Lecture 9: Tunable Diode Laser Absorption (TDLAS)

1. History and vision – for aeropropulsion

2. Absorption fundamentals
3. Absorption sensor strategies
4. Wavelength access – lasers/detectors
5. Example applications – combustion
6. Example applications - aerospace
7. Future trends for aerospace

Direct-connect scramjet combustor

at UVa flow facility
 1. The History of TDL Absorption for Aeropropulsion:
35 Years: From the Laboratory to Flight
1977 – TDL absorption in shock tube flows and flames
1989 – Mass flux sensor using O2 absorption
1993 – Multiplexed measurements of H2O, T and momentum flux
1998 – Combustion control (lab flames, incinerator)
2001 – Multi-species in flames: CO, CO2, NH3, H2O
1996-present – Applications to flow facility characterization: arcjets, hypersonic flow
tunnels, gas turbine engine sector rigs…
1998-present – Applications for engine tests: scramjet combustors, commercial aircraft
engines, ic-engines, pulse detonation engines, gas turbines, augmentors…

T/species in Shocktube SCRAMJET @ WPAFB Facility @ CALSPAN

Hanson, Appl Opt (1977)

Rieker, Proc Comb Inst (2009)
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 1. The History of TDL Absorption for Aeropropulsion:
35 Years: From the Laboratory to Flight
1977 – TDL absorption in shock tube flows and flames
1989 – Mass flux sensor using O2 absorption
1993 – Multiplexed measurements of H2O, T and momentum flux
1998 – Combustion control (lab flames, incinerator)
2001 – Multi-species in flames: CO, CO2, NH3, H2O
1996-present – Applications to flow facility characterization: arcjets, hypersonic flow
tunnels, gas turbine engine sector rigs…
1998-present – Applications for engine tests: scramjet combustors, commercial aircraft
engines, ic-engines, pulse detonation engines, gas turbines, augmentors…
2012 – TDL absorption in scramjet flight tests
T/species in Shocktube SCRAMJET @ WPAFB HiFire-2 Scramjet Flight Test

8 TDL LOS at
combustor exit
AFRL WPAFB: scheduled 2012
Hanson, Appl Opt (1977)
Rieker, Proc Comb Inst (2009)
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 1. Vision for TDLAS Sensors for Aeropropulsion
– Diode laser absorption sensors offer prospects for time-resolved, multi-
parameter, multi-location sensing for performance testing, model
validation, feedback control
Inlet and Isolator Exhaust
Combustor Acquisition and Feedback
(velocity, mass flux, species, (T, species, UHC,
(T, species, stability) to Actuators
shocktrain location) velocity, thrust)

Fiber Optics
Diode Lasers
l1 l2 l3 l4 l5 l6
 Sensors developed for T, V, H2O, CO2, O2, & other species
 Prototypes tested and validated at Stanford
 Several successful demonstrations in ground test facilities
 Opportunities emerging for use in flight

Now for some absorption fundamentals

 2. Absorption Fundamentals: The Basics

Absorption of monochromatic light

• Scanned-wavelength line-of-sight direct absorption

• Beer-Lambert relation   I t  exp(k  L)  exp ni    L 
Io
absorbance
• Spectral absorption coefficient k  S (T )   (T , P,  i )   i  P

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 2. Absorption Fundamentals: The Basics

• Shifts & shape of  contain information (T,V,P,i)

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 2. Absorption Fundamentals: The Basics

• T from ratio of absorption at two wavelengths

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 2. Absorption Fundamentals: Summary

• Wavelength multiplexing is also effective

• To monitor multiple parameters or species
• To assess non-uniformity along line-of-sight

Two primary strategies for absorption measurements

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 3. Absorption Sensor Strategies:
Direct Absorption (DA) & Wavelength Modulation Spectroscopy (WMS)
Direct Absorption Scan 0.75

Laser Intensity Signal

0.3 D irect abso rp tion lineshape
Baseline
Injection current Direct

Absorbance
tuning 0.2 fit 0.50

Absorption for Io 0.25

0.1

0.00
0.0
i Io
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
It Tim e(m s) W avele ng th ( re la tive cm
-1
)
Gas 8

Normalized 2f signal
sample 0.04

WMS Signal
6

i’ Lockin 0.02
4
@1f, 2f
0.00
+ Injection current 2
modulation @f WMS
WMS Scan -0.02 WMS-2f lineshape
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
-1
Time (ms) Wavelength (relative cm )

 Direct absorption: Simple, if absorption is strong enough

 WMS: More sensitive especially for small signals (near zero baseline)
 WMS with TDLs improves noise rejection

 Normalized WMS, e.g. 2f/1f cancels scattering losses!

