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UNIT ONE WHAT IS LAND USE?

Land use refers to various ways in which human beings make use of and manage land and its resources
Interpreting map symbols in relation to land use
The following are some of the land uses you will find on topographic maps:
1. Urban land use
 Urban land use consists of areas where much of the land is covered by buildings and structures. Included
in this category are cities, towns, shopping centres, industrial and commercial complexes.
2. Agricultural land use
 Agricultural land use consists of land used to grow food crops, and to graze or feed livestock to yield, eat,
daily and poultry products.
Evidence for agriculture on a map includes the following:
a. general cultivation or estate symbols
b. orchards
c. produce market such as ADMARC
d. agricultural extension offices or research stations
e. dip tanks
3. Forestry and Lumbering
 Forest land is land, which is stocked with trees capable of producing timber or other wood products such
as firewood and building poles.
 Lumbering is the cutting, preparing and trading of timber
What symbols are used on topographical map to indicate forestry and lumbering?
(i) A symbol for forest.
(ii) Presence of saw mills for timber harvesting
(iii) Presence of lumbering
4. Settlement or residential land use
 This is where people live (houses, apartment buildings). It can be seen in a map through its site, location
pattern, alignment and density. The nature and causes of various settlement patterns maybe clearly
understood by comparing the settlement map with contour map.
 A settlement is shown by small black dots on a land use map
5. Institutional land use
 This land use category contains public or government related structures such as schools, town hall,
police station, churches and public buildings.
6. Transport and communication land use
 This is the land used for the development of transport and communication infrastructure.
On a map, this land use category is evidenced by the presence of the following:
a. national or state highways, district roads, cart tracks, camel tracks, and footpaths
b. railways and railway stations
c. waterways (lakes, perennial rivers and canals)
d. shipyards (places where ships are built or repaired), docks or jetties (floating platforms jutting out into a body
of water, which boats are tied to), harbours or ports
e. airports, airstrips and aerodromes
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f. Post offices, internet cafés, etc.
7. Recreational land use
 They are places meant for entertainment purposes like stadiums, public parks, golf centres and camp
grounds.
8. Commercial land use
 Commercial land use is where public infrastructure and services (such as stores and banks) are available
for (making) money.
9. Wildlife conservation
 In this land use, development for settlement, industry and mining is banned, and in which wildlife is strictly
protected.
 The presence of forest reserve, game reserves and national parks indicate wildlife conservation
10. Mining or quarrying land use
 This is the act of extracting minerals from the earth surface. Below is a symbol used to show a mining site on a
topographical map.

11. Tourism
 Tourism on a topographical map is evident by the presence of symbols of tourist attraction sites such as
hotels, historical sites, game reserves, national parks, lakes and other landforms like mountains
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LAND USE PATTERNS
1. Topography
 Flat lands are the easiest to build houses, industry and communications on. Flat land can also be
important for grazing and cultivation purposes.
 High or steep lands have poor and thin soils to support agriculture as the soils creep down the steep
slopes and water runs quickly off the land.
2. Land value
 Expensive land areas such as city centres are occupied by land uses that produce the highest income
per unit of land e.g. tall office buildings. Cheap land, usually found outside the towns is ideal for more
spacious activities such as industries and low density housing.
3. Government policy
 In order to control development and to avoid land use conflict, government pass laws which restrict the
use of land in some areas
4. Technology
 Advances in technology such as the use of cars have changed the face of many areas: there are now
wider highway roads, shopping and work areas with own parking.
5. Water supply sources
 Cities, towns and nucleated villages can develop near or along the river for water for domestic, farming
and Industrial use
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6. Climate
 Cool, wet climates always favour settlements and agricultural land uses.
7. Soil characteristics
 Fertile soils are usually favoured for agricultural land use. As people are attracted to settle in or near
these areas, settlement becomes another land use
8. Vegetation
 Presence of vegetation such as a forest allows establishment of forest and wildlife conservation areas.
These conservation areas may promote the tourism industry. More so, the presence of vegetation would
also encourage lumbering activities, that is logging and saw mill works, for example, Chikangawa in
Mzimba
9. Political stability
 Political stability may also influence industrial activities in certain areas as investors will be confident to
establish their industries because they are assured of low risk of losing their property due to war and
economic unrest
10. Abundance of labour
 Areas with high population density attract some industries as labour is likely to be cheap due to over-
supply.
11. Natural resources
 Presence of natural resources on land like minerals allow mining to be carried out.
12. Social services
 Presence of social services encourages settlement while absence of social services discourages
settlement

UNIT 6: STATISTICAL METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY

STATISTICS
- Statistics can be defined as the study of collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organisation of
data
- Data is raw or unprocessed information. It is usually in numerical or non-numerical form. Data is less useful
unless it has been organised, processed and interpreted into meaningful and useful knowledge. The data that
has been processed or transformed is called information
STATISTICAL DATA
- Statistical data refers to the actual pieces of information collected through your study and presented in form
of numbers.
Types of statistical data
Statistical data is classified into two types as follows: primary and secondary data
1. Primary data
 Primary data is the data that is collected from the field by researchers. This data is called first hand or
original information. Researchers include an organisation, a person collecting information
Sources of Primary data
 Primary data can come from various sources which made include the following
The field itself, Experiments, Resource persons.
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Examples of primary data are
i. Mean daily temperature from a weather station
ii. Enumeration/census: going to Mzimba to manually count all the people in that district
iii. Going to Liwonde to measure how fast shire river flows past Liwonde Barrage
How is primary data collected?
 The following are methods of collecting primary data
Interviews, Experiments, Observations, Measurements
2. Secondary data
 This is the second-hand information found in stored sources which is available as published and
unpublished information
Sources of secondary data
 Textbooks, census reports, newspapers, magazine, Articles, Photographs, Television, radio programmes
Examples of secondary data are
i. Going to national statistics office to get the population of Mzimba
ii. Going to water department to know how fast Shire River flows at Liwonde barrage
NATURE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DATA
Geographical data have variables and attributes.
Variables are often described as quantitative data whereas attributes are best known as qualitative data
a. Variable (quantitative) data
- These are data which can be counted, measured, expressed using numbers and that they can be observed.
Example include number of people, cattle or trees in a region and not having three and a half men or one and
a half cattle
b. Attribute (qualitative) data
- These are data whose values are not measurable but can be observed or identified. For instance, data on
attributes like intelligence, creativity, honesty, cleanliness, wisdom, sex (males/females) religion (Christianity,
Islam,) are qualitative data.
WAYS OF COLLECTING GEOGRAPHICAL DATA
- Data Collection refers to the means by which information is obtained from subjects of an observation e.g.
population, relief features, weather information, etc.
METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
I. MEASUREMENT
- This method uses instruments to get data on geographical variables like height of mountains, amount of
rainfall, temperature, etc.
The method of measurement is applied when the study involves the following.
o Measurement of elements of weather such as rainfall, temperature, humidity etc.
The following are some of the instruments used in measuring geographical attributes
i. Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure
ii. Rain gauge for measuring rainfall
Advantages of measurement method
a. They provide accurate data
b. Data is easily collected through measurements and reading the information on the instruments
c. The method is reliable because the facts can be verified
Disadvantages of measurement method
a. It is expensive to acquire data collecting instruments like thermometers.
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b. Some data collecting tools need expertise in handling them.
c. Some areas may be difficult to reach due to physical barriers like dense vegetation and floods

