PHYSICS CHRONICLES

UNIT 1 – Forces and their Effects

1. Forces:
- Contact forces examples – Friction, tension, normal force.
- Non-contact examples – Magnetism, electrostatic force, gravity.

- Friction – Force of when two objects’ surfaces interact that impedes motion which
causes heating,
- Friction example - Air resistance
- Weight – Force of gravity exerted on object that depends on gravitational field at
point where object is.
- Object has different weight – Means different gravitational field strength on where
object is.

- Scalar – Quantities with only magnitude such as speed/distance.

- Vector – Quantities magnitude/direction such as vector/displacement.
- Length of arrow – Represents magnitude
- Direction of arrow – Represents direction.

- Force on elastic object – Stretches object, so stores elastic potential energy

- Hooke’s law – Force is directly proportionate to extension when within limit of
proportionality.

2. Motion:
- Speed – Slope of a distance time graph.
- Distance – Area under slope of velocity-time graph.
- Acceleration – Slope of velocity-time graph.

3. Resultant forces:
- Resultant force – Single force that has same effect on motion as multiple forces
exerted together.
- Calculating magnitude of resultant force –
1. Direction of forces are parallel – Add forces together (opposite direction means
negative number)
2. Direction of forces are perpendicular – Use Pythagoras’ theorem.
3. Direction of forces are neither – Draw/use parallelogram method.

- First law – If zero resultant force, moving objects will move at constant velocity,
stationary object will stay at rest.
- Second law – If non-zero resultant force, object will accelerate in direction of
resultant force.
- Third law – When two objects interact, objects exert force of equal magnitude and
opposite direction on each other.
 - Acceleration – Rate of change of velocity.
- Accelerates – When object changes direction or when resultant force is non-zero

4. Forces and effects in driving:

- Steady speed – Driving forces/resistive forces are balanced.

- Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance.

- Factor – Increasing speed for given braking force.

- Thinking distance – Distance under reaction time.

- Factors –
1. Tiredness
2. distractions
3. Drugs/alcohol

- Braking distance – Distance under braking force.

- Factors –
1. Adverse road/weather conditions
2. Poor vehicle conditions

- Increasing speed – Increases braking force needed to stop at certain distance,

increases deceleration needed, leading to brakes overheating/loss of control.

5. Hooke’s law investigation:

1. Add spring to clamp stand.
2. Using set square, place meter ruler next to spring, measure initial length at eye level,
record it in cm.
3. Add 100g mass hanger onto spring hook.
4. Using set square, place meter ruler next to spring, measure new length at eye
level/wait for spring to stop moving, record it in cm.
5. Calculate force applied on spring using W = mg/extension using change of
length/record force in N/extension in cm.
6. Repeat steps thrice, each time adding another 100g mass hanger but using same
spring.
7. Repeat experiment thrice, then calculate mean extension for each force applied then
plot force in N on x-axis/extension in cm in y-axis.

Improvements –
1. Use pointer – Between spring/hanging mass to increase measurement accuracy.
2. Use set square – Ensures meter ruler is vertically next to spring to measurement
accuracy.
3. Take readings at eye level – Decreases parallax errors.
4. Take readings when spring stops moving – Decreases errors

1. Wear goggles in case spring snaps.

2. Ensure feet are not under mass.
 3. Place mat on ground to prevent damage
4. Use G clamp to secure clamp and stand to avoid falling over.
5. Place mass carefully.
6. FIX

UNIT 2 – Energy
1. Energy with forces:
- Work – Done when force causes object to move distance, transferring energy to
object.

- Work done by friction – Decreases motion of object so energy in kinetic energy store
of object is transferred to thermal energy store of other object, decreasing kinetic
energy of object/increasing thermal energy of other object.
- Work done by pulling elastic object – Increases stretching of object so energy in
kinetic energy store of object is transferred to elastic potential energy of object,
decreases kinetic energy of object and increasing potential energy of object.
- Work done by releasing elastic object – Decreases stretching of object so energy in
elastic potential energy store of object is transferred to kinetic energy store of object,
decreasing elastic potential energy of object and increasing kinetic energy of object.

