Biological Sleep and Dreams

Name:
Dement and Kleitman
Key study (1957)

Dement and Kleitman's

study leans towards a
biological explanation for
sleep and dreaming,
Psychology being highlighting innate,
investigated physiological processes
 EEG
(electroencephalogram) =
traces cyclical changes that
occur in brain activity during
sleep. Electrodes are placed
around the skull to analyse
brain waves.
EOG (electrooculogram) =
traces eye movements
during sleep. Uses
electrodes placed around
Background the eye region.
 Aim:
To investigate the
relationship between eye
movements and dreaming.
Hypothesis:
There will be a significant
association between REM
sleep and dreaming.
There will be a positive
correlation between
estimated dream duration
and REM period length.
There will be a significant
association between eye
movement patterns and
dream content.
Aim(s)/ Hypothesis
 Procedure 1 - They were
woken up at various times to
test their dream recall
(during REM and NREM).
Dream narrative recorded
on a tape recorder (to
prevent researcher bias).
They were asked if they had
a dream or not, and if they
did, then they recorded it.
Dream only counted if the
recall was clear.
Procedure 2 - Participants
were woken up after either 5
or 15 minutes into their REM
sleep. Participants guessed
the duration they had
dreamt for. The number of
words in the dream narrative
was counted after the
participants reported their
dream.
Procedure 3 - Participants’
eye movement direction was
detected with the EOG.
Participants were woken up
and theyand
Dement reported their
Kleitman's
Procedures [Link] a unique
study
Methodology methodology that combined
experimental and
correlational approaches

7 males and 2 females were

recruited through
opportunity sampling. 5
studied in detail and 4 used
to confirm the results of the
first 5.
5 main participants spent
between 6 - 17 nights in the
lab. Approximately 50 - 77
times awakening.
electronic
4 spent only recording,
1 - 2 nights. 4 -
observation,
10 times and diary
awakening.
Research methods used methods
Participants were identified
Sample size/ demographics by their initials.
Sampling technique Opportunity sampling
 measures design; IV -
whether they woke up from
REM or NREM; DV -
whether they recalled a
dream or not.
Approach 2: True
experiment using
correlational study; repeated
measures design; IV -
waking participants after 5
or 15 minutes into REM
sleep; DV - participants
guess on dream duration (5
or 15 minutes); correlational
analysis used to cross-
check participants' estimate
dream duration and the
word count of their
respective dream narrative.
Approach 3: natural
experiment; repeated
measures design; IV - eye
movement patterns; DV -
Experimental Design dream content.
Controls
Question types
Data collection type and
measurmenets

• Confidentiality of
participants was maintained
as they were identified using
their initials so that dream
content cannot be related to
any of them.
• Protection may not have
been fully provided as
participants were sleeping in
unnatural situation so it may
have affected their sleep
pattern or their ability to
concentrate the next day.
• There was no way of
ensuring a normal sleeping
night before the study
ended.

Ethical issues
 7%.
Waking participants under 8
minutes of completing their
REM period resulted in 5/17
dreams being recalled.
However, waking
participants after 8 minutes
resulted in only 6/132
dreams being recalled.
Results 2:
The estimation of REM
duration was accurate and
very high. 88% for 5 mins;
78% for 15 minutes.
There was a positive
correlation between REM
duration and words in the
recall. The narratives of 152
dreams were collected, but
26 were omitted due to poor
recording thus, there were
126.
Results 3:
Vertical eye movement -
standing at the bottom of a
tall cliff and operating a
hoist.
Horizontal - 2 people
throwing tomatoes at each
other.
Vertical and horizontal -
talking to people standing
close to them.
Little or no movement -
watching something in the
distance or staring at an
Results object.
Quantitative
Qualitiative
 • Study 1: Dreams probably
occur only during REM
sleep, which occurs
regularly throughout the
night. Dreams reported
when woken from nREM
sleep are usually from
previous REM episodes.
• Study 2: The finding that
the length of an REM period
and its estimation by the
participants are very similar
shows that dreams are not
instantaneous events but
rather are experienced in
“real time”.
• Study 3: Eye movements
during REM sleep
correspond to where and at
what the dreamer is looking
in the dream. This suggests
that eye movements aren’t
random events caused by
the activation of the central
nervous system but are
directly related to dream
Conclusions imagery.
 • This is a laboratory
experiment and hence has a
standardised procedure and
it can easily be tested for
reliability
• The study has many
controls and hence the
researchers can be more
confident in establishing a
causal relationship.