I. DIRECT OBSERVATION
- By direct observation, Geographers use their senses (sight, smell, sound) when they want to gather
information about geographical phenomenon
- Sometimes instruments are used for observation such as telescope. Data is collected through watching
geographical variables. For instance, bio-geographers can observe animal behaviour.
- This method is best for collecting information on topics such as features,wildlife and man-made features..
Advantages
a. The method is cheap as the data is collected through sight seeing
b. Observer collects up-to-date information since it is real-time observation.
c. It provides a chance of learning other skills such as recording and interpretation which can be used in other
circumstances
d. It enriches the researcher with first-hand experience.
Disadvantages
a. It is affected by weather conditions e.g. mist and dust storms
b. Respondents may not act like their true self when they realise that they are being observed. This is called
Hawthorne effect
c. Equipment like binoculars and cameras can be expensive
d. People with visual problems may not be able to use this method effectively
II. QUESTIONNAIRES
- This method uses a set of prepared questions on a piece of paper. Respondents answer these questions.
Questionnaires are mostly used under the following circumstances:
a) When the intended respondents are far.
b) When the respondent is too busy for a face to face interaction.
c) When information is to be obtained from high profile respondents who are not easily available for face to
face interviews.
d) When the researcher is dealing with a large population.
Advantages of questionnaire.
a. Use of questionnaires can be cost effective especially where questionnaire is posted to the respondent
b. There are minimal chances of asking leading questions
c. Researcher does not have the chance of influencing the responses
d. There is uniformity of questions as each respondent receives the same set of questions phrased in exactly
the same way
Disadvantages of questionnaire
a. Questionnaires are restricted to literate people.
b. There is no room to clarify the questions
c. Supplementary information is restricted by questions.
d. There is high tendency of telling lies
III. INTERVIEWS
- This is a direct conversation between the interviewer (researcher) and the interviewee (respondent).
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- In the interview, interviewee (respondent) gives information on prepared questions and interviewer records
the information
- The interview may be face to face (direct interview) or indirect, that is over a telephone
- Examples of geographical information that can be collected using Interviews are as follows: population of
an area, peoples’ occupation, land use in an area, etc.
Advantages of interviews
(i) It allows the interviewer to read and record the behaviour of the interviewee (non-verbal expressions such
as gestures and facial expressions)
(ii) It gives room to the researcher to adjust some questions.
(iii) Where the response is not clear, the interviewer can seek clarification
Disadvantages
(i) It is time consuming if several respondents are to be interviewed
(ii) Communication problems when the interviewer and interviewee do not speak the common language.
Sometimes a translator is used and interfere with the accuracy of the information gathered
(iii) The presence of the interviewer can influence responses from respondents who can give answers for the
sake of pleasing the interviewer
IV. EXPERIMENTS
- In this method, the researcher caries out tests or trials to obtain information.
- In geography, experiments can be carried out on soil porosity, permeability, solubility, and capillarity mineral
content of rocks, river discharge and velocity
Advantages of experiments
a. The results can be verified
b. Experiments are interesting and therefore may attract the full attention of the researcher
Disadvantages of experiments
a. If handled carelessly, experiments may cause dangerous accidents
b. The researcher may lack the necessary apparatus
DESIGNING DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
- Data collection instruments are tools that are used to collect information. Examples of the instruments include
questionnaires, observation checklists and interview guides
A. Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose gathering
information from respondents. There are two types of questionnaires as follows
a) Open-Ended Questionnaires: these are questionnaires in which the respondents are free to give as much
information as possible
b) Closed-Ended Questionnaires: These are questionnaires that give possible answers that a respondent
can choose from. Options could either be ‘Yes’, ‘No’ and ‘I don’t know’ among others. In this case, the
respondent is limited to the researcher’s proposed answers.
Characteristics of a good questionnaire
1. Questions should be short, clear, and be to the point as longer questions are less likely to be completed
by respondents
2. The researcher must ensure that the information provided by respondent is kept confidential, e.g.
name, address, etc.
3. Hypothetical questions should be avoided if possible.
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NB. Hypothetical questions are those which ask the respondents to put themselves in an imaginary
situation. For example, you ask respondents ‘let’s assume you won 10 million Malawi Kwacha on
lottery, would you give up school or would you keep schooling?
Sample Questionnaire
1. How old are you? ____________
2. What is your gender? Male ___ Female __
3. In which class are you ______
4. How far do you live from the school? _________
5. What is the main type of transport you currently use to travel to school; tick one
Walk Bicycle Family Car Minibus Train Others (specify) ____

B. Observation checklists
 An observation checklist is a list of things that an observer is going to look at when observing a
sample. The list is prepared by an observer before the actual observation process takes place
When designing a good checklist, the following things must be remembered
a) State the purpose of the observation
b) List things to be checked
c) Draw conclusion or analysis on the observation picked out
C. Interview guide
 This is a list of issues or questions to be raised in the course of an interview.
 Before conducting interviews, you need an interview guide that you can use to help you direct the
conversation toward the topics and issues you want to learn about
Example of an interview guide
a. Tell me about yourself
b. Why did you leave your last job?
c. What can you offer us that others cannot?
d. What are your best skills?
e. What are your major weaknesses?
f. What are your career goal?
g. What are your hobbies?
D. Measuring instruments
 Various measuring instruments are used to obtain numerical data. The instruments can be in different
units and conversion from one unit to another is a requirement e.g. from grams to kilograms.
 The measuring instruments used include; tape measures, meter rulers, weighing scales, weather
instruments and Geographical Positioning System (GPS)
ANALYSING DATA USING APPROPRIATE PROCEDURES
Data analysis is the process of examining raw data so that useful information can be highlighted and
understood from it
The main purpose of data analysis
o Data analysis helps us understand the meaning in data
There are basically two methods of analysing data collected by various methods. These include qualitative
and quantitative data analysis techniques
1) Qualitative data analysis
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 This uses given non-numerical data to draw conclusions on the depth of answers provided. It is based
on meanings expressed through words e.g. Peoples’ perception on the decision to slow down rapid
population growth.
2) Quantitative data analysis
 This involves the collection and processing of numerical data to support or contradict a hypothesis.
 It is based on meanings derived from numbers and It seeks to find evidence for a hypothesis.
 It is also called deductive approach
Approaches to quantitative data analysis
 A quantitative approach is often concerned with finding evidence to either support or contradict an idea or
hypothesis you might have.
There are two types as follows
i. Inferential data analysis (inductive approach)
 This is also called Inductive statistics. In this approach, data is first collected and then explored to see which
themes or issues can be followed up and concentrated on and then uses the principle of probability to learn
about the attributes of a population from a sample.
ii. Descriptive data analysis (deductive approach)
This is a quantitative analysis which summarises features of the collected information (data).
It helps researchers summarise the data and find patterns
SOME OF THE FEW COMMONLY USED DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ARE AS FOLLOWS
I. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
- A Measure of Central Tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying
the central position within that set of data
- The measures of central tendency include the following
A. MEAN (AVERAGE)
o Mean refers to the total sum of values in a data set divided by total of the data set. This is also called
Arithmetic Average.
o Example: Mayamiko scored the following marks in 7 subjects: 58,67,60,84,93,98,100. Calculate the
average of the scores

Examples of geographical information that can be analysed using mean are:

i. Ages in a population
ii. Temperature or rainfall readings
Advantages of the mean
1) It can be used for both discrete and continuous numeric data
2) It is a more reliable estimate as its value is determined by all the values that are given in a distribution
3) It does not require organisation of data when calculating it
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Disadvantages of the mean
1) The mean cannot be calculated for categorical data, as the values cannot be summed
2) It cannot be obtained when a single observation (item)is missing
3) As the mean includes every value in the distribution, the mean is influenced by outliers (extreme values)
and skewed (unbalanced)
B. MEDIAN
- This is the middle value in a data distribution that is arranged in ascending or descending order.
- Median can be used in crop production figures spatially, weather elements, spatial distribution of diseases, etc.
To find the median, you must follow the following steps
Example 1: Find median in the following set of data 65, 55, 89,56, 35, 56, 55, 87, 45,
First arrange the set of data by ascending or descending order

By rearranging by ascending order 35,45,55,55,56,65,87,89,82

The median mark is 56 as there are four numbers before it and four after it

This works fine when you have an odd number of occurrences, but what happens when there are even

numbers of occurrences?
Example 2: Find the median in the following set of numbers 44, 32, 51, 22, 30 40
 Firstly, the set be rearranged into 51, 44, 40,32,30,22 by descending order
 Then you pick the middle value, which in our case happens to be two numbers 40 and 32
 Then the median is found by calculating the average of 40 and 32 which is 36. Therefore, the median is 36
Advantages of the median
a)The median is less affected by extreme values
b)It is the most representative mid-point value of all values in the distribution
c) It is used for both discrete (countable)and continuous (uncountable)
d)Even when the values of all items are not known the median can be obtained
Disadvantages of the median
a)It is often tedious to arrange the data in the necessary form
b)It cannot be used to determine the total value of all the items
c) Median cannot be identified for categorical nominal data, as it cannot be logically ordered
C. MODE
- This is the most commonly occurring value in a distribution.
- In geography, it can be used in ages in a population, types of houses in an area, etc.
Example: The numbers 4,9,7,5,4,2,9,4,6,4,3,4 represents recordings of the number of chickens found on ten
different households. What is the mode?
 Firstly, arrange the numbers i.e. 2,3,4,4,4,4,4,5,6,7,9,9
 Here 4 occur more times than any other number; that is more households have 4 chickens than any other
number. Therefore 4 is the mode.
 The number of times the mode occurs is called modal frequency. In the above situation, 4 occurs 5 times,
hence 5 is the modal frequency. This means that 5 households have 4 chickens
Advantages of the mode
a)The mode can be found for both numerical and categorical (non-numerical) data
b)Its value is not affected by extreme items
Disadvantages of the mode
a)It has no significance if the distribution is small
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b)It cannot be determined if individual values are unknown
c) It is possible for there to be more than one mode for the same distribution of data, (bi-modal, or multi-modal).
The presence of more than one mode limit the ability of the mode in the describing the centre or typical value
of the distribution because a single value to describe the centre cannot be identified
d)In some cases, particularly where the data are continuous, the distribution may have no mode at all (i.e. if all
values are different. In this case, the mean or median can be used
II. MEASURES OF VARIATION/DISPERSION
- Measures of Variation refer to a group of statistics that explain how
a set of scores are distributed
- The purpose of the measures of variability is to numerically represent a
set of data based on how scores differ or vary from each other
- There are several measures of variation that are used in statistics such
as range, standard deviation, variance and coefficient of relative variation
1. The Range
o Range is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest
observations in a set of data. Range can be calculated by just subtracting the lowest measurement from
the highest measurement
Example: Calculate the annual temperature range for the following climatic table for Lilongwe city
Table 6.1 Mean monthly temperature for Mzuzu City

