Sustainable Design and Implementation of a Small-Scale

Wind Turbine for Local Communities

Mpendulo Ronny Dlamini
Department of Mechanical, Bioresources and Biomedical Engineering
School of Engineering and the Built Environment
College of Science, Engineering and Technology (CSET)
University of South Africa (UNISA)
Florida Campus, South Africa

ABSTRACT particular turbine. Wind energy is an essential component of

renewable energy, it also offers several advantages, including
The electrification system based on renewable energy have proven being cost-effective, reliable, environmentally friendly and is
to be suitable for providing decentralized electricity to isolated now used to produce electricity [2].
communities. Electricity generation through wind power is one of
the technical options available, although it is infrequently used to II. WIND TURBINE
date. This article aims to describe the main aspects of technical
Wind turbine is a mechanical device which converts the kinetic
design, implementation and management of a small-scale
community wind turbine electricity generation for rural energy of the moving wind to electric energy. There are two
electrification in South Africa. The project took place in the types of wind turbines; vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) and
community of Daggafontein, Springs which is an area horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT). Each type has its own
characterized by low to medium wind speeds. This project brought advantages and disadvantages. However, the important concept
electric power to 33 households (a total of 150 inhabitants) as well for choosing VAWT is the relation between the wind turbine and
as the future proposed Daggafontein mall. direction of wind. VAWT type is omni-directional and do not
need to track the wind. This makes them more reliable due to the
Keywords: Decentralized rural electrification, renewable energy, fact that they do not require a complex mechanism and motors
climate change, sustainable development goals; indicators.
to yaw the rotor and pitch the blades. Any claimed inefficiencies
are cancelled out by VAWT’s ability to take advantage of
I. INTRODUCTION
turbulent and gusty winds. These winds are not harvested by
Energy is vitally important in the development of a country and HAWTs and cause accelerated fatigue for HAWTs. Another
the need for it is ever increasing. Securing access to energy is concept to classify wind turbines depends on the size; the small
one of the contemporary challenges standing in the way of stable size turbine may be called small scale wind turbine. This type
growth of developing countries. Fossil fuels have been the most was utilized in the project.
used form of energy for transportation and electricity generation.
However, fossil fuels are non-renewable energy; which is very
volatile in price, contribute heavily to environmental pollution
and greenhouse gas emission. This have led to the need for an
alternative energy source that is sustainable, pollution free and
renewable. Rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly
affected by the lack of easily available sources of clean energy.
This violates the United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) 7.1 which state that special efforts should be made
to provide access to renewable energy sources in rural areas.
Globally, 1.4 billion people have no access to electricity, 85%
of whom live in rural areas [1]. In this context, one of the most
promising types of energy sources are Small Wind Turbines
(SWTs).
Wind energy is one of the best renewable energy types as it is
cheap and clean. The power available from the wind is a function Figure 1: Comparison between the HAWT and VAWT [3]
of the cube of the wind speed. Thus, as wind speed increases,
power output increases up to the maximum output for the

1
 III. SMALL SCALE WIND TURBINE (SWT)
A. BASIC CONCEPT
A small-scale wind turbine is a wind turbine used for micro
generation. As opposed to large commercial wind turbines,
small-scale wind turbines are available for use in residential
scale. Their blades are usually 1.5 to 3.5m in diameter and
produce 1 - 100 kW of electricity at their optimal wind speed.
Some units are designed to be light in their construction e.g. 16
kg. The Canadian Wind Energy association considers small
wind turbines to be up to 300 kW [4]. They often have a passive
yaw system as opposed to active ones. They use a direct drive
generator and use a tail fin to point into the wind whereas large
turbines have geared power trains that are actively pointed into Figure 3: Components of SWT [7]
the wind. Small scale wind turbines must reach a certain speed
called the cut in speed to start generating electricity. This speed
C. SWT OPERATION
is usually around 4 m/s but some turbines can work at lower The working of SWT is quite simple. The moving wind has
speeds. To avoid obstacles, turbines are often placed on towers kinetic energy. This energy is converted into rotation motion of
at least 9 m above anything within 150 m. Figure 2 illustrate the the blades of a wind turbine when wind strikes on the turbine
SWT turbine at Eskom’s Klipheuwel wind demonstration blade. The air’s kinetic energy is caught by the turbine blades,
facility. which in turn convert it into mechanical or electrical energy,
depending on the end-use [8]. The blades are attached to a
moving shaft. This shaft is attached to a moving shaft. Which is
also attached to gearbox which increases or decreases its speed
according to the turbine design. The gearbox shaft is attached to
a generator whose rotation causes the production of electricity.
IV MARKET ANALYSIS
A. CUSTOMER NEEDS
Data on public attitudes towards the aesthetic and visual design
of wind turbines was sought using a questionnaire survey,
focusing on both wind farm specific areas and public events.
From the questionnaire, the design team was given three
customer needs: power, durability and aesthetics. The wind
turbine must produce enough power to provide electricity for
the community who lack this fundamental need. It must be
durable enough to function properly in high winds and it needs
to be aesthetically pleasing. The metrics used to capture these
customer needs include electrical output, height, blade length,
Figure 2: SWT at Eskom’s Klipheuwel wind demonstration survival of a leaf blower test, number of visible parts, material
facility [5]
cost and noise output. As seen in Table 1, each customer need
B. PARTS OF SWT is accompanied by an appropriate and measurable characteristic
within our design.
Wind turbines need different parts on the basis of its type and
working condition. The list below presents the most common Table 1: Customer needs
parts present turbines, Figure 3: (1) Blades, (2) Rotor, (3) Pitch, Criteria