Strengths
 • Participants had to sleep in
an unusual environment
hence the study lacks
ecological validity.

• Tasks performed by the

participants aren’t task they
do in their daily life and
hence this study has a low
mundane realism.

• This study had a small

sample size and hence may
not be very generalizable.

• All findings of this study

are based on biological
mechanisms and hence may
be seen as reductionist.

• Most of the data in this

study has been collected via
self-reports which may not
be very reliable as we do not
know how truthful the
participants are. This could
reduce the validity of the
Weaknesses findings.

Evaluate Methodology
Psychology issues and
debates from Cambridge
Everyday usages of
psychology
Individual/ situational
Nature/ Nurture
Children/ animals
 Mindfulness and Brain
Monkey Toy Preference Cognitive
Scans

Hassett et al. (2008) Holzel et al. (2011)

The study examines how

mindfulness-based stress
reduction (MBSR) affects
the gray matter density in
specific brain regions related
The psychology being to learning, memory,
investigated is animal play. emotion regulation, and self-
Play = Pleasure gained in awareness.
self-expression.
Animal play = An It investigates structural
activity/action voluntarily and brain changes due to
repeatedly done by animals meditation, supporting the
as a form of enjoyment and idea that psychological
self-expression. Play may training (such as
be adaptive, and it can help mindfulness) can lead to
individuals practice skills physical changes in the
required for adulthood. brain (neuroplasticity).
 Brain Changes:

Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction (MBSR) is a
structured 8-week
meditation program
designed to improve
awareness, attention, and
stress regulation.

Prior research suggests that

Professor Wallen has meditation is linked to
worked with monkeys for changes in brain areas
over 50 years, at Emory involved in emotion
University and the Yerkes regulation, attention, and
National Primate Research self-awareness.
Centre (YNPRC).
Hines and Alexander found However, there was limited
that male vervet monkeys evidence on how short-term
played more with meditation programs (like
stereotypical male than the 8-week MBSR) affect
female toys. Wallen brain structure.
investigated whether
monkeys showed a What Hölzel et al.
preference for sex-typed Investigated:
toys when given a choice
between stereotypical male The study aimed to
and female toys. He found determine whether
that the behaviour of participation in an 8-week
monkeys paralleled that of MBSR program would lead
children using a toy- to measurable increases in
preference task, suggesting gray matter density in
that toy preferences are not specific brain regions
primarily a result of associated with learning,
socialisation, but rather are memory, emotional
due to biological differences. regulation, and self-
referential processing.
 The study aimed to
investigate whether
participation in an 8-week
Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction (MBSR) program
would lead to structural
changes in the brain,
specifically increased gray
matter density in regions
related to learning, memory,
emotional regulation, and
self-awareness.

Hypothesis:
Main Hypothesis:

Engaging in mindfulness
meditation over an 8-week
period would lead to
increased gray matter
density in brain regions
associated with attention,
memory, and emotional
Aim processing.

To test if sex differences in Specific Predictions:

children's toy preferences
are due to biological factors There would be structural
(i.e. exposure to high levels changes in areas such as
of prenatal androgen) rather the hippocampus (linked to
than socialisation. memory and learning),
To investigate whether male posterior cingulate cortex
and female rhesus monkeys (self-awareness),
have similar toy preferences temporoparietal junction
to human children despite (perspective-taking), and
having no experience cerebellum (cognitive and
socialising with human toys. emotional processing).
 changes in the brain.

MBSR Training:

The MBSR group practiced

mindfulness meditation for 8
weeks, involving:

Formal meditation (e.g.,

focused breathing, body
scans).