Highest average temperature recorded is 23°C and lowest 14°C

Annual Range =23-14
= 9°C
Advantages of range
a) It is simple to understand.
b) It is easy to calculate.
c) In certain types of problems like quality control, weather forecasts, share price analysis, etc., range is most
widely used.
Disadvantages of range
a) It is very much affected by the extreme items.
b) It is based on only two extreme observations.
c) It cannot be calculated from open-end class intervals.
2. Standard deviation and variance
- These two measures of dispersion can be discussed in the same section because the standard deviation is the
square root of the variance
- Standard deviation refers to the measure of how much the individual scores in a set of data differ from the
mean. It compares each data point to the mean of all data points and shows how far values are from the mean
- The variance is the average of the squares of the distance each value is from the mean
- A low or small standard deviation means that most of the numbers are close to the average value, thus
very reliable while high standard deviation means that the numbers are spread out, further from the
mean or average; thus not as reliable
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For calculation of standard deviation and Variance refer to MATHEMATICS TOPIC OF STATISTICS
WAYS OF PRESENTING GEOGRAPHICAL DATA
o Data are usually collected in a raw format and thus the inherent
information is difficult to understand. Therefore, raw data need to be summarised, processed, analysed and
well presented.
o Data presentation refers to the expression of data in a visual form so
that logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements. Presenting data
includes the pictorial representation of the data by using graphs, charts, maps and other methods.
THE FOLLOWING ARE SOME OF THE WAYS THROUGH WHICH DATA CAN BE PRESENTED
I. Graphs
- A graph is a two-dimensional drawing that shows a relationship usually between two sets of numbers.
- This is shown by means of a line, curve, a series of bars or other symbols. A set of variables are represented
on both the x and y axes. There are various types of graphs that are used when presenting data
- There are several types of graphs which includes simple line graph, curve graph, bar graph or bar chart,
histogram etc.
a. Bar graphs or charts
- A bar chart used bars to show information. Bar graphs are made of bars
which are of equal width but difference in lengths depending on the respective quantities that they
represent.
- A bar graph can have either have either vertical or horizontal. Bar graphs
are popularly used because they are simple to construct and visualise
Procedures for drawing bar charts
1. Determine the vertical scale. The vertical scale should show the changing
variable
2. Determine the width of each bar, which should be the same.
3. Determine the regular interval at which each bar should appear
4. Draw and label the height of each bar in relation to their values
5. Give the title of the bar chart at the bottom
Example
The following table shows the number of visitors to a park for the months of January, February and March
Table 6.5: Number of visitors to a park
Month January February March
Number of Visitors 150 200 100
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Fig 6.5 Bar graph

b. Histogram
- A histogram is a special kind of bar graph that uses rectangles to show
the frequency of data items in successive numerical intervals of equal size. Because the intervals
are all equal, all of the bars have the same width
- Histogram appears similar to bar graph as both uses rectangles to
display data. However, the differences are that histograms present continuous data while bar
graph depicts discrete data and also the histogram does not show gaps between the bars
while bar graph has gaps
- Independent variable is plotted along horizontal axis and the
dependent variable is plotted along vertical axis and the data appears as coloured or shaded
rectangles of variable area
Steps to follow when drawing a histogram
Step 1- decide on the appropriate scale on the X-axis for the bars. The bars should be the same width and
there should be no gaps between the bars
Step 2-Decide on the suitable scale for the Y-axis. The scale should be spaced evenly and allow for the
highest number in the data set to be included
Step 3- accurately draw the bars for each piece of data. Because the data are continuous (connected,
ongoing), there is no space between the bars and each bar should be shaded in the same colour
Step 4- finish your graph by labelling each axis and write the title at the bottom
Example: Mr. Chidiwa recorded the following students’ marks in his Geography class in the end of term
examinations
Table 6.6: student’s marks in a Geography class
Marks range 51-60 61-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
Number of students 1 2 6 4 2
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Fig: 6.6 a histogram

c. Pie charts (divided circles)
- A pie chart is a circular graph, visualising parts of a whole as if they were
pieces of a pie
- Pie charts show percentage or proportional data.
Construction of a Pie Chart
Step 1: calculate the total frequency of the given data
Step 2: since a complete circle has 360°, divide 360°by the total frequency
Step 3: Multiply each frequency by the result of step 2. This gives the angle size of each slice.
Step 4: using a compass, draw a circle by using an appropriate radius given in the question. Using a
protractor, divide the circle into sectors bearing the angles found accurately. Begin with the largest sector
and move clockwise to the smallest sector
Example
 Jimmy studied workers on factory who travel from home to work using various means. In his study, the
following were his findings
Mode of travelling Number of people
Train 400
Bus 250
Cycle 200
Foot 54
Present the information on a pie chart
Method
Step 1: Calculate the total value of data
250+400+200+150=1000
Step 2: Calculate the degree represented by each data value given by using the following formula

Calculated as follows
Train

Bus
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Cycle

Foot
a. Then draw a circle of any radius (or of a given radius) and mark it as OA
as in below diagram

Begin with the largest sector

b. Put the protractor on AO with 0° lining up with A and draw largest angle
144°
c. Now, put protractor on OB and mark the next biggest angle which in our
case is 90°and continue with the remaining angles
d. Lastly label the pie chart

e. Lastly provide the title of the pie chart. The title tells the reader what
information it is displaying. For example, the pie chart drawn can be given the title as follows Pie chart
displaying mode of transport used by workers going to work place
II. Age-sex pyramids
o An age-sex pyramids is also known as a population pyramid. It is a type
of bar graph that represents the structure of the population of a country or area basing on age and
sex. It uses horizontal bars to represent the percentage of an age cohort by sex in a particular
population
Example of a population pyramid
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Fig 6.10 Population pyramid

Advantages of Age-sex pyramids.
a. They give a clear picture of the characteristics of a given population by
showing the proportion of males to females in each age-group.
b. I t has a variety of useful information for planning purposes in a country.
c. It can easily enable comparisons of population for various countries.
Advantages of Age-sex pyramids.
a. If age-groups are many, the graph can take much space.
b. It is tedious to draw and time consuming.
c. It is difficult to choose a suitable horizontal scale.
III. Flow diagram
This is a chart which shows a step by step presentation of a particular process. A flow diagram will show
progression of data in form of connected circles, boxes and any other geometric shape. When drawing a flow-
chart, take note of the following
a) Present overviews only
b) Limit the number of shapes
c) Run the sequence from top to bottom or from left to right
Example of a flow chart
 Draw a flow diagram showing stages in the formation of clastic
sedimentary rocks as provided in the paragraph below
An existing rock is broken after being subjected to weathering and form sediments. These sediments
are transported by wind and water and are deposited in shallow areas (lowlands and basins) such as a
geosyncline where they settle and accumulate in layers. Finally, the layers get compacted and
cemented together to form sedimentary rocks by a process called lithification and finally forming
clastic sedimentary rocks
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Fig 6.12 a flow diagram showing formation of clastic sedimentary rocks

IV. Statistical maps
- A statistical map is one in which the variation in the quantity of a factor,
such as percent of rainfall within different geographic areas, is displayed.
- The three main types of statistical maps are choropleth maps,
proportional symbol maps, and dot maps
A choropleth map
Choropleth map is a map which shows regions or areas with the same characteristics.
Choropleth maps consist of series of varying shading patterns, each representing proportionally the
measurement of a given statistical variable being portrayed on the map.

Fig: 6.13 a choropleth map of India showing average annual rainfall

Importance of statistics in Geography
1. It enables the geographers to describe and summarise large set of data
2. It is very useful for planning at local and national levels. For example,
statistics on census can be used to plan for social services
3. They help geographers to predict the trend of geographical events of
various phenomena. For example, if a given graph shows a positive increase trend of coffee in country X
for some considerable years, it becomes easy to make predictions
4. Statistics translates data into mathematical ways which make the
application of quantitative techniques possible
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5. It enables geographers to store the information in forms of numbers,
graphs, tables, charts, etc

UNIT 7: CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

DEFINITION OF TERMS
a. Theory: refers to a group of linked ideas intended to explain something
b. Continental Drift: refers to the gradual movement of the continents across the earth’s surface through
geological time
c. Continental Drift Theory: is a set of ideas that explains how continents shift positions on earth’s surface
o The hypothesis that continents ‘drift’ was first put forward by a Dutch geographer and map maker Abraham
Ortelius in 1596. In 1620, Sir Francis Bacon, an English scientist also wrote on Continental Drift and noted that
the outlines could be pieced. American geologist Frank Bursley Taylor proposed it in a lecture in 1908.
o However, it was a German meteorologist and geophysicist called Alfred Wegener who proposed the first truly
detailed and comprehensive theory of continental drift in 1912.
WHAT DOES THE THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT STATE?
O The theory of continental drift as proposed by Wegener states that all the continents were once connected as a
single super continent called the Pangaea which was surrounded by a surrounded by a huge ocean known as
Panthalassa, and later on the Pangaea broke up into several continents which slowly drifted away from each
other to their current positions
The map provided below fits together the continents whose breaking up resulted in today’s continents

