1.
power flow in AC systems
Transmission Interconnections:
To supply electricity to the loads at minimum cost with required reliability.
Transmission lines with limited capability demands more generation.
Very difficult to acquire new Right of Way (ROW).
Transmission lin parameters that can impact the power flow are series impedance, shunt
impedance, current, voltage, phase angle. FACTS controllers are evolved into the power
system to control these parameters.
Power can be transmitted through parallel path or by meshed network. The following two
images will discuss how power flow can be altered by changing the transmission line
parameters. And the possible limits of the loading capability are
• Thermal
• Dielectric
• Stability
Thermal: Function of Ambient temperature, wind conditions, condition of conductor and
ground clearance.
Dielectric: Insulation point of view, lines are designed to operate +10 % voltage
Stability:
Transient stability, Dynamic stability, Steady state stability, Frequency collapse, voltage
collapse, Sub synchronous resonance.
2. importance of controllable parameters
3. Basic types of FACTS controllers
1. Series Controllers- inject voltage
2. Shunt Controllers- injects current
3. Combined series-series controllers
4. Combined series-shunt controllers
Static Shunt Compensators: SVC and STATCOM
Objectives of Shunt Compensation
• Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation
• End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage Instability
• Improvement of Transient Stability
• Power Oscillation Damping
Methods of Controllable Var Generation
By definition, capacitors generate and reactors (inductors) absorb reactive power when
connected to an ac power source. They have been used with mechanical switches for (coarsely)
controlled var generation and absorption since the early days of ac power transmission. Static
var generators generate or absorb controllable reactive power (var) by synchronously switching
capacitor and reactor banks "in" and "out" of the network. The aim of this approach is to
produce a variable reactive shunt impedance that can be adjusted (continuously or in a step-
like manner) to meet the compensation requirements of the transmission network.
• Variable Impedance Type Static Var Generators
o Thyristor-Controlled and Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TCR and TSR).
o Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC).
o Static Var Compensator (SVC)
▪ Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR)
▪ Thyristor-Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TSC-
TCR)
• Switching Converter Type Var Generators
o Static Synchronous Compensator (Condenser) or STATCOM
Static Var Compensator (SVC): A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose
output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control
specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage).
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR): A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose
effective reactance is varied in a continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the
thyristor valve.
Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR): A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched inductor whose
effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the
thyristor valves.
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC): A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose
effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the
thyristor valve.
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM): A Static synchronous generator operated as
a shunt-connected static var compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be
controlled independent of the ac system voltage.
Thyristor-Controlled and Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TCR and TSR).
• An elementary single-phase thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown in Figure
5.7(a). It consists of a fixed (usually air-core) reactor of inductance L, and a
bidirectional thyristor valve (or switch) sw.
• The valve will automatically block immediately after the ac current crosses zero,
unless the gate signal is reapplied.
• The current in the reactor can be controlled from maximum (thyristor valve closed) to
zero (thyristor valve open) by the method of firing delay angle control.
• That is, the closure of the thyristor valve is delayed with respect to the peak of the
applied voltage in each half-cycle, and thus the duration of the current conduction
intervals is controlled.
• When the gating of the valve is delayed by an angle α (0 ≤ α ≤ π/2) with respect to the
crest of the voltage, the current in the reactor can be expressed with v(t) = V cos wt as
follows:
•
• Delay angle α defines the prevailing conduction angle σ: σ =π-2α. Thus, as the delay
angle α increases, the correspondingly increasing offset results in the reduction of the
conduction angle σ of the valve, and the consequent reduction of the reactor current. At
the maximum delay of α = π/2, the offset also reaches its maximum of V/ωL, at which
both the conduction angle and the reactor current become zero.
• It is evident that the magnitude of the current in the reactor can be varied continuously
by this method of delay angle control from maximum (α = 0) to zero (α = π/2), as
illustrated in Figure 5.7(c), where the reactor current iL(α), together with its
fundamental component iLF(α), are shown at various delay angles, α.