Seven 25-minute trials were Informal mindfulness

completed in the outdoor exercises (e.g., being
enclosure, each with a present in daily activities).
different pair of toys. Before
each observation, observers Group discussions and
placed a pair of toys (1 homework to reinforce
wheeled, 1 plush) outside mindfulness.
while the monkeys waited
inside. Toys were placed 10 Participants practiced
metres apart and their mindfulness for an average
positions were of 27 minutes per day.
counterbalanced (to ensure
the monkeys didn’t prefer a Data Analysis:
certain area of the
enclosure). Researchers compared pre-
and post-training MRI scans
The toys varied in shape, of both the MBSR group and
size, and colour, and were the control group.
selected on what you could
‘do’ with them. There were: They specifically examined
Originally,
• 6 wheeled135 monkeys
toys, including a changes in gray matter
were
wagon,from the and
truck, Yerkes
car. density in areas linked to
National
• 7 PlushPrimate Research
toys, including a memory, learning, emotional
Center Field Station,
Winnie-the-Pooh, but 53
Raggedy regulation, and self-
were excluded,
Ann, and Scooby hence
Doo only
doll. awareness.
82 took part ➜ 61 females Sampling Technique in
and 21 males. Hölzel et al. (2011):
There were infant and adult The study used a self-
monkeys.
Research Method ➜ Field selected (volunteer)
34 monkeysinvolving
experiment (23 females
a & sampling technique.
11 males) interacted with
controlled observation, and
the toys on more
a correlational thanusing
study 5 a Explanation:
occasions,
behaviouraltherefore,
[Link] Participants volunteered to
data was included
Research Design ➜in the take part in the Mindfulness-
analysis.
Independent measures Based Stress Reduction
Reasons
design. for excluding the (MBSR) program.
53 monkeys: Variable ➜ The
Independent
14
sexhad previously
of the monkey (male or They wereMethod
Research not randomly
in Hölzel
participated
female). in research on selected but instead chose
et al. (2011):
prenatal
Dependent hormones
Variableso ➜they to
Theparticipate,
study used making it a
a quasi-
weren’t included
Whether the monkeys in the self-selected sample.
experimental design with a
current study
interacted more(towith
reduce
the pre-test/post-test approach
demand
plush toyscharacteristics
or the wheeled and The control
and MRI group
scans as consisted
a primary
order
toys. effects). of individuals
research [Link] did not
39 were excluded since they undergo MBSR training, but
were too young, and it was they were also not randomly
hard to tell their sex. assigned.
Repeated Measures Design: The study used a matched
Each participant (police pairs design within a quasi-
officer) experienced multiple experimental pre-test/post-
conditions of the test approach.
experiment. Specifically,
they were all involved in a Explanation:
realistic police training Matched Pairs Design:
scenario and tested on
whether they noticed an The MBSR group (who
unexpected event (a person participated in the 8-week
in a gorilla suit) while mindfulness program) was
pursuing a suspect. compared to a control group
(who did not undergo the
This design allowed training).
researchers to compare
performance under different Participants in both groups
conditions without the were matched based on
influence of individual factors like age, gender, and
differences between baseline brain structure to
participants. ensure fair comparisons.

They were required to chase neuroscience concepts,

and potentially use force on participants might not have
a suspect, which could have fully understood the
caused stress, anxiety, or implications of brain
emotional discomfort, imaging.
especially when they
realized they missed seeing Ensuring they knew they
an unexpected event (the could withdraw at any time
gorilla-suited person). was important.

Officers might have felt 2. Protection from Harm

embarrassed or self-doubt (Psychological & Physical):
after realizing they failed to MRI scans can sometimes
notice something unusual, cause discomfort, anxiety, or
affecting their confidence in claustrophobia in some
real-life policing situations. individuals.

2. Informed Consent & Mindfulness meditation can

Deception: bring up unpleasant
The officers were not fully emotions in some
informed about the true participants, especially
purpose of the study those with past trauma.
(inattentional blindness).
While unlikely, if participants
This deception was experienced distress, it
necessary to ensure natural could raise ethical concerns.
behavior, but it raises ethical
concerns because 3. Privacy & Confidentiality:
participants were not fully MRI scans collect personal
aware of what they were brain data, which must be
agreeing to. kept confidential to protect
participants' privacy.
However, researchers likely
debriefed the officers Researchers had to ensure
afterward to explain the that brain scan results were
study and minimize any anonymized and not linked
negative effects. to individual participants.
Female monkeys showed no
preference, other than an
insignificant preference for
plush toys. Mean plush toys The study found that
preference = 7.97. Mean participation in an 8-week
wheeled toys preference = Mindfulness-Based Stress
6.96. Reduction (MBSR) program
Only 30% of females led to significant increases
preferred plush toys, in gray matter density in
whereas 39% preferred specific brain regions related
wheeled toys, and 30% to learning, memory,
showed no significant emotional regulation, and
preference. self-awareness.
The concentration of grey
matter increases in regions
in the hippocampus,
posterior cingulate cortex
(PPC), left temporoparietal
junction (TJP) and
cerebellum in those who
practice an 8-week
mindfulness-based stress
reduction course (MBSR)
Ethical Issues:

Risk of not protecting

participants from harm by
not assisting control group
participants until at least
eight weeks
twice a day, and fruits and meditation can physically
vegetables every day. change brain structure.
Using the operationalised
behavioural checklist This supports the idea that
increased the validity and psychological interventions
reliability of results, as it can impact the brain, which
guided researchers on how is useful for mental health
to record observations in the treatments.
same way. For example, the
behaviour ‘sit on’ was Pre-Test/Post-Test Design
described as sitting on or
part of a toy. Measuring brain structure
Different pairs of toys were before and after the 8-week
used on each trial, and this program helps identify
increased the validity as we causal relationships
can determine that males between mindfulness and
were drawn to wheeled toys brain changes.
in general, and not just a
specific wheeled toy. Matched Pairs Design
Using video cameras (Reducing Participant
increased the validity of the Differences)
data recorded because the
monkeys were used to the Participants were matched
cameras. If a researcher based on factors like age
recorded data in person and brain structure before
instead, the monkeys might starting, making
show demand comparisons between the
characteristics by playing MBSR and control group
more or less with the toys. more valid.
Quantitative data collected
on toy interaction duration Real-World Application
allowed for the objective
calculations of the average Findings suggest that
time the monkeys spent with mindfulness could be used
the toys. This removes room as an intervention for mental
for subjective health issues like stress,
interpretations. anxiety, and depression.
were familiar with the Results may not generalize
monkeys and their gender to a wider population.
and this could have led them
to unintentionally code the Volunteer Bias
behaviour of the monkeys
differently to their actual Participants chose to take
behaviour. part in the mindfulness
There was a lack of adult program, meaning they were
males in the sample, hence likely already interested in
reducing the generalisability meditation.
of results. The only one
high-ranking male didn’t This makes it difficult to
interact with any toys, generalize findings to people
hence, findings can only be who aren’t interested in
generalised to lower- mindfulness.
ranking, non-adult male
monkeys. No Long-Term Follow-Up
Ecological validity is low
because the sample The study only measured
consisted of monkeys in brain changes immediately
captivity, and they might be after 8 weeks.
more likely to show interest
in new objects in their It is unclear whether these
environment. Therefore, we changes are permanent or if
can’t entirely generalise they fade over time.
results to explain if wild
monkeys behave in the Potential for Demand
same way. Characteristics
Validity is low because, in
each trial, a group of Participants knew they were
monkeys were sent out. So taking part in a mindfulness
if one monkey occupied the study, which might have
wheeled toy, another influenced their behavior or
monkey wanting to play with expectations about
a toy would go to the plush improvements.
toy regardless of their
personal preference.
 Doodling Eyes Test Line-ups

Andrade (2010) Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Pozzulo et al (2011)

maintain focus by preventing
daydreaming or mind-
wandering.

It tests the idea that a simple

secondary task (doodling)
might enhance
concentration on a primary
task (listening to
information).

Memory (Recall and

Recognition):

Andrade explores whether

doodling improves memory
retention by increasing
engagement with auditory
information.

It looks at working memory

and how it processes
information while performing
a secondary task.

Dual-Task Processing:

The study tests whether

performing a light cognitive
task (doodling) while
listening enhances or
disrupts memory
performance.

This relates to divided

attention and multitasking in
cognitive psychology.
Research shows we perform
less when our attention is
divided. However, doodling
might aid concentration.
Wilson and Korn (2007)
suggested that doodling
may help to maintain
arousal as we are doing
something physical while
thinking.
Andrade defines doodling as
sketching patterns or figures
that are unrelated to the
primary task.
Aim
To find out whether doodling
assisted information
processing by increasing
attentiveness or by
enhancing memory.
Hypothesis 1.
Experimental Hypothesis
(Directional Hypothesis):

Doodling will improve

concentration and memory
recall compared to not
doodling.

