → sand dunes, gravel plains, rocky plateaus (some > 2500 m high).  Oasis → fertile areas formed in depressions where underground water surfaces.
 Tafilalet Oasis (Morocco) → one of the largest (≈ 13,000 sq. km).
 Sahara was once lush green (evidence: cave paintings of rivers, crocodiles,
elephants, giraffes).
 Al Azizia (Libya) → recorded 57.7°C (1922), one of the highest temperatures ever.

�Sahara = Largest hot desert, extreme climate, sparse vegetation, nomadic tribes, oasis
farming, mineral wealth (esp. oil), transforming economy.

�The Cold Desert – Ladakh

� Location & Geography
 Lies in Great Himalayas (eastern J&K, now Ladakh UT).
�Climate  Bounded by:
 Very hot & dry (scorching summers, dry winters). o Karakoram Range (North)
 Daytime temp: up to 50°C. o Zanskar Range (South)
 Night temp: near 0°C.  Major river: Indus (forms deep valleys & gorges).
 Sky: cloudless & clear → moisture evaporates faster than it accumulates.  Contains glaciers (e.g., Gangri Glacier).
 Rainfall: very little, short rainy season.  Altitude: 3000 m (Kargil) to 8000+ m (Karakoram).

�Flora
 Sparse vegetation → cactus, acacia, date palms.
 Oasis → green islands in desert, support farming.

�Fauna
 Adapted desert animals:
o Camels (ships of the desert).
o Hyenas, jackals, foxes.
o Scorpions, snakes, lizards.

�People
�Climate
 Cold desert climate (extremely cold & dry).
 Thin air → intense sun heat felt.
 Summer day temp: just above 0°C; night temp: below –30°C.
 Winter temp: below –40°C.
 Rainfall: very low (≈ 10 cm/year) → rain shadow of Himalayas.
 Harsh conditions: burning sun + freezing shade (risk of sunstroke + frostbite at
same time).

�Flora
 Sparse vegetation due to aridity.
 Grasses & shrubs → grazing for animals.
 Willows & poplars in valleys.
 Summer fruits: apples, apricots, walnuts.

�Fauna
 Animals: wild goats, wild sheep, yak, special dogs.
o Yak → milk (cheese, butter).
o Sheep/goat hair → woollens.
 Birds: robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven, hoopoe (some migratory).
 Chiru (Tibetan antelope) → endangered, hunted for shahtoosh wool (light, very
warm).

�People
 Known as Khapa-chan (Snow Land).
 Population: Muslims & Buddhists.
 Monasteries (Gompas): Hemis, Thiksey, Shey, Lamayuru.
 Occupations:
o Farming (summer): barley, potatoes, peas, beans, turnip.
o Winter: festivities, ceremonies.
o Women: hardworking, manage homes, fields, shops, businesses.
 Leh (capital): connected by road (NH1A via Zoji La Pass) & air.
o Other passes: Rohtang La, Baralacha La, Lungalacha La, Tanglang La.

�Culture & Lifestyle

 Strong resemblance with Tibet & Central Asia.
 Festivals & ceremonies important in harsh winters.
 Tourism → major activity (gompas, treks, glaciers, culture).
 Life shaped by scarcity of resources (water, fuel) → people use with care, nothing
wasted.
 Cricket bats → made from willow trees of the region.
 Ladakh: high-altitude cold desert with extreme climate, sparse vegetation, yak &
sheep-based economy, Buddhist culture, tourism hub.
 People → live in harmony with nature despite harsh conditions.