- Work done by raising up object – Increases height of object so energy in kinetic

energy store of object is transferred to gravitational potential energy of object,
decreasing kinetic energy of object and increasing gravitational potential energy of
object.

- Work done by gravity – Decreases height of object so energy in gravitational

potential energy store of object is transferred to kinetic energy store of object,
decreasing gravitational potential energy of object and increasing kinetic energy of
object.

- Kinetic energy – Doubled when mass is doubled but velocity same, quadrupled if
velocity is doubled but mass is same.

- Power – Rate of work done.

2. Energy with conservation:

- System – Group of one or more objects.
- Changes – When energy is transferred.

- Energy – Can be stored, transferred usefully or dissipated but never created nor
destroyed.
- When energy is transferred – Only part of it is transferred usefully while rest is
dissipated as wasted energy.

- Sankey diagrams – Represents energy flow of system.

3. Energy resources:
- Fuel – Useful store of energy, chosen depending on safety, energy content, ease of
storage.

- National grid – Network of transformers and transmission cables to connect power

stations to consumers.
- Transformer – Increase (step-up) or decrease (step-down) voltage to increase
efficiency.
- Power station – Burns coal/natural gas to generate electricity, or uranium metal for
nuclear energy.

- Wave – Sea waves cause machines to bob up and down, transferring kinetic energy
to electrical energy.
- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming.
- Unreliable and high set up costs.

- Hydroelectric – River water flows into dam and turbine gradually, transferring kinetic
energy to electrical energy.
- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming.
- Dam can harm the environment due to change in water flow and be high set up
costs.

- Tidal – Tides rise into turbine, transferring gravitational potential energy to electrical
energy.
- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming.
- Harms environment/high set up costs.

- Solar – Light is absorbed from cell, transferring light energy to electrical energy.
- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming
- Only works if sunny and high set up costs.

- Wind – Wind pushes turbine, transferring kinetic energy to electrical energy.

- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming.
- Noise pollution and high set up costs.

- Geothermal – Cold water is pumped down to be steamed, transferring thermal

energy into electrical energy.
- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming.
- Very few places are able/ high set up costs.

- Biomass – Trees absorb light then burned, transferring chemical energy to electrical
energy.
- Renewable and does not contribute to global warming.
- Takes up a lot of space and can lead to deforestation if not replanted.
 - Advantages of both • No CO2 emissions • (so) reduces global warming • No SO2
emissions • (so) reduces acid rain • Reliable • Can be used to meet sudden demand •
No fuel costs • No mining required Disadvantages of both • Not suitable for use in
many locations around the world • Require mountainous areas • High initial costs
Disadvantages of hydroelectric power 20 MARK SCHEME – INTERNATIONAL GCSE
COMBINED SCIENCE – 9204/PE – NOVEMBER 2018 • Large areas of land may need to
be flooded • Water needs to be pumped back to the top of the hill / mountain •
Cannot provide constant power • Flooding land would affect wildlife habitats •
Droughts can reduce the reliability of hydroelectric power Disadvantages of
geothermal Drilling underground could cause the release of harmful gases /
greenhouse gases

UNIT 3 – Waves
1. Waves:
- Waves – Disturbance from oscillating source that transfer energy or information, not
matter in direction of wave travel.
- Transverse – Oscillations are perpendicular to direction of energy transfer/have no
areas of compression or rarefaction.
- Examples – Electromagnetic waves/mechanical waves.
- Longitudinal – Oscillations are parallel to direction of energy transfer/have areas of
compression or rarefaction.
- Examples – Sound waves/mechanical waves.

- At boundary of 2 different materials – Waves can be reflected, absorbed, or

transmitted.
- Refraction causes – Speed changes.
- Diffraction causes – Wave travels through narrow gap, or hits edge.
- Maximum diffraction – When length of gap is similar to wavelength of wave.

- Wavelength – Distance between two same points of two adjacent waves.