Figure: The break-up of Pangaea and periods of disintegration

EVIDENCES SUPPORTING THE THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Many evidences of continental drift exist, but they can be summarized in four major categories
Geological evidence
1. The Southern Continent fit in a gigantic jig-saw puzzle. see the figure below
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2. Folded ranges of Argentina are similar in structure and age to the folded Cape Ranges of South Africa.
3. Parts of Appalachian Mountains of the United States of America are similar to those found in Greenland and
Western Europe. See figure 7.3
4. Rocks in West Africa match in age and structure with those in Brazil but in between there is a great mass of
water.
Biological evidence of continental drift theory
5. There is similarity in the fossils and vegetation remains found on the eastern coast of South America and the
Western coast of Africa. For example;
i. Mesosaurus was small reptile living in Permian time (280 million of years before present); its remains have
been found only in South Africa and Brazil. See figure 7.5
ii. Remains of Glossopteris, a plant which existed when coal was being formed has only been located in India
and Antarctica. These animals and plants could not have swum across oceans if continents were
separated by water bodies, so continents must have been close together for them to occur on different
continents which probably had a similar climate. See figure 7.4
Climatic evidence
6. Discovery of coal deposits in temperate areas like Britain yet coal is formed under tropical conditions. This shows
the area where Britain is today, was once located near the equator when it was part of Pangaea
7. Fossilized trees in Antarctica show that the land mass might have experienced climatic conditions different from
those of today. The present-day Antarctica is frozen and covered with ice
8. The presence of glacial deposits in Congo which is in the tropics with hot conditions not allowing the formation of
glaciers, so it might have been joined to the Polar Regions and drifted.
Geodetic evidence
9. Magnetism of ancient rocks (paleo-magnetism) especially igneous rocks shows that the continents were once a
single entity. Rocks were magnetised in the direction of magnetic north when solidifying. All ancient rocks on all
the continents show similar magnetic pattern showing that all the continents were joined together.
10. The orientation of minerals in rocks of different ages from the same location in North America and Europe is
consistently different. This strongly suggest that the continents have drifted
WEAKNESSES OF THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
However, Wegener’s theory was initially criticized because he could not explain how solid continents have
changed their positions. The following are some of the weaknesses of the Wegener’s theory of continental
drift
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1. The theory failed to explain what caused the drifting process.
2. The evidence of the similar in the coastlines has been challenged by water erosion processes at the coastlines
which shape the coastlines in the positions that they have.
3. Fossil evidence has been challenged in the way that plants could be grafted and move in water by currents
with some animals attached to them and cross such mass of water only to regrow to the other side of the
continent. This makes the fossils to be similar in age and structure.
4. Not all continents fit when joined and some parts need to be removed for the continents to join. For instance,
Central America has to be removed to make North and South America match up to Europe and Africa
5. The theory focused very much on continental crust and did not state what happens to oceanic crust.
Wegener’s proposal that the continents plowed through oceanic crust was not accepted by other geologists
6. Some of the evidence for the theory could be explained by using other theories. For instance, plate tectonic
theory and sea floor spreading

UNIT 8: PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

The concept of plate tectonics
 The word tectonic comes from the Greek word ‘tektonikos’ meaning building or construction; this means how
the earth crust is constructed.
 Plate Tectonics is the study of how the surface of the earth is formed, how the separate pieces of it move, and
the effects of this movement.
The theory of plate tectonics
 The theory of plate tectonics states that the earth’s crust is broken up into several lithospheric slabs called
plates which float on a soft layer called Asthenosphere relative to each other
 Crustal or Tectonic Plates are large blocks of rocks on which the continents and oceans sit
Relating the theory of continental drift to plate tectonics
- After Wegener failed to explain and address issues in his theory such as mechanism for the movement of
continents and disregarding oceanic crust, there came a widely accepted theory of plate tectonics
- This was after the scientists discovered the evidence that the sea floor is spreading in 1960s. Now the majority
of scientists accept Wegener’s theory of continental Drift and improved on it
- The plate tectonics explains that plate movement is caused by convectional currents in the Upper Mantle. The
movements of plates make continents and oceanic floors to move too hence the movement of continents
which Alfred Wegner failed to explain.

Diagrams showing plate movements

Similarities between continental drift and plate tectonics theories.
 Both theories state that continents move because of convectional currents in the upper part of the mantle
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Differences between continental drift and plate tectonics theories
1. Continental drift theory state that It is the continents which drift apart while plate tectonics theory state that it is
plates that move
2. Continental drift theory state that Continents only move in one direction, that is, sideways due to tensional
forces while plate tectonic theory state that Plates move in three ways depending on the force that applies
WHAT CAUSES PLATE TECTONICS?
- Plates are moved by the energy originating from the earth interior (core) through radioactive decay. As this
energy escapes towards the surface, it generates convection currents. The heat produced in the upper mantle
causes slow-moving convection currents to operate laterally and diverge at the base of the overlying
lithosphere causing a weak tension on the solid plate above it therefore weakening the floating of the solid
plate therefore pushing the plates apart

Fig Plate sliding in response convection forces

Types of plates and boundaries
Plates are typically composed of both continental and oceanic lithospheres. For example, the South American plate
contains the continent of South America and the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. Basically, there are two types of
plates
a. Continental plates
 They are lighter and they carry continents. They are mostly made of lighter granite rocks. They are
thicker than oceanic plate.
 Examples include North American plate, African plate, South American plate, Eurasian plate, Iranian,
Arabian, and Australian
b. Oceanic plates
 These are plates which are denser because they contain heavier basaltic rocks and they form ocean
floor. They are thinner than continental plates.
 Examples of oceanic plates are Pacific, Antarctica, Nazca, Juan de Fuca, The Scotia, Philippines, Cocos
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As the tectonic plates move about on the Asthenosphere, they interact with one another at their boundaries. There are
three types of plate boundaries or margins
A. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
- It is created where plates are moving apart because of tensional forces. As plates move a part, a gap is left, or
faulting takes place making materials from the mantle to upwell, forming new features.
- The boundary is also called constructive because the boundary results into the upwelling of magma forming
new oceanic features such as mid oceanic ridges and volcanic islands.
- The process of the separation of plates and the upwelling of magma forming new oceanic crust is called sea-
floor spreading.

Types of divergent boundaries

1) Oceanic from oceanic crust
As plate move apart, molten rock from asthenosphere rises and fills the space between the plates creating new
oceanic crust in form of a ridge
Examples of plates with a divergent boundary
i. The African plate which is moving away from the South American plate resulting into the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
ii. The Indo- Australian plate which is moving away from the African plate resulting into the Mid- Indian Ocean
ridge
Peaks of some ridges rise above the surface of the ocean to form islands, e.g. Iceland and Azores
2) Continental from continental
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At such boundaries, rift valleys are created. This is because there is no Magma to fill the crack, so it is down
warp in the earth crust e.g. the Great East African Rift Valley where African and Nubian plates are pulling away
from each other
B. CONVERGENT OR DESTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES
- This is the boundary where plates move towards each other and collide. It is referred to as destructive
plate margin because when plates collide, part of the crust is destroyed especially when one plate dives
under the other.

Examples of plates with a convergent boundary

a. The Indian plate and the Eurasian plate
b. The Nazca plate and the south American plate
c. Juan de Fuca and the pacific plates with the North American plate
Types of plate convergent boundaries
a. Continental to continental crust
 This type of collision occurs when two plates with continental crust at the leading edges come together
hence colliding edges crumple and uplift producing large folded mountains. Good example is the
collision between Indian plate and Asian plate which results in the uplifting of Himalaya Mountains.
Others are Ural Mountains in Russia, the Alps in Europe, and Appalachians in USA
 Volcanic activities do not take place in such margins because no plate sinks into the mantle while
earthquakes are common
b. Oceanic to continental crust
 This type of boundary occurs when oceanic plate collides with a continental plate. Oceanic plate being
denser is pulled beneath the other or is subducted into the upper mantle in the process called
subduction. The plate which sinks get melted and is destroyed by absorption into the hot and
molten upper mantle. For example, the Nazca plate is an oceanic plate which moves eastwards and
collides with South American plate. The Nazca is heavier and is pulled beneath South American
plate which is forced upward forming Andes Mountains.
 Subduction is the movement of one plate under another plate at a convergent plate boundary
- Features which are formed include deep and curved trenches, such as Mariana, Tonga and Peru-
Chile trenches
- Volcanoes and earthquakes are common. Fold mountains are also formed
[Link] to oceanic crust
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 When two oceanic plates collide, the edge of one is forced to bend downwards and subducts or sinks
under the other; it melts and produces a deep-sea trench
III. SHEARING OR TRANSFORM OR CONSERVATIVE BOUNDARIES
- At a conservative plate boundary, two plates pass each other in different directions, or in the same
directions but at different speed.
- This is a conservative boundary because the crust is neither created nor destroyed.
- Shearing is the movement of two tectonic plates sliding past each other horizontally in the same direction
or opposite direction
Examples of plates with a transform boundary
 The pacific plate which moves passing the North American plate giving rise to the San Andreas Fault. It
results into the formation of faults. Such faults are associated with earthquakes and the change of the
river courses.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES FORMED ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES

- The movement of plates result into the creation of several features such as oceanic ridges, oceanic islands,
oceanic trenches, fold mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
- They are called geological features because they are formed and come from the internal structure of the earth
A. Geological features that form along divergent plate boundaries
Volcanic mountains, oceanic ridges, volcanic islands, rift valleys, block mountains and earthquakes
1. Oceanic ridges
- As Plates move away from each other at divergent boundary, a gap or fissure is created. Magma flows
into the fissure and then solidifies into a ridge. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge formed by
American plates, moving away from Eurasian and African plates.
- Geologic activities that take place along such mid oceanic ridges include the seafloor spreading,
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes.
2. Oceanic islands
- Formed in the diverging boundary. The oceanic islands rise directly from the ocean floor beyond the
top level of water. These are wholly surrounded by water. Examples of such islands include the
Canary, Iceland and Falkland.
3. Oceanic trenches
- These are oceanic deeps making the deepest part of the oceans formed when the oceanic plate
dives under the continental plate in the subduction zone.
- Trenches sometimes form when plates move apart. Such trenches are later filled with the molten rock
or magma from the mantle’
- Examples of trenches include Aleutian, the Marianas, the Tonga, the Java and the Peru
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4. Fold mountains
- Fold Mountains are formed in the convergent boundary where one plate collides over the other. This
could be a convergent boundary where
a) A collision between a continental and another continental plate occur. Under such circumstances
two continental plates collide and neither can sink and their edges are folded upwards into Fold
Mountains.
Examples of such mountains are
i. Himalaya mountains which were formed when Indian plate collided with Eurasian Plate
ii. Alps mountains formed when African Plate collided with Eurasian Plate
b) A collision between oceanic plate and continental plate. At this place, an oceanic plate sinks into
the mantle while the lighter continental plate is folded upwards to form fold mountains
Examples of such mountains are the
i. Rockies formed when the Juan de Fuca and the pacific plates collided with the North American
plate
ii. the Andes formed when the Nazca plate collided with the South American plate
5. Volcanoes
Volcanoes can be formed at plate boundaries in the following ways
I. At convergent plate boundary
o When the heavier ocean plate collides with a lighter continental plate, the oceanic plate is forced
below the continental plate and it melts to form magma. This magma then rises up through
cracks formed during collision in the continental crust and rises to the surface creating volcanoes
II. At divergent plate boundary
o At this boundary, plates move apart, which creates the gap. Then magma rises from the mantle
through and erupts to the surface of the Earth to form volcanoes. Constructive boundaries tend to
be found under the sea, e.g. the Mid Atlantic Ridge; where chains of underwater volcanoes have
formed along the plate boundary.
6. Earth quakes
- Earthquakes occur when tension is released from inside the crust. Earthquakes can happen along any type of
plate boundary.
a. At convergent boundary, the force that is generated during the collision makes the ground to shake or
vibrate.
b. They are also produced in the transform boundary which results into faults. Such faults like the San
Andreas give rise to earthquakes.
c. They also take place in the divergent boundary. When plates separate the motion of them make the
ground to shake. In addition, when plates separate, magma comes out. This magma comes with a lot
of force that make the ground to shake.
Effects of geological features on the environment
Positive
1. Volcanic rock features create very fertile soils when they weather, which give rise to a wide range of
vegetation. Vegetation in turn supports some natural ecosystems
2. Mountains formed by plate tectonics easily influence rain formation due to their great heights and this makes
ideal places for the growth of natural vegetation. The vegetation supports multiple species of animals, hence
creating a beautiful ecosystem.
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3. Mountains influence rain or snow formation. The heavy rain or snow received in mountain areas also rise to
important rivers, which support a diverse aquatic ecosystem
Negative
1. Earthquakes can tear apart ground surface, destroy forests and permanently displace some rocks; hence,
damaging ecosystems in the environment
2. The lava in volcanic eruption melts out and destroy the original landforms biodiversity that existed on the
surface
3. There is severe soil erosion and rock fall on steep slopes of rift valleys which result in the destruction of soil
surface
4. When these tectonic plates shift, the location of continents and oceans in relation to latitudes also changes.
This cause climate change which led to extinction of some species.
The volcanic eruptions increase the degree of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere. This causes rise
in temperature levels on the global
The impacts of geological features on human activity
Positive
1. Geological features such as volcanoes have provided people with opportunities for
a. Extracting precious minerals
b. Attractions for tourists
c. Harnessing geothermal power
d. Agriculture
e. Settlement
2. The occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes has helped people to learn a lot about the interior structure of
the earth
3. Mountain Ranges are
a. Aesthetically appealing formations and have some effects on us. For instance, Himalaya, the Swiss Alps,
and the Andes are examples.
b. They are also tourism sites
c. source of rivers for H.E.P and Irrigation
Negative
1. Loss of lives, property, livestock, crops and disruption to communication and transport
2. Earthquakes have caused terrible catastrophe in history
3. Escarpments and mountains have confronted people with a barrier to communication. Fault scarps form
waterfalls and rapids which hinder navigability of rivers. Also mountain regions are difficult to build in due to the
steep sided valleys

UNIT 9: MOUNTAIN BUILDING

 Mountain building (Orogeny) refers to the events that led to the uplift of the earth’s crust to produce
mountains. Mountain building occurs mainly due to movement of earth’s tectonic plates.
Main crustal movements associated with Mountain Building
The earth’s surface or interior is not particularly quiet because mostly it is on the move. The two major movements are:
a. Vertical movement also known as epeirogenic.
- The epeirogenic movements cause rift valleys and sometimes block mountains.
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b. Horizontal movement also called orogenic or lateral.
- Orogenic movements are responsible for mountain building (both fold and volcanic), marine ridges and
trenches. Rift valleys can also be formed by orogenic movements
MOUNTAIN BUILDING PROCESSES
Mountains and upland areas were formed through some of the following ways:
1. Folding leads to formation of fold mountains e.g. Rockies and Andes
2. Faulting leads to formation of block mountains e.g. Ruwenzori
3. Volcanic eruption e.g. volcanic mountains like
Kilimanjaro
4. Denudation processes e.g. Residual Mountains like Mulanje Mountain
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MOUNTAIN BUILDING PROCESSES AND PLATE TECTONICS OR PLATE MOTION
1. Plate motion results into folding processes that build up Fold Mountains.
2. Plate motion creates tear in the crust producing faults making some blocks to stand as Block Mountains.
3. Plate motion results into eruption of volcanoes which builds up volcanic mountains on the earth’s crust.

PROCESSES OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING

I. FOLDING
- Folding is a process by which crustal rocks bend upwards or downwards due to compressional forces
- The process is caused by tectonic forces that operate horizontally within the earth’s crust and cause rocks
to bend or fold. Bending of the rock strata is as a result of compressional forces that move towards
each other from either direction
Features formed from folding
a. Fold Mountains
b. Anticlines or domes
c. Synclines or basins
d. Volcanoes
FOLDS
- A fold is a wave-like bend in the crustal rock layers
- Folds are formed by compression forces acting on rock strata which lead to crumbling or buckling of rocks.
The intensity of compression forces determines the shape and size of the folds

Parts of a fold
A fold has the following parts
a) Anticline
 Anticline refers to the parts of the earth’s surface which bend upwards when folding occurs, it is also
known as an up fold.
b) Syncline
 Syncline refers to the parts of the earth’s surface which bends downwards when folding occurs. It is
also known as a down fold.
c) limb
 Limb refers to the rock layers sloping on both sides of the fold
d) Crest
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 A crest is the upper most part of the anticline
e) Trough
 Trough is the lowest part of the syncline
f) Axis
 An axis is the imaginary line drawn vertically through the centre of the anticline

Fig: Structure of the fold

TYPES OF FOLDS
a. Symmetrical fold / simple fold
- Simple fold is formed when compression forces that acts on crustal rock layers from either side are of
equal strength and cause a bend. As a result, the two limbs of the fold dip away from the axis with the
same angle
b. Asymmetrical fold
- An asymmetrical fold is a type of a fold which is formed when compression forces acting on rock strata
are greater on one side which causes one limb to be steeper than the other.

c. Over fold
- An over fold is a type of a fold which is caused by the application of more compression forces on
asymmetrical fold, with more force from one side than the other resulting into anticline of one fold
being pushed over the limb of the other
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d. Overthrust fold
- An over thrust fold, also called thrust fault is a type of a fold in which there is a line of fracture.
- One limb of the fold is thrust forward over the other limb. The portion which slides forward is called
Nappe
e. Recumbent fold
- When one side is pushed so much that it lies positioned over the other side, both sides of the fold
become largely horizontal. It is also called overturned fold

FOLD MOUNTAINS
- Fold Mountains are mountains that are formed from folding of the earth’s crust. They are the most common
type of mountain in the world; they are formed from the folding of the earth’s crust which is caused by collision
of plates. The Fold Mountains are mostly made of sedimentary rocks
The formation of Fold Mountains
1) Fold Mountain formed at subduction zones
At subduction zone, Fold Mountains are formed through the following stages
A. Two plates collide in the subduction zone (Oceanic-Continental collision), then extensive shallow
depressions called geosynclines develops. Sediments from higher grounds are deposited on the floor of
the geosynclines.
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B. These sediments gradually become compressed into sedimentary rocks.