Specifically, participants
who doodle while listening to
a boring auditory task will
recall more names and
places than those who do
not doodle.

2. Null Hypothesis:

There will be no significant

difference in memory recall
between the doodling and
non-doodling groups.

Any observed differences

will be due to chance rather
than the effect of doodling.
mishearings were counted
as correct; totally wrong
names as false alarms;
other words relating to
people were ignored. The
final score was the number
of correct names minus the
number of false alarms. The
call had 8 names of
partygoers, and 3 people
and a cat who didn't attend.
8 place names were
mentioned. Participants
were given standardised
instructions. A4 sheets were
given to participants in the
doodle group with
alternating rows of squares
and circles, ten per row. It
had a wide margin on the
left to record targeted
information. Participants
were asked to shade while
listening to relieve boredom.
Participants in the control
group were given a lined
paper.

All participants listened at a

comfortable volume. The
experimenter apologised for
conducting a surprise task
and then conducted the 2
tasks. New names and the
names mentioned on the
tape as slurs were counted
as false alarms.

40 participants who were

members of the Medical
Research Council of the
Applied Psychology Unit
were chosen through the
method of opportunity
sampling. They were aged
18-55 years, mostly women,
and were paid a small sum
for participation. In each
experimental condition,
there were 20 participants.
They had just completed
participating in a study and
Laboratory experiment
were aboutsettings)
(unnatural to go home
when they were asked if
they could spare 5 minutes
in Andrade's study.
Independent measures
design implemented as
participants were either in
the doodling or control
group.

Participants did not give

informed consent fully for
the recall task. This may
have caused psychological
distress. However,
participants were debriefed
and apologised to by the
researchers.
Doodling participants
recalled a mean of 7.5
names and places, 29%
more than the mean of the
control group (5.8).
Recall for both tasks was
better for doodlers, even
when participants suspected
of demand characteristics
were excluded.
Participants who performed
a shape-shading task
concentrated better on a
mock telephone message
than those who listened with
no concurrent task. Revised eyes test was
It is unclear whether successful in being a more Any errors in the target-
doodling led to better recall sensitive test for social absent lineup for cartoons
because doodlers noticed intelligence of adults. AQ result from social factors,
more of the target test and Eyes Test showed not cognitive factors.
information (better attention) a significant negative For children, social factors
or whether it aided memory correlation as hypothesized play a more significant part
recall by encouraging showing that both can be in decision-making in target-
deeper processing of the used as tests for severity of absent line-ups than in
message (better memory). autistic traits. target-present ones.
Effects)

Participants were randomly

assigned to either the
doodling group or the control
group (no doodling).

This prevents practice

effects or fatigue, which
could have influenced
results if a repeated-
measures design was used.

Objective Data Collection

(Memory Recall is
Quantifiable)

Memory performance was

measured through the
number of names and
places recalled, making the
results easy to analyze
statistically.

This increases reliability and

replicability of the findings.

Real-World Application
(Practical Benefits)

The findings suggest that

doodling can help maintain
attention and improve
memory, which is useful for
students, professionals, and
individuals in meetings or
lectures.
were mostly female (only 5
males).

This creates a gender bias

and limits the extent to
which results apply to other
age groups, cultural
backgrounds, or different
personality types.

Independent Measures
Design (Individual
Differences May Affect
Results)

Since participants were

placed in separate groups,
some individuals might have
naturally better memory than
others, affecting results.

A repeated measures
design could have reduced
this issue by having each
participant complete both
conditions.