- Frequency – Number of waves per second.
- Period – Number of seconds per wave.
- Amplitude – Distance between equilibrium line and maximum displacement.
- Wavefront – Imaginary line perpendicular to direction of wave travel that has
adjacent wavefronts wavelength away from each other.

2. Electromagnetic waves:
- Electromagnetic waves – Transverse waves from oscillating source that transfer
energy to absorber.
- 2 properties – Form continuous spectrum and travel at same speed through vacuum.
- Wavelength range – 10^-15 to 10^4 m
- Lowest to highest energy – Radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-ray,
gamma
- Infrared – Part of electromagnetic spectrum that all objects emit and absorb with
infrared radiation.
- Temperature – Increasing temperature of object increases rate of infrared radiation.
- Dark, matt surfaces – Good absorbers/emitters and poor reflectors of infrared
radiation.
- Light, shiny surfaces – Poor absorbers/emitters and good reflectors of infrared
radiation.

- Visible light – Part of electromagnetic spectrum detected by our eyes

- Wavelengths – Different wavelengths give different colors.

- X-ray – Part of electromagnetic spectrum with high energy, high frequency, very short
wavelength, so causes ionization.
- 3 properties – Affect photographic film like light, absorbed strongly by metals/bones,
transmitted by healthy tissue.
- Hazardous – Take precautions to monitor and minimize level of x-ray radiation
exposed to x-ray workers.
- X-ray uses – Diagnose health conditions, such as medical imaging of CT scans of bone
fractures and dental problems, and treat health conditions, such as killing cancer
cells.

- Radio – Radio systems, TV systems

- Microwave – Mobile phone systems, TV satellite systems
- Infrared – Night vision devices, heating, TV remotes,
- Visible light – fiber optic communications, photography
- Ultraviolet – Security marking
- X-ray – Medical imaging
- Gamma – Sterilizing surgical instruments, killing harmful bacteria in food

- Electromagnetic waves over-exposure – Hazardous to body

- Low energy – Causes heating
- High energy – Causes ionization.
- Microwave – Heats body tissue, so use metal wall and grid.
- Infrared – Burns skin, so wear gloves.
- Ultraviolet – Causes skin cancer and blindness, so wear sunscreen and sunglasses.
- X-ray – High doses kill cells, so monitor and minimize levels of x-ray radiation by
wearing radiation badge, wear lead apron, leaving room when possible.
- Gamma – Mutates genes, so wear radiation badge.

3. Sound:
- Sound waves – Longitudinal waves from oscillating source that cause vibrations in
medium detected as sound.
- Human hearing range – 20Hz to 20000Hz
- Pitch – Determined by frequency from oscillating source.
- Loudness – Determined by amplitude from oscillating source

4. Reflection:
 - Angle of incidence – Equal to angle of reflection.
- Normal – Construction line perpendicular to reflecting surface at point of incidence.
- Image on mirror – Virtual, upright, laterally inverted.

5. Refraction:
1. Using ruler/protractor, draw straight line and normal line on A3 paper.
2. Using glass block, align its edge to straight line and draw around it.
3. Using ray box, shine incidence ray where normal meets glass block until clear
transmitted ray can be seen.
4. Using pencil/ruler, trace incidence ray/transmitted ray, then remove glass
block/connect them with straight line.
5. Using protractor, record angle of incidence/angle of refraction onto table
6. Repeat with different angles of incidence.

- Risks – Turn switch box off if it gets too hot, wear safety goggles so laser doesn’t
harm eyes.

UNIT 4 – Particle Model of Matter

1. Kinetic theory:
- Solid –
1. Movement – Particles move by vibrating in fixed position.
2. Arrangement – Particles are arranged very close in rows of regular structure.

- Liquid –
1. Movement – Particles move freely by randomly slipping/sliding over each other.
2. Arrangement – Particles are arranged close in random irregular structure.

- Gas –
1. Movement – Particles move freely by rapidly/randomly moving in all directions that
bash against container to exert pressure.
2. Arrangement – Particles are arranged far apart in random irregular structure.

