International Journal of Advanced Research in Physical Science (IJARPS)

Volume 6, Issue 10, 2019, PP 15-22

ISSN No. (Online) 2349-7882
[Link]

The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the
Fundamental Laws of Physics
Anatoliy Nikolaevich Makarov*
Tver State Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Electrical Supply and
Electrical Engineering 22, nab. A. Nikitina, Tver, 170026, Russia

*Corresponding Author: Anatoliy Nikolaevich Makarov, Tver State Technical University, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Department of Electrical Supply and Electrical Engineering 22, nab. A. Nikitina,
Tver, 170026, Russia

Abstract: The analysis of methods for calculating heat transfer in torch furnaces, fire boxes, combustion
chambers, based on the law of heat radiation from solids, the Stefan-Boltzmann law was carried out.
However, the radiation from gas volumes of torches does not obey the Stefan-Boltzmann law and the error in
calculations is 70-90% or more. The paper describes the laws of heat radiation from gas volumes of torches
discovered by the author of this article. The basic fundamental laws of physics are listed. The laws of heat
radiation from solids and gas volumes of torches refer to the fundamental laws of physics.

The use of the disclosed laws of heat radiation from gas volumes in practices with regard to the design and
calculation of rational energy regimes of electric arc and flame metallurgical furnaces, fire boxes, combustion
chambers by scientists, engineers allows to save million kilowatts of electric power and million tons of fuel,
reduce pollutant exposure, improve the environment and the population's quality of life.

Keywords: heat transfer, heat radiation, torch, burner, radiation laws.

1. INTRODUCTION
Flare combustion of gaseous, liquid, pulverized fuel in furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers is
characterized by volume heat radiation. Radiative heat transfer accounts for 90-98% of the total heat
transfer in steam boilers boxes [1,2], torch heating [3] and electric arc steel melting furnaces (Figure
1) [4,5]. In the torch emit quadrillions of atoms, the radiation of each atom on the calculated area must
be taken into account. To calculate the heat radiation from the torch on the calculated area, it is
necessary to solve the triple integral equations of heat transfer by radiation [6].The solutions of triple
integral equations for determining the fluxes of heat radiation, the angular coefficients of the torch
radiation to the calculated area, the average beam path length from the radiating atoms to the
calculated area were not found.

Figure1. Arc Steel Furnace

It is believed, that the problem of calculating heat transfer in torch power plants was solved with the
advent of computers and the use of a numerical method for calculating integral heat transfer
equations. The basis of the numerical method is the law of heat radiation from solids, the Stefan-
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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

Boltzmann law. However, long-term theoretical and experimental studies of Heat transfer have shown
that the heat radiation from gas volumes of torches does not obey the Stefan-Boltzmann law and the
calculation error is 70-90% or more [5-8].
In 1996-2001, the author discovered the laws of heat radiation from gas volumes of torches, the laws
of radiation from isothermal isochoric coaxial cylindrical and concentric spherical gas volumes [5-
10]. In order to comply with the centuries-old scientific traditions and copyright laws of heat radiation
from gas volumes of torches similar to the laws of black body radiation, the laws of Stefan-
Boltzmann, Planck, Wine in the diploma for scientific discovery, articles, textbook [5-10] are named
after the author, the laws of Makarov. On the basis of scientific discovery, a new concept of
calculating heat transfer in torch furnaces, steam boiler boxes, combustion chambers of gas turbine
plants was developed [5]. The purpose of working is to inform the scientific community of the
scientific discovery of the laws for heat radiation from ionized and nonionized gas volumes and the
need for their use by the scientists, engineers in practices with regard to design and operation of arc
steel melting and flame furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers to save million kilowatts of
electric power and million tons of fuel.
2. THE LAWS OF HEAT RADIATION FROM SOLIDS
In the XIX-early XX in furnaces, furnaces on the grates burned solid fuel: coal, peat, shale, wood. The
discovery of fundamental laws of heat radiation from blackbody, solids, surfaces of bodies by Stefan
(1879), Boltzmann (1884), Wien (1893), Planck (1900) covers this period of time. Laws of heat
radiation from blackbody allow to develop a method of calculating the heat transfer in furnaces, fire
boxes on solid fuel. The calculation method is highly accurate. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann
law, the result of heat transfer by radiation between the radiative surface F1 and the receiving radiation
surface F2 depends on the temperature of these surfaces, T1 and T2, respectively, and is characterized
by the density of the resultant radiation flow q12, which is determined by the expression:

(1)
where φ12 is the angular coefficient of radiation on F2; ε1 is the coefficient of radiation from the
surface F1, с0 is the coefficient of radiation from blackbody Since solids radiate from the surface, there
are two-dimensional models that were used to calculate their radiation. The main difficulty in the
expression (1) is the calculation of the angular radiation coefficient φ12. However, the solution to
double integrals of differential equations of trigonometric functions was found in the XX century and
analytical equations for calculating angular radiation coefficients at any attitude of surfaces were
obtained.
The discovery of fundamental laws of physics, laws of heat radiation from solids by Wien in 1911 and
Planck in 1918 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
In XX-XXI centuries flaring of gas, liquid, pulverized fuel in furnaces, fire boxes, combustion
chambers was widespread. For example, a steam boiler box of 300 MW unit is a rectangular
parallelepiped of 14 m width x7m depth x35 m height. When working on fuel oil, the furnace burns
67 tons of fuel every hour (Figure 2). High temperature radiating gas volume is formed in the furnace
and fills it. All of 1030-1045 atoms radiate in the torch. The radiation of each atom to the calculated
area is to be considered.

Figure2. Thermal Power Station

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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

The calculations of heat transfer by radiation in torch furnaces (Figure 3), fire boxes, combustion
chambers were carried out by zonal and numerical methods in the twentieth century. In zonal and
numerical methods, the furnace is divided into 1–1,5 million cells, the radiation from gas volume of
the torch is modeled by the radiation from the surfaces of these cells. In case of surface and volume
zones, we use numerical discrete approximations of radiation heat transfer integral equations for
calculating radiation fluxes and zone temperatures on the computer. These methods use the large
number of approximate temperatures and optical coefficients of zones and the law of heat radiation
from blackbody, the Stefan-Boltzmann law (1). However, the radiation from gas volumes of torches is
not subject to the Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law and the calculation of combustion products error
accounts for 70-90% or more [5-8].

Figure3. Heating furnace

In torch furnace, steel products weighing several tons are heated with a single burner before plastic
deformation. The power and temperature of the torch are 5 MW and 1300C, respectively, when air of
20С is supplied into the burner. When heating the air in the recuperative heater to 600C, the
temperature of the torch increased to 2000C, that is, 1,5 times, the power increased by 17% to 5,85
MW. When using the Stefan-Boltzmann (1) law in calculations, heat radiation flow from the torch on
the product should increase 5 times, that is not observed in the operation of the furnace and
contradicts the law of energy conservation. In the real operating conditions of the furnace, the heat
flux density of the torch radiation and the heating rate increases by 17%, that is, directly proportional
to the increase in the torch power, but not the temperature in the 4th degrees. Consequently, the
radiation from gas volumes of torches is not subject to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the calculation error
can reach 500% and the Stefan-Boltzmann law can not be used in the calculation of heat transfer of
the torch with heating surfaces.
However, it was not the fault of researchers, scientists that they carried out calculations of heat
transfer in torch furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
since in the XIX century Stefan and Boltzmann discovered the fundamental law of heat radiation from
solids and throughout the XX century the fundamental law of heat radiation from gas volumes of
torches was not discovered. The error in the results of calculations of heat transfer in torch furnaces,
fire boxes, combustion chambers was compensated by the researchers with the aid of scientific results
of numerous expensive labor-intensive long-term experimental studies of heat transfer in torch
furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers and the correction of the calculated data with experimental
data.
3. FUNDAMENTAL LAWS AND DISCOVERIES OF PHYSICS
It is known from school and university courses of physics, that a little more than 30 laws, named after
their authors, underpin the whole of physics. Since all literate people are familiar with fundamental
laws of physics, that are not many, some 30. Over the last three thousand years the following basic
fundamental laws of physics have been discovered. Let us list them in chronological order :
Archimedes’ principle, Galilei laws, Kepler’s laws, Huygens’ laws, Hooke’s law, Boyle’s laws,
Pascal's law, Newton’s laws, Avogadro’s law, Gay-Lussac’s laws, Dalton law, Ampere’s law, Fourier’s
law, Ohm’s law, Faraday laws, Joule-Lenz’s law, Kirchhoffs laws, Maxwell equations, Mendeleyev’s
law, Stefan-Boltzmann law, Wien's law, Planck's law, Einstein's relativity theory, Bohr postulates.