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 3. Absorption Sensor Strategies:
WMS-2f/1f Accounts for Non-Absorption Losses
Pitch Lens  Fixed  WMS-2f/1f
 Ambient H2O (T=296 K, 60% RH)
Modulated TDL Detector
 L=29.5 cm, ~6% absorbance)
near 1392nm
1392 nm, Partially Blocking Beam 1392 nm, Vibrating Pitch Lens
0.06
0.06
2f Magnitude

2f Magnitude
0.04
0.04

0.02 2f Magnitude 0.02 2f Magnitude

0.00
0.00
0.6 0.6
1f Magnitude

1f Magnitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 1f Magnitude 0.2 1f Magnitude

0.0 0.0

2f/1f Magnitude
2f/1f Magnitude

0.12 0.12
0.09 0.09
0.06
0.03
2f/1f 0.06
0.03 2f/1f
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Time (s) Time (s)

 Demonstrate normalized WMS-2f/1f in laboratory air

 2f/1f unchanged when beam attenuated (e.g., scattering losses)
 2f/1f unchanged when optical alignment is spoiled by vibration

WMS-2f/1f signals free of window fouling or particulate scattering

What species/wavelengths can we access?

 4. Wavelength Access: A Wide Range of Combustion
Species/Applications using Wavelengths in the IR
 Small species such as
NO, CO, CO2, and H2O
have discrete rotational
transitions in the
vibrational bands

 Larger molecules, e.g.,

hydrocarbon fuels,
have blended features

 Different strategies used

to monitor discrete lines
or blended absorption
features

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 4. Wavelength Access:
TDLs Access Visible to Mid-IR

O,

 Allows access to many atoms and molecules

 Visible and telecom TDLs can be fiber-coupled
 TDLs at wavelengths > telecom are emerging rapidly
Now lets consider hardware: lasers and detectors
 4. Wavelength Access - Lasers
 Sources – Semiconductor lasers
 Available from the near UV (375 nm) to the far-IR (~ 11 μm)
 Power: ~ 1 to 500 mW
 Low power restricts their application to absorption experiments
 Near-IR lasers are compact, rugged, and fiber-coupled
 DFB lasers can be rapidly tuned over several wavenumbers by changing the
injection current or laser temperature
 External cavity diode lasers can be tuned more than 100 cm-1

Diode lasers, near- to extended-near-IR

($1000 - $6000) QC lasers, mid-IR (~$40,000 )
Fiber-coupled up to 2.3μm
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 4. Wavelength Access - Detectors
 Detectors – Photodiode/Photovoltaic detectors
 A photodiode is a semiconductor that generates voltage or current
when light is incident on it
 Like photoconductors, they have a minimum photon energy associated
with the bandgap energy of the semiconductor
 Source of noise: Johnson noise (not shot-noise limited)
 A variation is avalanche photodiode, signal (volts) = constant x intensity

Detector material λ [μm]

Si 0.2 – 1.1

Ge 0.4 – 1.8

InAs 1.0 – 3.8

InSb 1.0 – 7.0

InSb (77K) 1.0 – 5.6

HgCdTe (77K) 1.0 – 25.0

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 4. Wavelength Access - Detectors
 Detectors – Select a detector
 Criteria: wavelength, time response, noise, simplicity, cost …
Wavelength Bandwidth

 Frequency bandwidth is important for time-resolved measurements

 Bandwidth depends on the detector area, material, temperature, and pre-
amplifier gain
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 4. Wavelength Access - Detectors
 Detectors – Select a detector
 Detector noise is characterized by the detectivity, D*
ADetector f
D* 
NEP
 ∆f = bandwidth
 NEP = noise equivalent power: the amount of the optical power
required to equal the magnitude of the detector noise
 D* is improved at lower temperatures (cooling)