Demand Characteristics
(Participants May Have
Guessed the Aim)

Since participants knew they

were in a psychology
experiment, they may have
subconsciously tried to
perform better, affecting the
validity of results.
Learning Approach Aggression Elephant Learning

Bandura et al. (1961) Fagen et al. (2014)

Witnessing aggression in a
model can be enough to
produce aggression by an
observer.
Children selectively imitate
gender-specific behaviours.
 Button Phobia Social Obedience

Saavedra and Silverman

Milgram (1963)
(2002)
 People are much more
obedient to destructive
Disgust plays a key role in orders than we think.
the development and They find this process highly
maintenance of a phobia but stressful despite obeying
a mixture of behavioural them.
exposure and cognitive Results supported the
restructuring helped to situational hypothesis rather
eliminate the feelings of than the dispositional
disgust. hypothesis.
Personal Space Subway Samaritans

Perry et al. (2015) Piliavin et al. (1969)

Bystander Apathy: the

phenomenon of observers of
an emergency not
intervening.
Diffusion of responsibility
(Latané and Darley): is a
sociopsychological
phenomenon whereby
people are less likely to offer
help if other people are
present because they feel
that the whole group is
equally responsible, thus
making themselves less
personally responsible.
Murder of Kitty Genovese
Bystander behaviour
To study bystander
behaviour outside the
laboratory in a realistic
setting where participants
would have a clear view of
the victim.
To see whether helping
behaviour was affected by
four variables: the victim’s
responsibility for being in a
situation where they need
help, the race of the victim,
the effect of modelling
helping behaviour and the
size of the group.
Four teams of researchers
(2 males, 2 females)
conducted 103 trials

Each trial followed the same

pattern:

Female confederates sat

outside the critical area,
observing and recording
data.

Male victim stood near a

pole in the critical area.

70 seconds after the train

left the station, the victim
staggered forward and
collapsed.

Victim remained motionless

on the floor, staring at the
ceiling, until helped.

If no one helped, the male

model intervened after 70s
or 150s.

At the next station, the team

dispersed separately to
avoid suspicion and
repeated the trial in the
opposite direction.

6-8 trials were conducted

per day, all using the same
victim condition.

Estimated 4,450 participants

(unsolicited subway
passengers)

55% White, 45% Black

Method: Field experiment &
Mean of 43 people per
observations
subway car, 8.5 in the
critical
Design:area
Independent groups

Sampling Technique:
Opportunity sampling
Independent Groups:
Different passengers
(participants) were present
in each trial, meaning they
only experienced one
condition of the experiment.

The participants were

naturally occurring subway
passengers who did not
participate in multiple trials.

Informed consent wasn’t

taken as the participants did
not know they were part of a
study.
Participants were deceived
and could not be debriefed.
Their right to withdraw was
invalidated as it was a field
experiment.
Emotional harm may have
taken place as they must
have felt hurt about the
victim’s condition.
on 19 out of 38 trials (50%)
90% of passengers who
helped the victim were male
In 60% of the total trials
where help was given (i.e.
81 trials), more than one
person offered help.
Race made no significant
difference to the helping
behaviour, but there was a
slight tendency for same-
race helpers in the drunk
condition
64% of the helpers were
White
The quickest help came
from larger groups. This
showed no diffusion of
responsibility.
In 21 trials, out of the total of
103, a total of 34 people left
the critical area, mostly
when the victim was drunk.
The model intervening at 70
seconds was more likely to
lead to help from other
passengers than when the
model intervened after 150
seconds.
The number of bystanders
provided no evidence for the
diffusion of responsibility.
Some passengers moved
away from critical areas
(21/103)
More comments were made
in Drunk Trail.
An ill person is more likely to
receive help than a drunk
person.
Men are more likely to help
another man than women
are.
People are slightly more
likely to help someone of
their ethnic group, especially
when the victim appears to
be drunk.
No strong relationship was
found between the size of
the group and the likelihood
of helping.
Piliavin et al. proposed a
Cost-Reward Model to
explain people’s responses
to an emergency.
He suggested that helping is
motivated by a selfish desire
to rid oneself of an
unpleasant emotional state
rather than being a positive,
altruistic model of helping.
Helping a victim is based on
the level of emotional
arousal and the result of a
cost/benefit analysis.
This study was a field
experiment and hence has a
high ecological validity.
The sample size was large
and hence has a high
generalizability.
Behaviour was not artificial
as it is in a natural
environment, increases
validity, and has no demand
characteristics.
Both qualitative and
quantitative data were
acquired.
The study lacked controls
and hence had a low
reliability, making it hard to
replicate.
For this reason, a causal
relationship could not be
established.