• If the TCR switching is restricted to a fixed delay angle, usually a = 0, then it becomes
a thyristor-switched reactor (TSR). The TSR provides a fixed inductive admittance and
thus, when connected to the ac system, the reactive current in it will be proportional to
the applied voltage as the V-I plot in Figure 5.9(b) indicates.
Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC):
A single-phase thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in Figure 5.13(a). It consists of a
capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a relatively small surge current limiting
reactor. This reactor is needed primarily to limit the surge current in the thyristor valve under
abnormal operating conditions; it may also be used to avoid resonances with the ac system
impedance at particular frequencies. Under steady-state conditions, when the thyristor valve is
closed and the TSC branch is connected to a sinusoidal ac voltage source, v = V sin ωt, the
current in the branch is given by
If the voltage across the disconnected capacitor remained unchanged, the TSC bank could be
switched in again, without any transient, at the appropriate peak of the applied ac voltage, as
illustrated for a positively and negatively charged capacitor in Figure 5.14(a) and (b),
respectively.
Figure 5.15(a) and (b) illustrate the switching transients obtained with a fully and a partially
discharged capacitor. These transients are caused by the nonzero dv /dt at the instant of
switching, which, without the series reactor, would result in an instantaneous current of ic =
Cdv/dt in the capacitor.
The conditions for "transient-free" switching of a capacitor are summarized in Figure 5.16. As
seen, two simple rules cover all possible cases:
(1) if the residual capacitor voltage is lower than the peak ac voltage (Vc < V), then the correct
instant of switching is when the instantaneous ac voltage becomes equal to the capacitor
voltage; and
(2) if the residual capacitor voltage is equal to or higher than the peak ac voltage (Vc >=V),
then the correct switching is at the peak of the ac voltage at which the thyristor valve voltage
is minimum.
• It also follows that firing delay angle control is not applicable to capacitors; the
capacitor switching must take place at that specific instant in each cycle at which the
conditions for minimum transients are satisfied, that is, when the voltage across the
thyristor valve is zero or minimum.
• In other words, the TSC branch represents a single capacitive admittance which is either
connected to, or disconnected from the ac system. The current in the TSC branch varies
linearly with the applied voltage according to the admittance of the capacitor as
illustrated by the V-I plot in Figure 5.17.
Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR):
A basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently connected) capacitor with a
thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR) is shown functionally in Figure 5.18(a). The current in
the reactor is varied by the previously discussed method of firing delay angle control. The
fixed capacitor in practice is usually substituted, fully or partially, by a filter network that has
the necessary capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the reactive
power required, but it provides a low impedance at selected frequencies to shunt the dominant
harmonics produced by the TCR.
The fixed capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor type var generator may be considered
essentially to consist of a variable reactor (controlled by delay angle α) and a fixed capacitor,
with an overall var demand versus var output characteristic as shown in Figure 5.18(b).
• As seen, the constant capacitive var generation (Qc) of the fixed capacitor is opposed
by the variable var absorption (QL) of the thyristor-controlled reactor, to yield the total
var output (Q) required.
• At the maximum capacitive var output, the thyristor-controlled reactor is off (α = 90°).
• To decrease the capacitive output, the current in the reactor is increased by decreasing
delay angle α.
• At zero var output, the capacitive and inductive currents become equal and thus the
capacitive and inductive vars cancel out.
• With a further decrease of angle α (assuming that the rating of the reactor is greater than
that of the capacitor), the inductive current becomes larger than the capacitive current,
resulting in a net inductive var output.
• At zero delay angle, the thyristor-controlled reactor conducts current over the full 180-
degree interval, resulting in maximum inductive var output that is equal to the
difference between the vars generated by the capacitor and those absorbed by the fully
conducting reactor
The control of the thyristor-controlled reactor in the FC-TCR type var generator needs to
provide four basic functions, as shown in Figure 5.19(a).
• One function is synchronous timing.