- Increasing energy (endothermic) – Melting, boiling, sublimation

- Decreasing energy (exothermic) – Condensation, freezing, deposition

- During interconversion – No change in temperature as energy is being used to

separate particles.

- Specific heat capacity – Amount of energy needed to change temperature of

kilogram of substance by 1 degree Celsius.
- Specific latent heat of fusion – Amount of energy needed to change state of kilogram
of substance from solid to liquid without change in temperature.
- Specific latent heat of vaporisation – Amount of energy needed to change state of
kilogram of substance from liquid to vapour without change in temperature.

- Explaining shape of heating temperature-time graph –

1. Before object is heated, line is straight because solid is at room temperature.
2. After object is heated/below melting point, line is curved because rate of heat
transfer between heating element/solid is decreasing because temperature
difference between them is decreasing.
3. At melting point, line is straight because energy gained is being used to separate
particles, not increase temperature.
4. After melting point/below boiling point, line is curved because of same reason as for
after being heated/below melting point.
5. At boiling point, line is straight because of same reason as for at melting point.
6. Above boiling point, line is curved because of same reason as for after heated/below
melting point.

- Increasing energy affects temperature –

1. Below melting point, increasing energy supplied to particles increases kinetic energy
of particles, so increases amplitude of vibrations of particles, increasing temperature
of substance.
2. At melting point, substance melts from solid to liquid as latent heat of fusion energy
supplied is being used to separate particles, so no change in temperature of
substance.
3. Above melting point/under boiling point, increasing energy supplied to particles
increases kinetic energy of particles, so increases amplitude of vibrations of particles,
increasing temperature of substance.
4. At boiling point, substance boils from liquid to gas as latent heat of vaporization
energy supplied is being used to separate particles, so no change in temperature of
substance.

- Explaining shape of cooling temperature-time graph –

1. Above condensation point, line is curved because rate of heat transfer between
gas/surroundings is decreasing because temperature difference between them is
decreasing.
2. At condensation point, line is straight because energy lost is being used to bond
particles closer together, not decrease temperature.
3. Below condensation point/above freezing point, line is curved for same reason as for
above condensation point.
4. At freezing point, line is straight for same reason as for at condensation point,
5. Above freezing point, line is curved for same reason as above condensation point.
6. After cooling, line is straight because object is at room temperature.

- Decreasing energy affects temperature –

1. Substance is cooled.
2. At condensation point, substance condenses from gas to liquid as latent heat of
vaporization energy is being released to make particles bond to get closer together,
so no change in temperature.
3. Substance is cooled.
4. At freezing point, substance freezes from liquid to solid as latent heat energy is
released to make particles bond to get closer together, so no change in temperature.
- Factors of rate of heat energy transfer –
1. Surface area
2. Temperature difference between object/surroundings or 2 objects.
3. Volume
4. Material
5. Nature of surface

- Conductor – Good conductors have rate of energy transfer.

- Arrangement – Particles closer together can make transferring energy to each other
easier, increasing rate of energy transfer.
- Movement – Electrons that are free to move/collide with other electrons/ions can
make transferring energy to both easier, increasing rate of energy transfer.
- Insulator – Good insulators have low rate of energy transfer
- Arrangement – Particles further away can make transferring energy to each other
harder, decreasing rate of energy transfer.
- Movement – Electrons that are not free to move/collide with other electrons/atoms
make transferring energy harder, decreasing rate of energy transfer.

- Conduction –
1. Heating element transfers energy to free electrons of solid particles that are closest
to it, so electrons gain energy.
2. Electrons move faster to make solid near heating element warmer.
3. Electrons that collide with other free electrons/ions next to it transfers energy to
them, so they gain energy.
4. Electrons/ions move faster to make next part of solid warmer.

- Convection –
1. Heating element transfers energy to fluid particles that are closest to it, so gain
energy.
2. Particles move faster/further apart to make fluid warmer.
3. Warmer fluid expands to become less dense.
4. Warmer fluid rises to be replaced by falling colder, denser fluid.