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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

All the scientists, who discovered the fundamental laws of physics after the time the Nobel Prizes
were launched in 1901, were awarded it: Wien (1911), Planck (1918), Bohr (1922). Wien, Planck both
received the Nobel prize for their work on the quantum nature of heat radiation from blackbody, Bohr
won it for the quantum theory of the atom and radiation from it.

In the twentieth century, between 1923 and 2017 were made, in chronological order, the following
major discoveries and inventions, their authors received the Nobel prizes for the discovery of the
wave nature of electrons, the creation of quantum mechanics in matrix form, the development of new
forms of atomic theory, discovery of neutron, positron, cosmic rays, artificial radioactivity, the
invention of the cyclotron, discovery of the ionosphere, the discovery of mesons, the invention of
phase contrast microscope, the discovery of transitory effect, Cherenkov effect, the antiproton, the
nucleon, the creation of masers and lasers, holography, the development of the theory of
superconductivity, the discovery of pulsars, the psi-particles, the discoveries in the field of low
temperature physics, relict radiation, laser spectroscopy, electronic spectroscopy, the creation of the
theory of formation of chemical elements of the Universe, the discovery of the quantum Hall effect,
the creation of electronic microscope, tunnel microscope, the discovery of high temperature
superconductivity, neutrino, and pulsars, neutron spectroscopy, diffraction, discovery of tau-lepton,
helium super-fluidity, method of neutral atoms recovery, semiconductor heterostructures, integrated
circuits, space x-ray sources, development of the theory of superconductivity, super-fluidity, laser
spectroscopy, LEDs, development of optical data transmission systems, the discovery of the Universe
expansion, neutrino oscillations, topological phases of matter, gravitational waves.

The review of 1923-2017 Nobel prize inventions and discoveries shows that none of them are
fundamental laws that bear the name of the author and would be included in physics textbooks for
secondary school students and students of engineering specialties of universities. The analysis of the
three thousand-year history of the development of natural science, physics, shows that the discovery
of the fundamental law of physics occurs on average once in 50-100 years and is an outstanding event
in the history of mankind. The fundamental laws of physics are the basis for new knowledge,
development of theories and calculation procedures for the creation of new devices, methods,
substances in all fields of technology: energy, all branches of engineering, control systems and other
industries.

For example, in the electric power industry the development and creation of electric generators,
motors, vehicles, power lines, power stations was made possible by the discovery of the laws of
physics of Ohm, Kirchhoff, Faraday, Maxwell, Joule-Lenz, these laws bear the names of the authors.
The developed theories and calculation procedures for the creation of electric generators, engines,
devices, lines and other devices of the electric power industry are based on the above mentioned laws
of electrical engineering, without the opening of which it was impossible to build energy. Similarly,
the development of heat power industry, the creation of steam boilers, steam, gas turbines, piston
engines and other heat power equipment was made possible by the discovery of the laws of Boyle-
Mariotte, Gay-Lussac, Fourier, Mendeleev-Clapeyron, thermodynamics, Stefan-Boltzmann, Planck,
Bohr postulates.

4. LAWS OF HEAT RADIATION FROM GAS TORCH VOLUMES

At the end of the twentieth century, in 1996-2001, the author discovered the laws of heat radiation
from gas volumes of torches. In the diploma for scientific discovery in order to comply with the
centuries-old scientific traditions and copyright, the laws of radiation from gas torches volumes are
called Makarov`s laws [5-11]. Consider the radiation of the torch (Figure 4), one of its cylindrical gas
volumes. Cylindrical isothermal gas volume F radiates to the calculated area F2. The size of the area is
0,5x0,5 m.