(4) Brake, (5) Low-speed shaft, (6) Gearbox, (7) Generator, (8)
Electrical

Minimum
Survives

Material

Output
blower
Height
output

visible
length
Blade

Noise
parts

cost
test

Controller, (9) Anemometer, (100 Wind vane, (11) Nacelle, (12)

leaf

High-speed shaft, (13) Yaw drive, (14) Yaw motor, (15) Tower.
Generate power X X
The control of a small wind turbine consists of: orienting the
Customer needs

Be durable X
turbine into the direction of the wind, protect the direction of the Be aesthetically pleasing X X X
wind, protect the turbine against over-speed; control the power Be cost-effective X X X
from generator to the intended application [6]. Small wind Be quite X

turbines mostly use furling for power and over-speed control.

Maximum 60 W 10 m 4m 13s 6 R200 000 40 db
Minimum 10 W 4m 2m N/A 3 R50 000 10 db

2
 B. MARKET RISKS AND FINANCIAL C. WIND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
CONSIDERATION Due to the lack of data for the exact site location (Daggafontein)
With the increasing climate change awareness, the South of the wind turbine, the wide-area hourly average wind vector of
African SWT market is currently being financial incentives from Springs was investigated at 10 meters above the ground. The
government. The market is in its infancy and there is no firm average hourly wind speed at Springs experiences significant
data to suggest that SWTs are having any great input to national seasonal variation over the course of the year. The windier part
energy production. The quantity of installed units is also of the year lasts for 4.0 months from July 28 to November 28,
uncertain. The existing market barriers are primarily financial, with average wind speeds of more than 8.0 miles per hour [11].
but also related to technical problems and public concerns. The The windiest month of the year at Springs is September, with an
large initial investment required is the major preventing more average hourly wind speed of 9.6 miles per hour. The calmer
rapid market expansion, despite the availability of a variety of times of the year last for 8.0 months from November 28 to July
models from local and foreign manufacturers. Purchase price 28. Figure 5 show the average wind speeds in Springs.
remain high due to low production volumes and rising costs of
raw materials such as copper and steel [9].
Technical issues are not greatly impending turbine sales, but
improvements through scientific, engineering and economic
research are helping to make SWTs more competitive. Although
public awareness of climate change is drawing attention to the
benefits of SWTs concerns also exist over issues such as safety,
wildlife impacts, noise and visual amenity. The demand for
SWTs is mostly in regional off-grid locations. Market potential
also exist in places that are within the distribution network, but
where facilities are not connected to main supply such as a farm
workshop.