- Evaporation –
1. Sun transfers energy to particles of liquid’s surface, so particles gain enough kinetic
energy that’s higher than particles below surface.
2. Particles move faster/further apart to evaporate from liquid to gas.
3. Particles leave surface/escape to air.
4. Decreases average kinetic energy of particles, so temperature of liquid decreases.

- Condensation –
1. Gas particles in air that collide with particles on surface of solid transfer energy to
them, so gas particles lose energy.
2. Particles move slower/closer together to condense from gas to liquid.
3. Decreases average kinetic energy of particles, so temperature of substance
decreases.
 Thermal expansion – Object expands when heated.
Bi-metallic strip – When heated, solid metal that expands more becomes longer than
other solid metal, so bends in direction of other metal.
Thermometer – When heated, liquid metal expands to rise in thermometer, so
reading of temperature rises.
Hazardous – Thermal expansion of roofs/bridges can lead roofs/bridges to buckle, so
can create cracks.

- Practicals found from past papers (not necessary to memorize) –

- as concentration increases specific heat capacity decrease • so energy required
decreases • so time taken decreases • as concentration increases boiling point
increases • so energy required increases • so time increases • greater effect of
specific heat capacity at lower concentration • greater effect on boiling point at
higher concentrations • the specific heat capacity falls in a linear manner with
increasing concentration • the decrease in specific heat capacity has a greater effect
than the increase in boiling point so time take to reach boiling point decreases with
increasing concentration.
- use a balance to measure mass • measure the mass of the beaker • add water and
measure the total mass of the water and beaker • determine the mass of the water •
record starting temperature of water with the thermometer • ensure that the
joulemeter reading is zero • switch on the heater • leave until heater has heated up •
switch off the heater • wait until the thermometer reading is at a maximum • record
the maximum temperature • determine the temperature change • record the energy
transferred using the joulemeter • substitute into the equation E = mcΔθ • c = E mΔθ
- measure volume of water • use a measuring cylinder • measure mass of salt • use a
top pan balance • heat the water • record the temperature when the water is boiling
• repeat for different masses of salt • use the same volume of water in the beaker
each time • stir to dissolve the salt in the water • ensure reading on the
thermometer is constant before recording boiling point
- • time using a timer / stopwatch • temperature using a thermometer • record
starting temperature • record temperature after 5 minutes • vary the starting
temperature Control variables • volume of water • sensible suggestion of volume eg
200 ml • volume / surface area of the beaker • material of the beaker Safety • hot
water • risk of burns • glass risk of breakage • risk of cuts To access level 3 students
must correctly describe the use of a thermometer and stop watch and mention at
least one control variable.

UNIT 5 – Electricity and Electromagnetism

1. Electricity:
- Switch
- Cell
- Battery
- Lamp
- Resistor
- Variable resistor
- Thermistor
- LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
- LED (Light Emitting Diode)
- Fuse
- Ammeter
- Voltmeter

- Metals – Have electrons that are free to move and carry charges.

- Current – Rate of flow of charges measured in amps.

- Voltage – Energy supplied by source that drives charges around complete circuit
measured in volts
- Potential difference –Energy transfer per charge measured in volts.

- Resistance – How much component resists flow of charges.

- Increasing resistance – Decreases current for given voltage across component.

- Resistors current – As current changes, resistance is constant, as current is directly

proportional to voltage across resistor.
- Resistors’ temperature – Free electrons that are in irregular arrangement moving
through resistor collide with ions in regular arrangement vibrating about fixed
position. This transfers energy from electrons to ions, increasing amplitude of ion
vibration, increasing temperature.

- Other components current – As current changes, resistance changes, so current is

not directly proportional to voltage across other components.
- Other components’ temperature – Increasing temperature increases resistance.
- Other components’ resistance –
1. Initially, as current changes, resistance is constant, so current is directly proportional
to voltage across component.
2. Increasing current increases temperature, increasing amplitude of ion/electron
vibration.
3. Increases frequency of collisions between electrons/ions, increasing energy transfer
from electrons to ions.
4. Increases resistance.

- Thermistor – Increasing temperature decreases resistance.