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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

Figure4. Radiation of cylindrical gas volume on the calculated area F 2

The diameter of the cylindrical volume D = 3 m, height h = 3 m. Assume, that in the gas volume of
the torch 151015 atoms emit at the same time, uniformly filling the volume. The atoms filling the
volume are modeled by balls (Figure 3). Perpendicular N2 to the center A of the area F2 passes
through the center of the symmetry of the volume point O and divide the axis O1O2 in half between
the upper and lower bases of the cylindrical volume. Distance AO = r = 3 m. The Power released in
the cylindrical gas volume of the Pf torch during combustion of fuel PF = 42 MW, the absorption
coefficient of the gas medium k = 0.162 [5].
Let's divide the isothermal cylindrical gas volume into three equal in volume cylindrical bodies 1, 2, 3
(Figure 3, top view). In each of the coaxial isochoric isothermal cylindrical gas volumes F 1, F2, F3
there are 151015/3 = 51015 emitting atoms. The axis of cylindrical gas volumes 1-3 O1O2 is a
cylindrical gas volume F4 of infinitesimal diameter. The laws of heat radiation from coaxial
cylindrical gas volumes are as follows [5-11].
The first law: the flux density of the heat radiation incident from the cylindrical gas volume to the
calculated area qFF2 is directly proportional to the power PF and the local angular radiation
coefficient of the gas volume to the calculated area qFF2 and inversely proportional to the coefficient
of absorption of gas medium k, the average beam path length from the emitting atoms of the gas
volume l and the area of the calculated platform F2:

(2)
In expression (2), the complexity is the calculation of the angular coefficient φFF2 and the mean beam
path length l. In zonal and numerical methods, gas volumes of torches are divided into 1 million - 1.5
million cells, rectangular parallelepipeds of infinitesimal sizes. The angular radiation coefficient of the
j-th parallelepiped filled with gas to the dF platform is found by three-fold integration over the width
aj, the depth bj, the height hj of the j-th parallelepiped:

(3)
where αi is the angle between the perpendicular to the face of the parallelepiped and the shortest line r j
to the area dF; βj is the angle between the perpendicular to the area dF and the shortest line rj.
The solution of the triple integral (3) is a complex mathematical problem, which was not solved in the
twentieth century. To calculate the average beam path length from the cells to the calculated area, it is
necessary to solve a triple integral equation of a similar nature. The decision in the XX century was
not found. The following laws of coaxial cylindrical gas volumes allow to calculate the heat transfer
in torch furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers.

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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

The second law: Average beam path length l1, l2, l3 from a set of radiating atoms each of isochoric
isothermal coaxial cylindrical gas volumes to the calculated area equals to the arithmetic mean
distance l from the axis of symmetry to the calculated area.

(4)
The third law: Local angular coefficients, radiation flux densities from coaxial cylindrical gas
volumes F, F1, F2, F3, F4 to the calculated area F2 are equal .
(5)

(6)
The result (6) was obtained by performing calculations using the formula (2) and assuming that 51015
atoms are located in a coaxial cylindrical gas volume of small diameter 4.
The fourth law: The flux density of radiation from the central cylindrical gas volume of small
diameter on the calculated area qF4F2 equal to the sum of flux densities of radiation from all coaxial
cylindrical gas volumes on the calculated area when the radiation power released in the volume of a
small diameter is equal to the sum of the radiation power released in all coaxial cylindrical gas
volumes radiating to the calculated area.

(7)
It follows from the laws of heat radiation from coaxial cylindrical gas volumes, that the radiation from
any cylindrical gas volume of high power can be equivalently replaced by radiation from coaxial
cylindrical gas volume of small diameter of equal power. The laws of warm radiation from cylindrical
gas volumes release researchers from three-and four-fold integration in the calculations of heat
transfer by radiation and allow to determine the parameters of radiation by a single integration of
trigonometric dependencies (3) of coaxial cylindrical volume of small diameter. The results of a single
integration over the height of expression (3) at any spatial position of cylindrical volume of small
diameter and heating surface F2 are given in [5], the calculation results are placed in the table.
By the formula (2) using the analytical expressions put in table [5] for the calculation of angular
radiation coefficients of the torch and the computer, we can calculate the heat radiation fluxes from
the gas volume of the torch on the heating surfaces in the furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers.
On the basis of the disclosed laws of heat radiation from cylindrical gas volumes, a new concept of
calculating heat transfer in electric arc and torch furnaces, fire boxes,
combustion chambers of gas turbine plants developed (Figure 5). According to the new concept,
dozens of calculations of heat transfer in electric arc and torch furnaces, fire boxes, combustion
chambers were performed, which results are presented in [5-17]. Experimental studies have confirmed
that the error of such calculations does not exceed 10%. This new concept of calculation of heat
transfer in electric arc and torch furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers is confirmed by
experimental studies and approved by the Educational and Methodical Association for education in
the field of metallurgy of the Ministry of education of the Russian Federation as a textbook and is
used for training students and postgraduates. Laws of heat radiation from gas volumes (2) – (6)
combined with the laws of heat radiation from blackbody (1) entered into the textbook [5].