 The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for a measurement dominated by the detector

noise can be calculated using:
Pincident P D*
SNR   incident
NEP ADetector f
 Cost and complexity are also important considerations
 Spatially uniform responsivity is also important
 Smaller and cooled detectors are more uniform

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 5. Example TDL Applications – Combustion

1. Extended NIR provides stronger CO2 absorption

2. Exploit strong CO2 absorption near 2.7m for precision T
3. Exploit 1f-normalized WMS-2f for T with aerosol present

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 5.1 CO2, T Sensor Using Extended-NIR
Extended NIR Enables Large Increase in Sensitivity

 Access to CO2 enabled by new DFB lasers for >2.5 m

 The band strength near 2.7 m is orders of magnitude stronger than NIR

 Many candidate transitions for optimum line pair (depending on T)

Next: Line selection in 22+3 band
 5.1 Extended-NIR Sensor for CO2, T
Strategy: Sense T by ratio of absorption by two CO2 transitions

1%CO2, L=10cm
Linestrength

m

 A near optimum line pair R(28) and P(70) selected

 Strong, isolated from H2O, wide separation in E”

Validate in shock tube to demonstrate achievable precision

 5.2 Shock-Tube Validation of Extended NIR CO2, T Sensor
Precision Time-Resolved T from WMS-2f/1f of CO2
Validate fast, sensitive strategy for CO2, T using a shock tube
DFB laser

Shock wave Test mixture

InSb Detector

Ratio of WMS-2f/1f signals for

R(28) and P(70) CO2 transitions
4.0 P = 1.0 atm
P = 2.0 atm
3.5
2f signal ratio

1~2743nm
3.0
2~2752nm
2.5

2.0

1.5

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600

Temperature [K]

 Ratio of WMS-2f signals sensitive to temperature

Next: Measured accuracy and precision
 5.2 Shock-Tube Validation of Extended NIR CO2, T Sensor
Temperature vs Time in Shock-Heated Ar/CO2 Mixtures

Accuracy Precision
1200 2.4 30
1.2 atm, 2%CO2 in Ar

Difference of Measured T & T5 [K]

20
Temperature [K]

Pressure [atm]
900 1.8
T5 from shock speed 10
5K
600 1.2 0 0K

Reflected shock arrival -10

300 0.6
-20 Reflected shock arrival
Incident shock arrival
0 0.0
0 3 6 9 12 -30
Time [ms] 0 3 6 9 12
Time [ms]

 Temperature data agree with T5 determined from ideal shock relations

 Temperature precision of 3 K demonstrated!
 Unique capability for real-time monitoring of T in reactive flows

Next: High potential for multi-phase flows, e.g., droplet evaporation

 5.3 1f-Normalized WMS-2f for CO2 with Scattering
Validate in Aerosol-Laden Gases
 Aerosol shock tube experiment: 2% CO2 /Ar in n-dodecane aerosol
 L=10 cm, P2=0.5 atm; P5=1.5 atm

 2f/1f TDL sensor successfully measures T in presence of aerosol!

Next example: Detection of gasoline in IC-engines
 6. Example TDL Applications - Aerospace

1. Subsonic velocity in a laboratory wind tunnel @SU – ambient H2O

2. Supersonic velocity in a test facility @NASA – H2O from vitiation
3. Supersonic combustion @UVa
 Exploit mid-IR absorption for strong signals
 H2O, CO, and CO2 measurements to compare with CFD
 Scramjet unstart monitor

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 6.1 Subsonic Velocity @ SU:
TDLAS Sensors in Wind Tunnel

1 2
Beam 1 Beam 2
Inlet flow

2

 TDL sensor of mass flux based on H2O absorption

 Velocity from Doppler shift of absorption wavelength
 Validate sensor in subsonic wind tunnel w/ ambient H2O @ Stanford
 0.5 m/s precision for V in uniform subsonic flow
Next: Test in supersonic-flow facilities at NASA Langley
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 6.2 Supersonic Velocity@NASA Langley via TDLAS:
Direct-Connect Supersonic Combustion Test Facility