• The second function is the reactive current (or admittance) to firing angle conversion.
• The third function is the computation of the required fundamental reactor current
• The fourth function is the thyristor firing pulse generation.
The V-I operating area of the FC-TCR var generator is defined by the maximum attainable
capacitive and inductive admittances and by the voltage and current ratings of the major power
components (capacitor, reactor, and thyristor valve), as illustrated in Figure 5.20.
Thyristor-Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR):
A basic single-phase TSC-TCR arrangement is shown in Figure 5.22(a). For a given capacitive
output range, it typically consists of n TSC branches and one TCR. The operation of the basic
TSC-TCR var generator shown in Figure 5.22(a) can be described as follows:
The total capacitive output range is divided into n intervals. In the first interval, the output of
the var generator is controllable in the zero to QCmax/n range, where QCmax is the total rating
provided by all TSC branches. In this interval, one capacitor bank is switched in (by firing, for
example, thyristor valve SWt) and, simultaneously, the current in the TCR is set by the
appropriate firing delay angle so that the sum of the var output of the TSC (negative) and that
the TCR (positive) equals the capacitive output required.
A functional control scheme for the TSC-TCR type var generator is shown in Figure 5.23. It
provides three major functions:
• Determines the number of TSC branches needed to be switched in to approximate the
required capacitive output current (with a positive surplus), and computes the amplitude
of the inductive current needed to cancel the surplus capacitive current.
• Controls the switching of the TSC branches in a "transient-free" manner.
• Varies the current in the TCR by firing delay angle control
The V-I characteristic of the TSC-TCR type generator, shown for two TSCs in Figure
5.26, is also identical to that of its FC-TCR counterpart.
Switching Converter Type Var Generators
Static var generators discussed in the previous section generate or absorb controllable reactive
power (var) by synchronously switching capacitor and reactor banks "in" and "out" of the
network. The aim of this approach is to produce a variable reactive shunt impedance that can
be adjusted (continuously or in a step-like manner) to meet the compensation requirements of
the transmission network
Static Synchronous Compensator (Condenser) or STATCOM
For purely reactive power flow, the three-phase induced electromotive forces (EMFs), ea, eb,
and ec,of the synchronous rotating machine are in phase with the system voltages, Va, Vb, and
Vc. The reactive current I drawn by the synchronous compensator is determined by the
magnitude of the system voltage V, that of the internal voltage E, and the total circuit reactance
(synchronous machine reactance plus transformer leakage reactance plus system short-circuit
reactance) X:
By varying the amplitude of the output voltages produced, the reactive power exchange
between the converter and the ac system can be controlled in a manner similar to that of the
rotating synchronous machine.
• That is, if the amplitude of the output voltage is increased above that of the ac system
voltage, then the current flows through the tie reactance from the converter to the ac
system, and the converter generates reactive (capacitive) power for the ac system.
• If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased below that of the ac system, then the
reactive current flows from the ac system to the converter, and the converter absorbs
reactive (inductive) power.
• If the amplitude of the output voltage is equal to that of the ac system voltage, the
reactive power exchange is zero.
The three-phase output voltage is generated by a voltage-sourced de to ac converter operated
from an energy storage capacitor. All of the practical converters so far employed in actual
transmission applications are composed of a number of elementary converters, that is, of single-
phase H-bridges, or three-phase, two-level, six-pulse bridges, or three-phase, three-level, 12-
pulse bridges, shown in Figure 5.30.
The operation of the voltage-sourced converter, used as a controllable static var generator, can
be explained based on the fact that, like in all switching power converters, the net
instantaneous power at the ac output terminals must always be equal to the net instantaneous
power at the de input terminals (neglecting the losses in the semiconductor switches).
• Since the converter supplies only reactive output power (its output voltages are
controlled to be in phase with the ac system voltages), the real input power provided
by the de source (charged capacitor) must be zero (as the total instantaneous power
on the ac side is also zero).