V. DESIGN AND PLANNING

A. SITE DESCRIPTION
Figure 5: Average Wind Speed in Springs [11]
The small-scale standalone wind system is installed in
Based on the given data the average wind speed for Springs is
Daggafontein, Springs, South Africa. Daggafontein is located in 9.2 miles per hour (4.1 m/s), making it a good place for the
Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality district and in the installation of the SWT. The average wind speed is a critical
Gauteng Province, in the northeastern part of the country, 70 km siting criterion, since this determines the cost of generating
South of Pretoria the capital of the country. Daggafontein is electricity. The wind direction at the site is important to
understand but it is not critical in site selection as wind blades
located 1 612 m above sea level. The land around Daggafontein
automatically turn to face into the predominant with the
is high and flat and the highest point in the area has a height of direction at any point in time.
1629 m and is 1.9 km west of Daggafontein. There are about 3
D. CALCULATIONS
people per square kilometre around the place with a very small
population [10]. The nearest larger town is Springs, 9.8 km The electrification project is design to cover basic household
northwest of Daggafontein. The area is almost covered with needs and community services (proposed mall), that is 33
households (a total of 150 inhabitants) as well as the future
grassland. Figure 4 show the mark exact are where the SWT will proposed Daggafontein mall. The Aeolos HAWT wind turbine
be installed. with power rating of 30 kW was chosen for the project. The
power train of the wind turbine is shown in figure 6 and the
turbine performance is shown in figure 7

Figure 6: Power train of wind turbine

Figure 4: Site location for SWT in Daggafontein

3
 Therefore 12 wind turbines will be required to supply the 33
households with their daily energy consumption.

E. LAWS REGULATING THE CONSTRUCTION OF

SWT
There are many laws and regulation that need to be taken into
consideration when building wind power plants in South Africa.
The project process involves several steps where permits are
needed for the process to be able to continue. The most
important laws and regulations that has effect on the project
process are the following: the National Environmental
Management Act 107 of 1998, the National Building
Regulations and Building Standards Act 103 of 1977, Electricity
Regulation Act 4 of 2006 and the Occupational Health and
Safety Act 85 of 1993. The National Environmental
Figure 7: Power coefficient vs tip speed ratio for a variety of turbine Management Act refers to rules and restrictions regarding
configurations [12] sustainable consumption of resources, protected geographical
areas and the creation of an environmental impact assessment
As seen in Figure 6, the output power will be reduced due to the that is needed to achieve a permit for construction [14]. The
coefficient of performance (Cp), transmission efficiency (Ƞm) National Building Regulation and Building Standard Act refers
and generator efficiency (Ƞg) to rules and regulations regarding construction permits and
Turbine power, Pw = 0.5 x ρ x A x V3 technical specification regarding the construction. For example,
it regulates the maximum allowed height of the turbines.
Where;
The Electricity Regulation Act includes regulations regarding
Swept area (A) = 122.6 m2 grid concession (a license to construct a wind farm), the allowed
Air density (ρ) = 1.23 kg/m3 revenues for the owner of the grid concession as well as
compensation for potential power failure. This law can also
Velocity (V) = 4.1 m/s include all the rules regarding the responsibility of the owner of
Pw = 0.5 x 1.23 x 122.6 x 4.13 = 5196.6 W = 5.197 kW a facility that produces electricity as well as the individuals
installing the electricity in the facility. Apart from the laws and
The monthly energy consumption for households in the regulations mentioned above, the project needs to take other
Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality amounts to 1378 kWh laws into consideration when building the wind power plant.
per month [13]. These may include maters such as the right to build a grid over
⚫ Total consumption for 33 households someone’s else property (Lease agreement/title deeds), ancient
monuments and historical buildings, areas used to reindeer
= 1378 kWh x 33 = 45 474 kWh per month. herding, forest conservation and electromagnetic compatibility.
Registration and approval is also needed from civic aviation
⚫ Total consumption per day per household
administration. These restrictions needed to be considered
= 1378 kWh/30 days = 45.933 kWh depends on the individual wind power plant project.
Municipality have a veto to end a wind energy project thus it is
⚫ Total power consumption per day per household
important that all permits for the project are positive.
= 45.933 kWh/24 hr = 1.914 kW = 1914 W
⚫ Total power consumption per month per household VI. IMPLEMENTATION
= 1914 W x 30 days = 57 420 W A. RISK ASSESSMENT
⚫ Total power consumption per year per household The design and construction of a wind turbine incorporates
various risks and hazards that need to be brought to the attention
= 57 420 W x 12 months = 689 040 W = 689.040 kW of anyone who is involved in the processing of parts, assembly
⚫ Total power consumption per day for 33 households and operation of the machine. The majority of risks and hazards
are common in industry and there is professional training
= 1914 W x 33 = 63 162 w = 63.162 kW available to prepare individuals for safe operation within a
𝟔𝟑 𝟏𝟔𝟐 𝐖 hazardous environment. Majority of hazards associated with the
Number of turbines required = = 12.154 = 12 project are in the construction stage and are identified in the
𝟓𝟏𝟗𝟔.𝟔 𝐖
following table:

4
Table 2: Hazards associated with the project participation of the population. The management model is
HARD/RISK DESCRIPTION, SIGNIFICANCE, LIKELIHOOD,
composed of different stakeholders and actors. This includes the
EXPOSURE CONSEQUENCES AND COUNTER micro enterprise, users committee, the municipality and the
MEASURES NGO as shown in the figure 6 below. In order to guarantee an
Fumes During fabrication of fibre glass blades/carbon fibre efficient operation and administration of electrical service, the
blades there is a hazard associated with the fumes management must be independent of the interference of political
produced by combining the resin with the catalyst. This or personal interests.
fume can cause nausea and extreme headaches and if
exposed to them for extended periods can cause brain
damage. If proper breathing masks and eye protection are
used during the handling of the chemicals the risk is
minimized. Protective clothing and gloves should also be
applied to avoid contact with skin.
Machining Machining and fabrication of parts is a hazardous
Fabrication procedure mainly due to the exposure to moving parts and
cutting equipment. Interference with the equipment can
results in serious injury; abrasions, cuts, bruising. To
avoid contact and minimize the risk of these occurring, no
loose-fitting clothing should be worn during operation of
the equipment. Steel toed boots, ear muffs and appropriate
eye protection should be worn during the operation of
equipment. If possible, the work should be carried out Figure 8: SWT Management Model [15]
under the supervision of professionals.
Electrical As the turbine is used to produce electrical energy there is VII EVALUATION
an apparent electrical hazard. Interference with electricity
Follow-up and evaluation of the project is especially important
can cause significant damage to a person or even death.
The amount of energy being produced by the turbine
in this project since it is a pilot experience in the implementation
poses a significant risk to anyone who comes into contact of small wind turbine in the community. The follow up has been
with it. This being said only professional electrical undertaken by the NGO (INS) and the university (UNISA) to
technicians should conduct any work on the generator, the evaluate results. Monthly visits were carried out since the
transmission and the storage unit. All wiring and beginning of the project with the purpose of reviewing the
connections must be effectively insulated and tested on a systems and supervising the use of batteries, controllers and
periodic basis to avoid short circuiting which could cause other accessories. The generation of electrical energy was
damage to the electrical network. evaluated and households were surveyed to see if their energy
Construction Construction of the turbine will involve the use of a crane needs were being met. The visits also focused on the social
lifting the nacelle and rotor in position some 6 - 10 m aspects of the project and strengthening of the management
above the ground. Objects falling from such heights can model. The first evaluation was completed after the first phase
cause significant damage to anything they come into
of the project through house-to-house surveys, a focus group and
contact with. Hard hats and steel toed boots should be
the installation of data loggers to monitor electricity generation
worn during the assembly and erection of the turbine.
and use in some points. After two years another evaluation will
Operational Once in operation the rotors of the turbine are in constant
motion. There is a slight contact risk for personnel
be undertaken to measure the impact on the project beneficiaries.
conducting maintenance on the turbine. The rotors must
be stalled before any maintenance is conducted on the VIII. CONCLUSION
turbine to avoid contact. Contact can result in cuts,
bruises, breaking of limbs and may cause a fall from a Small-scale wind turbines offer a promising avenue for
height that could be fatal. communities to transition to clean energy source while enjoying
numerous benefits, including energy independence, cost savings
B. OPERATION MANAGEMENT and environmental sustainability. As the advances and
awareness grows, these turbines are likely to play a more
Most common challenge in isolated electrification systems is prominent role in the global shift towards a greener and more
guaranteeing a long-term sustainability of the by ensuring sustainable energy future. By harnessing the power of the wind
sufficient maintenance and access to replacement parts. To on a small scale, communities can take a significant step towards
support this, the project manager focused on the development of reducing their carbon footprint and securing a cleaner, more
an appropriate management model. The management model sustainable future for generations to come. Small scale wind
designed take it account the internal social relations of the energy conversion systems are an effective, environmentally
community, its form of organisation, values and group and friendly power source for household and other applications.
individual capabilities. To achieve sustainability of the system, Although they are subject to climatic behaviour and do not
the management model is based on three key points: create a always deliver a constant supply of energy, they can be adapted
micro enterprise to manage the services, strengthen the
capabilities of the residents and assure commitment and