- Uses for thermistor – Such as for thermostats.
- LDR – Increasing light intensity decreases resistance
- Uses for LDR – Such as for switching on lights in dark.
- LED – Emits light when current moves in forward direction.

- Series circuits – Current of component is same as total current, voltage across

component shares total voltage of power supply between components, resistances
of components sum to total resistance.
1. Total current = Any component’s current
2. Total voltage = Sum of components’ voltages
 3. Total resistance = Sum of components’ resistances
- Parallel circuits – Current from power supply splits into branches, voltage of branch is
same as total voltage, resistance of component is higher than total resistance.
1. Total current = Sum of branches’ currents
2. Total voltage = Any branch’s voltage
3. Total resistance < any component’s voltage

6. Magnetism:
- Non-contact force example – Magnetic forces of attraction or repulsion between 2
magnetic poles.
- 2 unlike poles – Attract each other
- 2 like poles – Repel each other

- Magnetic materials –
1. Iron
2. Steel
3. Cobalt
4. Nickel

- Magnetic field – Space around magnet that exerts force on magnet or magnetic
material that enters it.
- 1 magnet’s magnetic field – Magnetic field strength/direction changes from one
point to another.
- 2 magnets’ magnetic field – Magnetic field strength/direction is uniform, so magnetic
field lines are parallel.
- Earth’s magnetic field – Most concentrated at north and south poles.
- Compass – Aligns with earth’s magnetic field to assist in navigation.

- Magnetic forces – Strongest at magnetic poles.

- 2 magnets brought together – Exert magnetic force one each other.

- Induced magnet –
1. Magnetic material that becomes magnet when in magnetic field.
2. Inside magnetic field, there’s magnetic force of attraction on it.
3. Outside magnetic field, it quickly loses most/all of its magnetism.

4. Electromagnetism:
- Wire – Current flows through wire, so produces magnetic field lines of concentric
circles in plane/perpendicular to wire.
- Distance – Increasing closeness to wire, stronger magnetic field.
- Current – Increasing current in wire, stronger magnetic field.
- Reversing current – Reverses magnetic field direction.
- Electromagnet – Contains solenoid with iron core.
- Electromagnet uses – Such as scrapyard crane, electric bell, relay circuit, circuit
breaker.
- Shaping wire – Forming solenoid increases magnetic field strength from current
flowing through wire.
 - Iron core – Adding iron core increases magnetic field strength.

- Solenoid’s magnetic field – Inside solenoid, magnetic field strength is strong/

magnetic field strength/direction is uniform, so magnetic field lines are parallel.
Outside solenoid, magnetic field lines have similar shape to magnetic field lines of
bar magnet.

5. Electromagnetism practical:
1. Coil half of wire around iron nail.
2. Clamp iron nail to clamp stand.
3. Connect wires to circuit with switch, ammeter, fixed resistor of 5 Ohms, variable
power supply set to 5V.
4. Close switch.
5. Increase voltage of power supply until 1 paper clip can be supported.
6. Record current in amps from ammeter.
7. Open switch if coil is too hot.
8. Repeat with up to 6 paper clips
9. Repeat experiment thrice and calculate average current needed to support paper clip
amount.
10. Graph paper clip amount on x-axis against average current needed to support it on y-
axis.

- Control – Number of coils, length of iron nail.

- Risk – Wear gloves to prevent electric shocks.

UNIT 6 – Electricity and Household Use

1. Electricity at home:
- Direct current – Current flows in same direction.
- Direct current example – Cells/batteries.

- Alternating current – Current flows in repeatedly changing directions.

- Alternating current example – Mains electricity
- Mains electricity characteristics – Alternating current supply with 50Hz
frequency/230V.

- Earthing – Safety feature where if fault causes metal body of appliance to become
live, large current flows from live wire to earth to be harmlessly conducted away.

- Fuse – Safety feature where if electrical fault causes too much current to flow
through wire in fuse safely, fuse in live wire overheats/melts, disconnecting circuit.