C. When the two plates move towards each other again, the layers of sedimentary rock on the sea floor
become so intensively crumpled and folded to form high mountains. Eventually the sedimentary rock
appears above sea level as a range of Fold Mountains.

Formation of Fold Mountains

 Fold Mountains are also called the mountains of elevation because the rock layers are folded and elevated to a
great height.
Examples of mountains formed in this way are the
a. Rockies in North America. These were formed when the Pacific plate collided with the North
American plate
b. Alps Mountains, formed when the African plate collided with the Eurasian plate
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c. Andes in South America: they were formed when the Nazca collided with the South American
plate.
d. Atlas Mountains: these were formed when African plate and Eurasian plates collided
2) Formation of fold mountains at continental-continental collisions
- Fold Mountains are also formed when two continental plates collide head on. Then as the edges of the two
plates push against each other under intense compression forces, sedimentary rocks are forced upwards
forming fold mountains. The Himalayan Mountains were formed during the break of Gondwanaland when
India drifted northwards and crashed into Eurasia and sediments between the two were squeezed and
pushed up into the tallest mountain range on the continents.

TYPES OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

There are two types of Fold Mountains; Young fold mountains and Old Fold Mountains
A. YOUNG FOLD MOUNTAINS
- These are mountains that have been formed recently in earth’s history (about 10 to 50 million years of age)
e.g. the Rocky Mountains in North America, the Alps in Europe, the Andes in South America, the Atlas in
north Africa and the Himalayas in Asia. Himalayas are still growing in elevation even today
Characteristics of Fold Mountains
a. They are long and high
b. They are associated with volcanoes and volcanic intrusions. This is because during plate collision, faults are
formed which act as passages for magma.
c. They contain rich minerals such as tin, copper, gold and petroleum
d. They are generally found on the western continental margins except for the Himalayas. They are found on the
western sides of the continents because they are formed along convergent plate boundaries which exist on the
western sides of continents
e. They are mostly made of sedimentary rocks
Systems of young fold mountains
i. Alpine System: Example of these mountains includes the Alps, Atlas, Ararat, Jura, Caucasus, Himalayas.
ii. Circum-Pacific system: Example of these mountains includes the Rockies, Andes, Kolyama, Anadyr,
Cherskiy.
B. OLD FOLD MOUNTAINS
- These were formed in ancient times and are over 200 million years of age, e.g. Aravallis, Appalachians in
USA, the Urals between Europe and Asia
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CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD FOLD MOUNTAINS

1. They have relatively low heights because they have been subjected to weathering and erosion for so long
2. They have rounded peaks and gentle slopes
3. They are also rich in minerals like aluminium, gold and copper
EFFECTS OF FOLDING AND FOLD MOUNTAINS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Positive/ advantages
1. Some fold mountains on the path of rain bearing winds influence rainfall causing the windward slopes to
receive heavier rainfall.
2. Folding creates mountain areas that have fertile soils for farming
3. Fold mountains slopes are water catchment areas hence source of many rivers that provide water for domestic
and industrial uses. Examples of such rivers include Ganges in India for irrigation and Mississippi in North
America for electricity
4. Some fold mountains have valuable mineral deposits such as copper, tin, gold, etc which promote mining
industry
5. During folding, valuable minerals could be brought closer to the surface, making their mining easier
6. The mountains, especially in the olden days, formed a protective barrier during war against enemies on the
opposite side.
7. Fold mountain slopes are normally forested and hence source of timber used in construction industry.
Example, western Rockies which has coniferous soft woods and foothills of Himalayas which have teak.
8. The scenery created by Fold Mountains is unique and attractive to look at. Therefore, fold mountain areas are
a tourist attraction. People visit to do sports like skiing, climbing and snowboarding
Negatives/ disadvantages
1. Due to steep terrain and sometimes absence of passes, Fold Mountains act as communication barriers
especially during the construction of roads and rail lines and even installation of telephone lines.
2. The climate is cold and wet, meaning that most industrial and agricultural activity is difficult. For farmers, they
have a very short growing season
3. Folding can lead to some valuable minerals being buried deep and therefore inaccessible
4. Avalanches and rock falls which block roads and destroy settlement
5. Fold mountains on the path of rain winds cause the leeward slopes to receive less rainfall
6. Severe folding distorts the land turning it into a rugged landscape that is unsuitable for farming and settlement
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II. FAULTING
- Faulting is the fracturing/cracking of hard, brittle rocks due to tectonic forces
- Features formed from faulting includes the following
Block mountains (Horsts), Tilt blocks, Escarpments, Fault scarps, Rift valleys, Rift valley lakes, Earthquakes
and Volcanoes.
FAULTS
A fault is the fracture or crack that develop in the earth’s crust along which displacement of rocks occurs
A fault can also be described as a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rocks
When no movement has occurred, the fracture is known as a joint
Parts of a fault

a. Fault line: the intersection of a fault plane with the earth’s surface along which a crack takes place
b. Fault plane an area where crustal blocks meet and move along a fault from the fault line down into the crust.
The fault plane may be vertical in relation to the earth’s surface and if so, the fault is known as a vertical fault.
If the fault plane is slanted, the fault is known as inclined fault
c. Fault scarp: the total distance that the two sides of a fault have moved relative to each other
d. Hanging Wall: is a block of rock above an inclined fault plane
e. Footwall: is a block of rock below an inclined fault plane

TYPES OF FAULTS
 The process of faulting causes various types of faults to occur within the rocks. The types of faults that form
are largely influenced by the way tectonic forces that cause them, operate. Faults are named according to; the
type of stress that acts on the rock and the nature of the movement of the rock block either side of the
fault plane.
There are three basic types of faults; normal, reverse, and tear
a. Normal faults
 These are faults that result from tensional forces. As land is pulled apart, one block of rock strata
slides downwards against the other one. These faults have formed in the East African Rift Valley. The
block that slides downwards is called a down throw. The overlying (hanging wall) block moves down
relative to the foot wall
b. Reverse faults (Thrust fault)
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 They are caused by compressional forces. A fault occurs where the forces push towards each other
and one block of land on one side of the fault is pushed up over the other. The hanging- wall block
moves up
c. Tear or shear faults
 These are also known as strike-slip or wrench faults. They are a product of two opposing forces
which move parallel to each other. A fault forms in the region separating the two forces and the blocks
of land on both sides of the fault slide past each other. In this situation, land is displaced horizontally.
Very extensive shear faults across continents are called transform faults and are associated with
tectonic plate boundaries. The shear fault is also called transform fault

BLOCK MOUNTAINS AND RIFT VALLEYS

 A block mountain is a large block of rocks or earth’s crust that has been uplifted by earth movements
between two parallel faults
 A rift valley is flat-bottomed valley formed by the sinking of the ground between two nearly parallel faults
 Block Mountains and rift valleys are formed by rising and sinking of huge blocks of the earth’s surface relative
to the neighbouring blocks
a. Formation of block mountains and rift valleys by tensional forces
 Layers of crustal rocks are subjected to tensional forces which pull away from each other. Then lines of
weaknesses occur leading to the formation of normal faults. Then the middle block sinks downwards
forming a rift valley and leaving the side block standing upright as a block mountain

Diagrams of the formation of Block Mountains and rift valleys by tensional forces
b. Formation of block mountains by compressional forces
 When layers of the rocks are subjected to compressional forces, lines of weaknesses occur which lead to
the development of reverse faults.
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 Continued compressional forces result in the side blocks being raised relative to the central blocks. The
raised blocks of land are the Block Mountains while the central block forms a Rift Valley

Formation of Block Mountains by compression forces

Characteristics of Block Mountains
a. The faulted side is very steep
b. Usually long especially when formed along the rift valley
c. The side facing away from the faulted side is generally less steep.
d. They have nearly flat or gently sloping tops
Examples Block Mountains
a. Vosges in France
b. Hunsruck and Harz in Germany
c. Black forest in Germany
d. Ruwenzori in Uganda, Africa
e. Sierra-Nevada in North America