5
to energy storage units that allow the selective distribution of the [4] Small Wind Turbine Purchasing Guide (Report). Canadian Wind
energy once it has been converted. Energy Association. pp. 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 2 March 2013Retrieved 1 September 2024.
The most important issues relating to SWTs as a technology for
rural electrification are the variability in the wind resource, the [5] [Link] (2024). Wind energy facility in the Western Cape.
lack of modularity, high maintenance requirements and the high Available at: [Link]
level of technical knowledge required at every stage of the content/uploads/migrated/Wind-Energy-Facility-In-The-
technology life cycle. Each local context is different and also Western-Cape/Wind-Energy-Facility-In-The-Western-Cape-
how exactly is the SWT supported by an ecosystem of actors is ScopingP/WEF_DSR__Ch_03__Wind_energy_as_a_power_opt
different in each place. However, to eliminate the above ion_.pdf. Accessed 27 August 2024.
mentioned problems, the following solutions can be applied; [6] J Zico Kolter, Zachary Jackowski, and Russ Tedrake. Design,
conduct an assessment of the wind resource (identification of analysis, and learning control of a fully actuated micro wind
windy areas, technical and financial support for individual site turbine. In 2012 American Control Conference (ACC), pages 225
assessments) empowering of community technicians/end-users - 2263. IEEE, 2012.
(practical training courses, participation in the [7] Tony Burton, Nick Jenkins, David Sharpe, and Ervin Bossanyi.
installation/construction, local support from a service centre) Wind Energy Handbook, Second Edition. 2011.
and raising the level of awareness about the advantages and [8] I. S. Jacobs and C. P. Bean, “Fine particles, thin films and
disadvantages of SWTs (technical training for all market actors exchange anisotropy,” in Magnetism, vol. III, G. T. Rado and H.
and supporting services. On a good site, a wind turbine recovers Suhl, Eds. New York: Academic, 1963, pp. 271–350.
the energy used in its manufacture and installation within the
[9] AWEA, 2007, Small Wind Turbine Global Market Study,
year of its operation.
AWEA, U.S.A, Available at
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT [Link]
First and foremost, I would like to thank the Lord God Almighty [Link]. Accessed 29 August 2024.
for the gift of life, guidance and giving strength throughout this [10] [Link] (2011). Daggafontein Gold Mine.
Available at:
research. Without Him, this work would not have been possible, [Link] Accessed
as the Bible says: "for in Him we live and move and have our 28 September 2024.
being…." - Acts 17:28. Secondly, I would like to express [11] [Link] (2024). Average wind speeds in Springs.
Available at: [Link]
special thanks to the University of South Africa for financial and
technical support and I declare that the research was conducted Weather-at-Springs-Gauteng-South-Africa-Year-Round.
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that Accessed 29 August 2024.
could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Last but not [12] Hau, E., 2006, Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies,
least, I would also like to appreciate the active participation, Application, Economics, 2nd Ed., Springer, Germany.
understanding and enthusiasm of the community members of [13] [Link] (2024). Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality
Daggafontein. State of Energy Report. Available at:
[Link]
REFERENCES
Accessed 29 August 2024.
[1] UNDP (2006). Energy for Sustainable Development: Linkages,
[14] James F Manwell, Jon G McGowan, and Anthony L Rogers.
Impacts and Indicators, United Nations Development Programme
Wind energy explained: theory, design and application. John
(UNDP).
Wiley & Sons, 2010.
[2] Sadorsky, P. Wind energy for sustainable development: Driving
[15] Laia Ferrer-Martí1, Anna Garwood, José Chiroque, Rafael
factors and future outlook. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 289, 125779.
Escobar, Javier Coello and Miguel Castro (2010). A Community
[3] [Link] (2024). New-guidelines-promise-reliable- Small-Scale Wind Generation Project in Peru. Research Group on
wind-turbine-gearboxes-what-they-mandate. Available at: Cooperation and Human Development,Technical University of
[Link] Catalonia (GRECDH-UPC),Av. Diagonal 647, 08028 Barcelona,
-promise-reliable-wind-turbine-gearboxes-whatthey-mandate. Spain.
Accessed 27 August 2024.

AUTHORS’ BACKGROUND
Your Name Title* Research Field Personal website
Mpendulo Ronny Dlamini Mr. Energy Generation and Management dlaminisunshine@[Link]