- Circuit breaker – Safety feature where if electrical fault causes too much current to
flow safely, circuit breaker in live wire trips, disconnecting circuit.
- Advantages – Much faster than fuse, can be reset.
 - Safety in appliances – If electrical fault causes too much current to flow safely, large
current flows from live wire to earth to be harmlessly conducted away, so fuse in live
wire overheats/melts, disconnecting circuit.
- Some appliances – Double insulated so don’t need earth wire.

- Electric appliances design – Made to transfer energy.

- Examples with energy transfer –
1. Heater – Transforms electrical energy into heat.
2. Blow dryer – Transforms electrical energy into heat.
3. Kettle – Transforms electrical energy into heat.
4. Washing machine – Transforms electrical energy into kinetic energy.
5. Vacuum – Transforms electrical energy into kinetic energy.
6. Lamp – Transforms electrical energy into light energy.

- Increasing power rating – Increases amount of energy transferred.

- Increasing time turned on – Increases amount of energy transferred.

2. Motor effect:
- Motor effect – When current-carrying conductor that has magnetic field around wire
is placed in magnet’s magnetic field to cut lines of magnetic force, magnet/conductor
exert force on each other.

- Conductor parallel to magnetic field – No force

- To increase force –
1. Increase magnetic field strength.
2. Increase current.
3. Increase length of conductor in magnetic field.

- 2 ways to reverse force direction – Reverse direction of current/reverse direction of

magnetic field.

- Electric motor – Uses current that flows through coil of wire with motor effect.

UNIT 7 – Nuclear Physics

1. Atoms:
- Atomic structure – Atoms are very small with radius of 10^-10 meters that contain
nucleus of protons/neutrons that’s small, central, positively charged, with radius
much smaller than atom’s radius, with almost all mass of atom contained in it,
surrounded by shells of negatively-charged electrons.

- Distribution of mass evidence – Thin metal foil scatters alpha particles.

1. Most of alpha particles were not deflected – Provides evidence that most of atom is
empty space.
 2. Very few of alpha particles were deflected through large angle – Provides evidence
that there’s nucleus that’s very small volume/contains atom’s mass.
3. Some of alpha particles were deflected through small angle – Provides evidence that
nucleus is positively charged.

- Protons – 1, +1
- Neutrons – 1, 0
- Electrons – Very small, -1

- Electron arrangement – Arranged in shells of different distances from nucleus

- No overall charge – Number of protons are equal to number of electrons.
- Ionization – Atoms’ outermost shell lose or gain electrons.

- Elements – Atoms with same number of protons

- Isotopes – Atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

2. Radiation:
- Radioactive decay – Unstable atomic nucleus randomly emits alpha particles, beta
particles, or neutrons/gamma radiation to change into nucleus of different element
that’s more stable.
- Random – Impossible to predict when specific atom will decay.
- Changes in nucleus – Emits energy.
- Unaffected by – physical/chemical processes

- Background radiation – Around us all of time.

- Examples –
1. From radioactive substances in environment
2. From devices like X-ray machines in hospital
3. From space

- Alpha particle – Made of 2 protons/2 neutrons.

1. Ionizing power – Highest
2. Penetration through materials – Can’t penetrate paper
3. Range in air – Few cm/lowest
- Beta particle – High speed electron ejected from nucleus that turns nucleus into
proton.
1. Ionizing power – Higher than gamma
2. Penetration through materials – Can’t penetrate Al
3. Range in air – Few 10s of cm/higher than alpha
- Gamma radiation – Electromagnetic radiation from nucleus.
1. Ionizing power – Lowest
2. Penetration through materials – Can’t penetrate Pb
3. Range in air – Infinite/highest

- Nuclear equation –

3. Nuclear fission:
 - Nuclear fission – Atomic nucleus that absorbs neutron to become large unstable
nucleus splits into 2 smaller nuclei to release 2 or 3 neutrons/energy that’s much
more than energy released in chemical reaction with similar mass of material.
(Uranium-235/plutonium have 51 extra neutrons than protons)
- Chain reaction – Neutrons from nuclear fission cause further nuclear fission.