• Furthermore, since reactive power at zero frequency (at the de capacitor) by
definition is zero, the dc capacitor plays no part in the reactive power generation.
• In other words, the converter simply interconnects the three ac terminals in such a way
that the reactive output currents can flow freely between them.
• Viewing this from the terminals of the ac system, one could say that the converter
establishes a circulating current flow among the phases with zero net instantaneous
power exchange.
The need for the dc storage capacitor is theoretically due to the above stipulated equality of
the instantaneous output and input powers. The output voltage waveform of the dc to ac
converter is not a perfect sine wave. For this reason, the net instantaneous output power (VA)
has a fluctuating component even if the converter output currents were pure sine waves
(which condition is approximated quite closely in practical systems). Thus, in order not to
violate the equality of instantaneous output and input powers, the converter must draw a
fluctuating ("ripple") current from the dc storage capacitor that provides a constant
voltage termination at the input.
Basic Control Approaches:
A static (var) generator converter comprises a large number of gate-controlled semiconductor
power switches (GTO thyristors). The gating commands for these devices are generated by
the internal converter control (which is part of the var generator proper) in response to the
demand for reactive and/or real power reference signal(s). The reference signals are provided
by the external or system control, from operator instructions and system variables, which
determine the functional operation of the STATCOM. The main function of the internal
control, as stated above, is to operate the converter power switches so as to produce a
synchronous output voltage waveform that forces the reactive (and real) power exchange
required for compensation.
From this the internal control derives the necessary magnitude and angle for the converter
output voltage to establish the required dc voltage on the dc capacitor since the magnitude of
the ac output voltage is directly proportional to the dc capacitor voltage. Because of this
proportionality, the reactive output current, as one approach, can be controlled indirectly
via controlling the dc capacitor voltage (which in turn is controlled by the angle of the output
voltage) or, as another approach, directly by the internal voltage control mechanism (e.g.,
PWM) of the converter in which case the de voltage is kept constant (by the control of the
angle).
From the "black box" viewpoint, the voltage-sourced converter type var generator can be
considered a synchronous voltage source which will draw reactive current from the ac system
according to an external reference which may vary in a defined range between the same
capacitive and inductive maxima, independent of the ac system voltage. The V-I operating area
of this var generator is limited only by the maximum voltage and current ratings of the
converter, as illustrated in Figure 5.37.
Static Var Compensators: SVC and STATCOM
Comparison Between STATCOM and SVC
Static Series Compensators: GCSC, TSSC, TCSC, and SSSC
Objectives of Series Compensation
• Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation
• Voltage Stability
• Improvement of Transient Stability
• Power Oscillation Damping
• Subsynchronous Oscillation Damping
Variable Impedance Type Series Compensators
• GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)
• Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
• Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
Switching Converter Type Series Compensators
• The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
Voltage-sourced converter with its internal control can be considered a synchronous
voltage source (SVS) analogous to an ideal electromagnetic generator: it can produce a set
of (three) alternating, substantially sinusoidal voltages at the desired fundamental
frequency with controllable amplitude and phase angle; generate, or absorb, reactive
power; and exchange real (active) power with the ac system when its de terminals are
connected to a suitable electric de energy source or storage. A functional representation of
the SVS is shown in Figure 6.29.
The function of the series capacitor is simply to produce an appropriate voltage at the
fundamental ac system frequency in quadrature with the transmission line current in order
to increase the voltage across the inductive line impedance, and thereby increase the line
current and the transmitted power. The characteristics of the synchronous voltage source
clearly suggest a comparable line compensation capability.
The basic operating principles of the SSSC can be explained with reference to the
conventional series capacitive compensation of Figure 6.1, shown simplified in Figure 6.30
together with the related voltage phasor diagram.
• The phasor diagram clearly shows that at a given line current the voltage across the series
capacitor forces the opposite polarity voltage across the series line reactance to
increase by the magnitude of the capacitor voltage.