Types of Block Mountains

i. Tilted block mountains
These have one steep side contrasted by a gentle slope on the other side
ii. Lifted block mountains
These have flat tops and extremely steep slopes
Rift valleys have the following characteristics
a. They are bordered by very steep sides or fault lines.
b. They are long and deep
c. They have nearly flat floors due to the going down of part of the land.
d. Are associated with volcanoes and earthquakes due to the faulting that takes place.
o The most well-known rift valley is that of East Africa, the Great East African Rift Valley, which stretches from
Mozambique in the south to Syria in the north. It has a total length of 6,440 km
o The Great African Rift Valley formed when African (Nubian) plate and Somalian plate started to split from each
other
o Another example of a rift valley is the Rhine Valley between Vosges and Black Forest Mountains in Europe
Escarpments
- Escarpments are steep cliff-like slopes. Some escarpments may extend several of kilometres
- When escarpments are eroded, they become fault scarps. Examples of such escarpments in East Africa
include: Mandi (Kenya), Butiaba (Uganda), Kikuyu (Kenya), Mau (Kenya) and Lake Manyara (Tanzania)
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GENERAL POSITIVE EFFECTS OF FAULTING PROCESSES TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES
1. Agriculture
Faulting has resulted into the formation of high mountains such as Ruwenzori in Uganda, Usambara Mountains in
Tanzania and Mathew Ranges in Kenya. They are productive areas where both cash and subsistence crops
are grown
2. Result into the formation of block mountains which are utilised for tourism, influence rainfall on the wind
ward side, contain forests for lumbering and act as sources of rivers
3. Formation of rift valley lakes
The lakes are important for fishing, irrigation, mining and domestic use
4. Wildlife conservation
Faulting has resulted to formation of highlands, which have been made into National Parks and Game Reserves
e.g. slopes of the Nyandarua and Ruwenzori Mountains
5. Hydro-power generation
Fault scarps of the mountains created during faulting, and the heavy rains they receive create waterfalls such as
the Karuma Falls and Murchison Falls which may be developed into hydro-power schemes
6. Hot springs and geysers formed during faulting can be harnessed for geothermal power.
7. Mining
Creation of faults gives a chance for the formation of ore-bearing minerals and their movement through the
cracks to the upper parts of the crust.
GENERAL NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FAULTING PROCESSES
1. Faulting disrupts transport and communication by
a. Creating steep sided landforms called escarpments
b. Disjointing land
This leads to interruption of transport lines such as railways, roads and pipelines. Even construction of such
lines is difficult across escarpments. When roads are constructed they are very dangerous.
2. Faulting may cause some rivers to disappear or change its course and flow along the fault line whereby
negatively affecting people in terms of the supply of water.
3. Faulting makes mining difficult and expensive. This is because the cracks created in the crust leads to
land subsidence which eventually leads to loss of lives.
4. Faulting creates the chances of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions which destroy life and property
5. Faulting has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas when Block Mountains on the path of rain
winds cause leeward sides to receive little rainfall
III. VOLCANICITY/ VULCANICITY
- Volcanicity is the eruption of magma and volatile materials out of the interior of the earth into the earth’s crust
or onto the earth’s surface
Features formed from volcanicity
- Volcanic mountains, Lava plateaus, Crater lakes, Hot springs, Geysers and Fumaroles
Volcanic mountains (mountains of accumulations)
- Volcanic mountains are formed when materials deep within the earth, erupts, and piles upon the surface and
solidifies. These materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud.
These materials fall around the vent in successive layers, building up a cone of rock. Rock and lava pile up,
layer on top of layer
These mountains are also called mountains of accumulation because they are formed due to the piling up of
materials from the earth’s crust on to the earth’s surface.
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These mountains are common in Circum-Pacific belt and include Mount Mayon in Phillipines, Mount Merapi in
Sumatra, Mount Agung in Bali, and Mount Hood in USA.
Some volcanic mountains are found along the Great East African Rift Valley, Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania,
and Mount Kenya in Kenya.
Characteristics of volcanic mountains
a) They are frequently of great height
b) They are symmetrical in shape (this means that their sides are of equal steepness)
c) They are steep sided
d) They tend to occur in isolation
Importance of volcanicity
a. Agriculture
i. Volcanic mountains and lava plateaus provide fertile volcanic soils for agriculture
ii. Volcanic mountains also influence formation of relief rainfall which important for agriculture
b. Settlement
The highland areas created through volcanicity are densely settled since they are fertile areas
c. Tourism
Volcanic features are tourist attraction centres for foreign exchange.
d. Electricity generation
Volcanic mountains are source of rivers which provide water for domestic use and hydroelectric power
e. Lumbering
There are forest reserves on slopes of volcanic mountains which are source of timber and firewood
f. Wildlife conservation
The forests also act as wildlife conservation areas
g. Mining
Lava or magma is rich in minerals which provide revenue and employment
h. Fishing
Volcanicity result into the formation of crater or caldera lakes. These lakes support fishing, which provides food
and employment
Problems caused by volcanicity
a. Volcanic mountains are communication barriers due steepness
b. It is very expensive and risky to construct roads and railways in the hilly areas
c. Volcanic eruption leads to loss of lives and property
d. Heavy rainfall and steepness lead to soil erosion and landslides
e. Mountains act as barriers to rainfall especially on leeward side (rain shadow areas), causing drought
IV. DENUDATION
- Denudation is the collective process that involves the wearing away of the Earth’s surface by various agents of
weathering such as moving water, ice, wind and waves, leading to reduction in elevation of landforms
Features formed from denudation
o Residual mountains, Inselbergs, Dissected plateaus, Valleys, Gorges and Water falls
Residual (relict or remnant) mountains
- Residual mountains are formed as a result of erosion of an existing elevated area. This happens when the
general level of the land has been lowered by weathering and erosion, leaving behind some very hard and
resistant rocks. The hard areas stand up as residual mountains
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- Residual mountains are also formed from already existing (fold, block or volcanic) mountains which are
lowered or reduced by agents of denudation such as running water, ice and wind.

Examples of residual mountains- Monadock in USA, Scottish Highlands, Scandinavian highlands, Mulanje Mountain in
Malawi, Zomba Mountain in Malawi, Vipya plateau in Malawi
Characteristics of residual mountains
1. They have bare and very rocky walls due to erosion of loose material
2. Their peak may be sharp or rounded depending on the rock characteristic
3. They are highly dissected with valleys
4. Most residual mountains have rich deposits of bauxite from which aluminium is extracted
Inselbergs
- An inselberg is an isolated steep sided hill of solid rock that rises abruptly from a plain
- In Malawi the best-known inselbergs include Hora Mountains in Mzimba, Elephant Rock in Chikangawa Forest
on Viphya Plateau, Ntchisi Hill in Ntchisi, Mlanda in Ntcheu and Bunda Hills in Lilongwe, Sakata Hill in Zomba
and Chiradzulu Hills in Chiradzulu
Importance of denudation
a. Agriculture
i. Through weathering process, denudation creates nutrient-rich soil that allows plants and trees to
grow
ii. Rainfall received in the residual mountain areas supports a wide a range of crops and livestock
b. Tourism
- Residual mountains, plateaus, gorges, and valleys are tourist attractions centres which bring
foreign exchange.
c. Electricity generation
- These mountain areas influence rain formation which gives rise to rivers which provide water for
domestic use and hydroelectric power
d. Wildlife conservation
- The forests also act as wildlife conservation areas
e. Lumbering
- There are forest reserves on slopes of mountains which are source of timber and firewood
f. Mining
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- Denudation results in to the formation of residual mountains, which are a store house of mineral
ores especially bauxite from which aluminium is extracted
g. Stability of land
- Denudation processes decrease the steepness of slopes, leaving them more stable
Problems caused by denudation
a. Rock falls or rock slides
Rock falls occur without warning and can destroy and bury man-made structures. Mudslides commonly bury
homes
b. Damage to farms and shores
Denudation processes carry away top soil which affects farming. The actions of ocean waves can also lead to
the loss of beaches and coastal property by carrying weathered sand out to sea

UNIT 10: VOLCANISM OR VOLCANICITY

 The term volcanism is derived from the ancient Roman god of fire Vulcan
 Volcanism refers to all the various ways by which molten rocks and gases are forced into the earth’s crust and
on to its surface. Volcanism includes volcanic eruptions (formation of volcanoes and lava plateaus and
geysers), and the formation of volcanic features such as batholiths, sills, dykes, etc. in the crust
 When the molten material is beneath the earth’s crust it is called magma, and it contains gases and mineral
crystals
Ways in which magma reaches the Earth’s crust
a. Through vents. Eruption through vent is called a vent type eruption
b. Through a fissure (crack). Eruption through the fissure is called a fissure eruption
 However, once the magma reaches the earth surface it loses its gases and it is called lava
Types of Lava
A. Basic Lava
Characteristics of basic lava
a. They are very hot and highly fluid
b. They are poor in silica
c. They flow quietly affecting extensive area
d. They give rise to lava plains and plateaus
e. They are rich in iron and magnesium and are dark in colour.
B. Acid Lava
Characteristics of acid lava
a. They are viscous (thick)
b. They flow slowly
c. They are explosive (due to gases in them), often throwing out volcanic bomb or pyroclasts.
d. They give rise to steep-sided cones.
e. They are rich in silver and are light in colour.
f. They produce fine dust, ash and fragments of rocks
g. They produce rocks that are dense and lighter in colour.
What is a volcano?
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 Volcanoes are vents (openings) in the ground from which magma from the earth’s interior erupt on to the land
surface
 A volcano is also described as a mountain or a cone shaped hill formed from volcanic material ejected from a
vent
The formation of a volcano
 A volcano is formed when hot, molten rock, called magma, along with other gases and hot ash from the
interior of the earth, manages to rise up to the surface via a vent or a fissure
 While the gases get thrown into the air, the magma and ash cool down forming distinctive volcanic landforms
Parts of a volcano
a. Vent
- A fissure in the earth’s crust through which molten lava and gases erupt
b. Crater
- This is a bowl-shaped geological formation at the top of a volcano that ejects gases and magma
c. Volcanic ash
- Refers to very small solid particles of rock ejected high into the atmosphere from a volcano during an
eruption
d. Volcanic cone
- This is the pile of lava, dust, ashes, and rock around the vent. It can be found in different shapes