- Nuclear reactions – produce dangerous waste from its radioactivity/long time

remaining so depending on its half-life/products.

- Advantage – Less carbon dioxide produced so contributes less to global warming.

- Disadvantage – Nuclear reactions increases amount of dangerous radioactive waste
produced that’s difficult/expensive to dispose.

UNIT 8 – Space Physics

1. Life cycle of star:

- Planet formation – Smaller masses form to be pulled to larger mass by gravitational
force of attraction.

- At core – Where nuclear fusion occurs most/temperature/density is highest.

- Nuclear fusion – Main source of energy of star that produces all naturally occurring
elements up to iron to be distributed throughout universe by supernova that
produces elements heavier than iron at end of large star’s life.
- Increasing size of star – Increases temperature of core/weight of nuclei made from
nuclear fusion.

- Star life cycle – Determined by mass as star changes over time.

1. Protostar – Enough dust, hydrogen gas, helium gas from space are pulled together by
gravity which can form smaller masses to be pulled to larger mass by gravity.
2. Main sequence star – Hydrogen nuclei fusing to form helium nuclei in core releases
light, heat, energy to balance forces within it to make star stable.
3. When star runs out of hydrogen – Stars much bigger than our sun will swell to form
red super giant/stars around same size as our sun will expand form red giant.
4. Red super giant – Swells/Helium nuclei fusing to form carbon nuclei in core/further
fuses to form heavier nuclei that are oxygen/nitrogen nuclei to expand, cool, turn red
which later forms supernova that blasts away outer layers where higher mass stars
form black hole/lesser mass stars form neutron star.
5. Red giant – Expands/sheds gas layers that exposes core to form white dwarf which
later cools to form black dwarf.

- Stars maintain energy output – Lots of supply of hydrogen nuclei for lots of nuclear
fusion to release lots of energy over time.
- Early universe contained only hydrogen – Nuclear fusion into heavier elements
produces all naturally-occurring elements to be distributed throughout universe by
supernova at end of large stars life.
- Supernova forms elements – Atomic nuclei in supernova rapidly absorb neutrons to
radioactively decay into heavier elements
2. Solar system:
- Solar system structure – Planets, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids orbit around our
Sun that is medium-sized star/moons that are natural satellites orbitting around
several planets.
1. Sun – Orbits around centre of Milky way.
2. Planets – Orbits around sun that’s centre of solar system.
3. Dwarf planets – Orbits around sun that’s centre of solar system.
4. Moons – Orbits around planets.
5. Asteroids – Orbits around sun that’s centre of solar system by orbiting elliptically far
from sun then near sun.
6. Comets – Orbits around sun that’s centre of solar system by orbiting elliptically far
from sun then near sun.
- Universe structure – Thousands of millions of galaxies contain thousands of millions
of stars with Milky way that is our galaxy which contains our sun that’s one of
thousands of millions of stars in Milky way.

- Artificial satellites – Orbit earth in geostationary or low polar orbits.

- Geostationary –
1. Orbit – Around earth’s equator.
2. Height – Higher than low polar orbit.
3. Use – 1 satellite needed for location as always stationary relative.
4. Range - Limited
- Low polar orbit –
1. Orbit – Around earth’s north/south poles.
2. Height - Lower than geostationary.
3. Use – Multiple satellites needed as line of sight is lost.
4. Range – Less limited

- Gravity – Provides centripetal force that keeps planets/satellites in orbit by being

unbalanced force that acts towards center of orbit to cause acceleration by
constantly changing velocity that’s constantly changing direction towards orbit
without changing speed.
- Increasing separation of orbiting masses – Decreases centripetal force due to gravity,
so decreases orbital speeds.
- At specific separation of orbiting masses –There must be specific centripetal force
due to gravity, so causes specific orbital speeds to stay in stable orbit.
- Change in orbital speed – Causes change in orbital radius.

Students should be able to explain the motion of moons and artificial satellites and be able
to apply this to the design of satellite placing where the speed will determine the radius of
the satellite’s final position.