• Thus, the series capacitive compensation works by increasing the voltage across the
impedance of the given physical line, which in turn increases the corresponding line
current and the transmitted power.
• While it may be convenient to consider series capacitive compensation as a means of
reducing the line impedance, in reality, as explained previously, it is really a means of
increasing the voltage across the given impedance of the physical line. It follows
therefore that the same steady-state power transmission can be established if the series
compensation is provided by a synchronous ac voltage source, as shown in Figure 6.31,
whose output precisely matches the voltage of the series capacitor, i.e.,
•
• However, in contrast to the real series capacitor, the SVS is able to maintain a constant
compensating voltage in the presence of variable line current, or control the amplitude of
the injected compensating voltage independent of the amplitude of the line current.
• For normal capacitive compensation, the output voltage lags the line current by 90 degrees.
For SVS, the output voltage can be reversed by simple control action to make it lead or lag
the line current by 90 degrees. With the above observations, a generalized expression for
the injected voltage, Vq can simply be written:
where Vq(γ) is the magnitude of the injected compensating voltage (0 ≤Vq(γ)≤Vqmax) and
the series reactive compensation scheme, using a switching power converter (voltage-
sourced converter) as a synchronous voltage source to produce a controllable voltage in
quadrature with the line current as defined by (6.13) is, per IEEE and ClORE definition, termed
the Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC).
Transmitted Power Versus Transmission Angle Characteristic
The SSSC injects the compensating voltage in series with the line irrespective of the line
current. The transmitted power Pq versus the transmission angle δ relationship therefore
becomes a parametric function of the injected voltage, Vq(γ), and it can be expressed for a two-
machine system as follows:
Comparison of the corresponding plots in Figures 6.32 and 6.33 clearly shows that the series
capacitor increases the transmitted power by a fixed percentage of that transmitted by the
uncompensated line at a given Band, by contrast, the SSSC can increase it by a fixed fraction
of the maximum power transmittable by the uncompensated line, independent of δ, in the
important operating range of 0≤ 𝛿 ≤ 𝜋/2. Furthermore, if this (reverse polarity) injected
voltage is made larger than the voltage impressed across the uncompensated line by the
sending- and receiving-end systems, that is, if Vq > |𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑟|, then the power flow will reverse
with the line current I = (Vq - |𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑟|)/ X, as indicated in Figure 6.32.
Control Range and VA Rating
The SSSC can provide capacitive or inductive compensating voltage independent of the line
current up to its specified current rating. Thus, in voltage compensation mode the SSSC can
maintain the rated capacitive or inductive compensating voltage in the face of changing line
current theoretically in the total operating range of zero to I qmax, as illustrated in Figure
6.35(a1). The VA rating of the SSSC (solid-state converter and coupling transformer) is
simply the product of the maximum line current (at which compensation is still desired) and
the maximum series compensating voltage: VA = I maxVqmax•
In impedance compensation mode, the SSSC is established to maintain the maximum rated
capacitive or compensating reactance at any line current up to the rated maximum, as illustrated
in Figure 6.35(b1).
Internal Control
From the standpoint of output voltage control, converters may be categorized as "directly"
and "indirectly" controlled.
• For directly controlled converters both the angular position and the magnitude of
the output voltage are controllable by appropriate valve (on and off) gating.
• For indirectly controlled converters only the angular position of the output voltage is
controllable by valve gating; the magnitude remains proportional to the dc
terminal voltage. (capacitor or energy storage)
The control is synchronized to the line current by a phase-locked loop which, after a +𝜋/2 or
-𝜋/2 phase shift, provides the basic synchronizing signal 𝜃. (PLL itself could also be operated
from the ac system voltage)
External (System) Control for Series Reactive Compensators:
The internal control can provide series reactive compensation and be operated self-sufficiently
from an input reference defining the desired compensating voltage or reactance. The external
control that defines the functional operation of the compensator and derives the reference input
for it can basically be the same for all types of series compensator discussed. (External
control and regulation slope for shunt compensation).