Fuel
Nozzle
injection

Vitiated
inlet air

Isolator
Combustor
Diverging nozzle

DCSCTF: Simulates atmospheric supersonic and

hypersonic flight conditions
 M=2.65 nozzle with Tstatic~ 990K and Pstatic~ 0.7 atm;
simulates M=5 flight
 Add optical access to isolator
 Measure V, T, mass flux

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 6.2 Supersonic Velocity @NASA via TDLAS

Supersonic test facility at NASA Langley (2009)

Tunnel
cross section
7cm

13cm
Upstream Translating Downstream
window window
sensor

 Sensor translates to probe vertical and horizontal planes

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 6.2 Supersonic Velocity @NASA via TDLAS

Supersonic test facility at NASA Langley (2009)

Vertical
Scan

Upstream Translating Downstream

window window
sensor

 Sensor translates to probe vertical and horizontal planes

Chang et al., AIAA, 2011 27

 6.2 Supersonic Velocity @NASA via TDLAS

Supersonic test facility at NASA Langley (2009)

Upstream Translating Downstream

window window
sensor

 Sensor translates to probe vertical and horizontal planes

 Fast sensor captures start-up transients in V and T
Next: A supersonic combusting flow @ UVa
Chang et al., AIAA, 2011 28
 6.3 Mid-IR absorption sensing in scramjet flows

Goal: Spatially-resolved CO, CO2 and H2O in supersonic combustion

Mach 5 flight condition
Mach 2 in combustor
C2H4/Air,  ≈ 0.15

UVa Supersonic Combustion Facility

Charlottesville, VA
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 6.3 Mid-IR absorption sensing in scramjet flows
Optical Setup: Translating LOS
Four lasers SIDE VIEW
Two for H2O and T Supersonic flow path
One for CO and one for CO2

Y Reaction
Zone
X
Two
Measurement
Planes

Translating Recirculation
LOS Cavity

Fuel Injection
Air Flow

30 First use of fiber-coupled Mid-IR for aero-applications

6.3 Mid-IR absorption sensing in scramjet flows
Time-resolved CO and T Measurements
UVa Combustor Two-line CO T measurement @ 6 kHz
C2H4 + Air: ϕ ≈ 0.15

 TDL sensor captures flow fluctuations

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 6.3 Mid-IR absorption sensing in scramjet flows
Comparison of TDL Data with CFD (NCSU)
UVa Combustor
CO2 CO2
C2H4 + Air: ϕ ≈ 0.15
P1 P2

P2

P1
Measured and CFD CO2 in
good agreement

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 6.3 Mid-IR absorption sensing in scramjet flows
Comparison of TDL Data with CFD (NCSU)
UVa Combustor
C2H4 + Air: ϕ ≈ 0.15
CO CO
P1 P2

P2

P1
CFD overpredicts CO in cavity

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 6.4 Scramjet Unstart Monitor
Example: Fluctuations in T Uniformity via TDLAS

2007

 Simultaneous measurements on 4 H2O lines

 Two lines for Tlow and two lines for Thigh

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 6.4 Scramjet Unstart Monitor
Sensor Monitors Time-Resolved Tlow vs Thigh

Running FFT
of Tlow & Thigh

Ratio low-
frequencies

 Tlow ≠ Thigh indicates temperature is not uniform

 Low-frequency fluctuations anticipate inlet unstart
 Fluctuation sensing : A new paradigm for control!

Rieker et al., Proc Comb Inst, 2008 35

 7. Future trends for TDLs Sensing

 Portable TDL-based aerospace sensors useful for T, V, species and mass

flux over wide range of conditions, facilities
 Robust TDL-based sensors for long term monitoring of energy systems

 Current and future topics:

 Characterization/maintenance/control of facilities/emissions
 Emerging applications in flight systems
 Extension to UV and mid-IR to access new species
 CO, CO2, HC’s, radicals, NO, NO2
 Research in advanced energy and propulsion concepts

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 Next Lecture

TDLAS Applications to Energy Conversion

1. Fuel in IC engines – fuel and T
2. H2O and T in slagging coal gasifier
3. H2O in NCCC coal gasifier
4. NO and CO in coal-fired boiler exhaust

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