Figure5. Gas turbine plant

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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

For over 35 years, the theory for heat transfer in arc steel melting furnaces [4],developed by the
author of the scientific discovery and presented in monographs, textbooks [5],articles [6-17] has been
used for training metallurgical engineers at the technical universities of Russia and Russian-speaking
countries, at Russian metallurgical enterprises for calculating rational operating modes of furnaces.
Over the past 20 years, Russian metallurgy has reduced power consumption in arc steel-smelting
furnaces by 28-30%, by several hundred million kilowatt hours, some of the credit for the positive
changes go to the author of the scientific discovery of the laws for heat radiation from ionized and
no ionized gas volumes.

The disclosed laws and the theory developed on their basis allow scientists, researchers, engineers to
calculate and organize rational heat transfer around the world in tens of thousands of electric arc and
flame furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers, reduce electric power and fuel consumption, save
million kilowatts of electric power and million tons of fuel, reduce pollutant exposure and
development pressure on the environment, improve the population's quality of life in many countries
worldwide.

5. CONCLUSION
1. Existing methods for calculating heat transfer such as zonal, numerical, Pl - approximation, Monte
Carlo, Schuster-Schwarzschild, Eddington, Chandrasekhar, spherical harmonics and others use the
Stefan-Boltzmann law of heat radiation from solids. However, the radiation from gas volumes of
electric arcs and torches
is not subject to the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation from solids and the calculation error is 70-90%
or more.
2. In the twentieth century in articles, monographs, textbooks of Russian and foreign scientists,
designers century there was no data on the causes of uneven wear and low resistance of the lining of
the walls, the arch of electric arc steel melting furnaces, uneven melting of the charge, the temperature
of the metal around the perimeter due to the lack of the laws of heat radiation from gas volumes and
the inability to accurately calculate the heat transfer. There were no results of the calculation of the
distribution of the heat radiation fluxes from the torch along the height and perimeter of the furnaces,
the burner device, there was no explanation for the unevenness of vaporization and deposits in the
pipes. There was no data on the distribution of heat fluxes on all surfaces, faces and height of heated
products in torch furnaces. There were no calculated data on the distribution of the heat radiation
fluxes from the torch along the flame tube and the burner device of the combustion chambers.
3. The lack of accurate data of heat transfer calculations was compensated by the results of numerous,
expensive, time-consuming, long-term experimental studies of heat transfer and technical modes of
operation of electric arc steelmaking and torch furnaces, fire boxes, combustion chambers.
4. At the end of the XX century, the laws of heat radiation from gas volumes, the laws of heat
radiation from electric arcs of steel melting furnaces and torches of heating furnaces, fire boxes,
combustion chambers of gas turbine power plants were discovered. The disclosed laws of heat
radiation from gas volumes, as well as the laws of heat radiation from solids of Planck, Wien, Stefan-
Boltzmann belong among the fundamental laws of physics which have multidisciplinary and
applicability in various fields of science and technology.
5. The discovery of the fundamental law of physics is an outstanding event in the history of mankind
and takes place on average once in 50-80 years. Physics textbooks for schools and universities, which
set out a little more than 30 laws discovered by humankind for three thousand years, since the third
century BC from the law of Archimedes and to the last fundamental laws, postulates discovered by
Bohr in 1913 are proof of this.
6. The scientific discovery and the calculation methods developed on its basis allow scientists,
engineers, designers to calculate the heat transfer and improve the design of electric arc steelmaking
and torch heating furnaces in metallurgy, in various industries, including various fields of mechanical
engineering, the design of steam boiler boxes and combustion chambers of gas turbine plants in the
energy sector, save millions of kW∙h of electricity and millions of tons of fuel, reduce emissions of
pollutants, reduce the anthropogenic load on the environment.

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The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes and the Fundamental Laws of Physics

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[Link]

Citation: Anatoliy Nikolaevich Makarov, (2019). The Laws of Heat Radiation from Gas Torch Volumes
and the Fundamental Laws of Physics. International Journal of Advanced Research in Physical Science
(IJARPS) 6(10), pp.15-22, 2019.

Copyright: © 2019 Authors, This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are credited.

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