The principal function of a series reactive compensator is power flow control. This can be
accomplished either by the direct control (regulation) of the line current I or the transmitted
power P, or, alternatively, by the indirect control of either the compensating impedance X, =
Xc (Xq = XL) or the compensating voltage Vq = Vc (Vq = VL). Additional functions for the
improvement of transient (first swing) and dynamic stability (power oscillation damping)
and, in some cases, for the damping of subsynchronous oscillation may be included in the
external control of the series compensator.
A possible structure of the external control is illustrated in Figure 6.43. The main power flow
control is executed by a (slow) closed loop, which is operated from one of the selectable
references, XqReh or VqRef , or IRef , or PRef. The corresponding network variable (Xq , or Vq
, or I, or P) is derived by the voltage and current processor and compared to the selected
reference. The amplified error at the output of the PI controller provides the reference, Xq , or
Vq , for the internal control.
What to study in FACTS compensation concepts:
Circuit diagram of the compensator
Voltage and current waveforms or the switching/controlling of the switch
Analysis/ derivations if present
V-I characteristics
Control algorithms: Internal (direct and indirect) and External control algorithms
The Unified Power Flow Controller
The objective of this chapter is to investigate the application potential of multifunctional
FACTS Controllers based on the back-to-back voltage-sourced converter arrangement. This
arrangement offers three basic possibilities. In the first Controller one converter of the back-
to-back arrangement is in series and the other is in shunt with the transmission line. This
arrangement in transmission applications is, for reasons explained later, generally referred to
as the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).
• The UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively, all the parameters affecting
power flow in the transmission line (i.e., voltage, impedance, and phase angle), and this
unique capability is signified by the adjective "unified" in its name.
• Alternatively, it can independently control both the real and reactive power flow in the
line.
Basic Operating Principles
From the conceptual viewpoint, the UPFC is a generalized synchronous voltage source (SVS),
represented at the fundamental (power system) frequency by voltage phasor Vpq with
controllable magnitude Vpq (0 -Vpq -Vpqmax) and angle p (0 -to 2pi), in series with the
transmission line, as illustrated for the usual elementary two machine system (or for two
independent systems with a transmission link intertie) in Figure 8.3.
• In the presently used practical implementation, the UPFC consists of two voltage-
sourced converters, as illustrated in Figure 8.4. These back-to-back converters, labelled
"Converter 1" and "Converter 2" in the figure, are operated from a common de link
provided by a de storage capacitor.
• Converter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage Vpq
with controllable magnitude Vpq and phase angle p in series with the line via an
insertion transformer.
• The basic function of Converter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded
by Converter 2 at the common de link to support the real power exchange resulting
from the series voltage injection.
• In addition to the real power need of Converter 2, Converter 1 can also generate or
absorb controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and thereby provide independent
shunt reactive compensation for the line.
Conventional Transmission Control Capabilities
Sphere/Circle of influence
Problem:
1. An HVDC system uses a Graetz bridge converter. Given an AC line voltage of 220 kV,
a firing angle α=30°, and a transformer leakage reactance of 10 ohm, calculate the
overlap angle and the DC output voltage for:
(a) Two-valve conduction mode, (neglect the leakage reactance)
(b) Three-valve conduction mode.
2. For a 400 kV transmission line operating at 50 Hz, with a reactive power demand of
200 MVAR to maintain voltage levels, calculate the required shunt capacitance C to
meet this demand.
3. A 230 kV system requires reactive power compensation. Given an FC-TCR SVC with
a fixed capacitor rated at 100 MVAR and a TCR that can provide -50 to 0 MVAR,
calculate the net reactive power compensation at full conduction of the TCR.
4. A 400 kV transmission line has an inductive reactance of XL=200 Ω. To improve
power transfer capability, series capacitive compensation is applied by installing a
capacitor with reactance XC=80 Ω in series with the line.
a. Calculate the degree of series compensation.
b. Determine the effective line reactance after compensation.