Based on the frequency of eruption, there are three types of volcanoes (also the stages of a
volcano’s life cycle)
1. Active volcanoes
- Active volcano is one which has recently erupted and there is possibility that it may erupt soon
- One of the most famous is the Mauna Loa of Hawaii; others include Mount Nyamlagira on the DRC-
Uganda border, Mount Etna of Italy, Cotopaxi in Ecuador are some examples
2. Dormant volcanoes
- These are volcanoes that have not erupted for long time but show signs of possible eruption in the future.
Sometimes gases and steam come out of them
- These are sleeping volcanoes waiting for active eruption. Mauna Kea is the best example, it last erupted in
2460 BC, Mt. Vesuvius of Italy, Kilimanjaro Mountain in Tanzania and Mt. Fujiyama of Japan are
examples.
3. Extinct volcanoes
- These are volcanoes that have not shown any sign of eruption during the known geological period
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- They are historically inactive and no longer have lava supply
- Elbrus Mountain in Russia, Mt. Kenya, Mt. Elgon are good examples
NB. Volcanoes become dormant and eventually extinct because the earth’s plates are constantly shifting
above volcanic hotspots. Therefore, magma finds a new source to the surface, creating a new active volcano
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES ACROSS THE WORLD
 Most known volcanic activity and the earthquakes occur along converging plate margins and mid-oceanic
ridges. The major regions of volcanic distributions are as follows.
1. Pacific Ring of Fire
 Circum-Pacific region, popularly termed the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, which extends from Southern Chile
through Central America to Alaska then turns eastwards to Kamchatka peninsula down to Japan and
proceeds to Philippines, and from there eastwards to New Guinea and ends in New Zealand.
 This belt has the greatest concentration of active volcanoes. It is estimated to include two-thirds of the
world’s volcanoes.
2. Mid-Atlantic Region
 The Mid-Atlantic Region coasts has comparatively fewer active volcanoes but many dormant or extinct
volcanoes, example. St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands. But the volcanoes of Iceland
and the Azores are active
3. The Great Rift valley of Africa
 In Africa some volcanoes are found along the East African Rift Valley. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya are
extinct volcanoes. The only active volcano in West Africa is Mt. Cameroon
4. Mediterranean Region
 Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine folds. Example, Mt. Vesuvius
and Mt. Stromboli (known as the Light House of the Mediterranean Sea).
5. Other Regions
 Elsewhere in the interiors of continents of Asia, North America and Europe active volcanoes are rare.
There are no volcanoes in Australia.

Tectonic plates and volcano formation

 Volcanic structures are usually formed at places where the tectonic plates are either diverging or converging.
 These areas are so weak that molten rock, which is under pressure below the surface easily breaks through
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A. FORMATION OF A VOLCANO AT DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
 When the two plates diverge, the underlying magma emerges from the resultant crack/fault forming a volcano

B. FORMMATION OF A VOLCANO AT CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

 When a continental and an oceanic plate collide, the heavier oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental
plate and melt thereby increasing pressure in the mantle and magma rises through continental plate to form
volcanoes

Volcanic hot spots

 While most volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, there are others which are located away from plate
boundaries in areas called hotspots.
 Hotspot is an area of the Earth’s mantle from which hot plumes rise upwards, forming volcanoes on the
overlying crust
 Hotspots are intensely hot fixed points that are situated away from plate boundaries
What causes the volcano at a hotspot?
 They occur because heat at a certain location is more in comparison to other areas of the magma chamber,
as such, a plume of magma rises and breaks through the plate into to the surface to form a volcano
 While hot spot stays in one place, rooted to its deep source of heat, the tectonic plate is slowly moving above it
carrying a volcano
 As the volcano passes the location of the hot spot, it gets cut off from its source of magma, and becomes
extinct
 As the new tectonic plates keep on coming into contact with hotspot, it goes on giving rise to new volcanoes.
This ever-continuing cycle of volcano formation and extinction, thus results in the formation of a chain of
volcanic landforms.
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Types of volcanoes on the basis of nature of eruption and form developed on the surface
 Volcanoes come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the makeup of the magma, the style of the
eruption, and how often they erupt
1. Shield volcanoes
- Shield volcanoes get their name from their shape that resemble a warrior’s shield
- They are also called Balsatic Lava Domes.
- These volcanoes are formed from basic lava that is highly fluid and therefore flow without an explosion
- It is a gently sloping and low-lying volcano with broad base that extends for several kilometres
Examples of shield volcanoes are
a. Mount Nyamlagira in D.R.C
b. Mauna Loa in Hawaii
c. Tukuyu in the Rungwe Range in Tanzania
d. Mount Marsabit in Northern Kenya
Characteristics of shield volcanoes
a. They are wide at the base and have gentle slopes
b. Lava flows out quietly and easily for great distances. The spreading lava creates the shield shape
c. Shield volcanoes are built by many layers over time and the layers are made of lava only
d. They have regular and frequent eruptions
e. Shield volcanic eruptions are non-explosive because they form from low viscous (basic)
2. Cinder Cone Volcano
- They are formed when eruptions are very violent the lava blows furiously into the air and breaks up to
small pieces called cinders
- When these fragments land to the ground, they build up and harden into a cone, e.g. Paricutin Volcano in
Mexico
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Characteristics of cinder cones

a. Cinder cone volcanoes have bowl shaped crater
b. They have tall and very steep sides
c. They have explosive eruptions, which produce a lot of cinder and ash
3. Composite volcanoes

 Composite volcanoes are also called Strato volcanoes are formed from alternating eruptions of thick lava
and ash.
 These eruptions may sometimes recur over thousands of years, building up tall mountains. Mount Vesuvius
and Mount St. Helens are examples of composite volcanoes.
Characteristics of composites volcanoes
a. Are tall with narrow base and steep sides. Most of the earth’s tallest volcanoes are composite volcanoes
b. Have both a central vent and a number of side vents where lava comes out
c. Are made of alternate layers of lava and ash
d. Have irregular eruptions with long dormant periods
e. Build from both explosive and effusive eruptions
Extrusive and intrusive features formed from a volcano
 Magma while thrusting its way up to the surface may cool and solidify within the crust as plutonic rocks
resulting in intrusive landforms.
 Magma that reaches the surface and solidifies, forms extrusive landforms
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Intrusive features of a volcano
 Features that are formed when magma cools and solidifies before reaching the surface. Examples include
batholiths, laccoliths, lapoliths, phaccolith, plutons, stocks, sills and dykes
But what makes some magma to cool and solidify inside the earth’s crust? Here are suggestions
a. The strength of the rocks above the magma. When such rocks are hard, prevent magma form rising to the top.
b. The pressure of magma if it is very low, it cannot reach the top surface. This makes it to cool and solidify within
the crust.
The following are the intrusive features formed when magma cools and solidifies inside the
Earth’s crust
1. Batholith
- A batholith is a very large body of igneous rock with irregular shape formed beneath the earth’s surface
- Batholiths are formed due to intrusion, cooling and solidification of magma inside the earth’s crust
often at great depths.
- They are made of granite and appear on the surface only after the removal of the overlying materials
through denudation e.g. water through erosion and air through moving wind.
2. Laccolith
- Laccoliths are large dome-shaped intrusive rock connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.
- It is formed when magma rises through the Earth’s crust and forces its way between two layers of
sedimentary rock and spreads horizontally and then magma pressure forces the overlying rock layers to
carve upwards, giving the laccolith its dome-like shape e.g. Navajo mountain
- The laccoliths lie close to the earth’s surface but the magma does not reach the surface
3. Sills
- A sill is a flat sheet of igneous rock that lie along between layers of rock
- These are formed when magma rises into the Earth’s crust and then encounter a layer of more resistant
rock and then spread laterally/horizontally and solidifies to form a sill
- It is believed that the sills are formed from very fluid magma and hence tend to cover a wide area
- Some sills form a ridge-like escarpment when exposed by erosion
4. Dyke
- A dyke is sheet of igneous rock that cuts vertically across existing layers of rock
- A dyke/dike is formed when a mass of magma cut across the layers of rocks and solidifies
5. Lapolith
- This is a large saucer-shaped body of igneous rock intruded between layers of sedimentary rock.
- It is formed when magma rises into the Earth’s crust and spreads out laterally and as the magma cools
and solidifies, it contracts and becomes more dense causing it to concave downwards
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Extrusive features
 Features that are formed when magma cools and solidifies on the surface of the earth
 The good examples include volcanic mountains, volcanic islands, lava plateaus, Mid-Ocean Ridges, Calderas,
hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, etc.
1. Volcanic islands
- Formed due to volcanic eruption under water which forms tall ridges, e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- The ridge rises above the surface of water, thus giving rise to ‘oceanic islands. A good example is
Iceland in Northern Atlantic Ocean and also Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean
2. Lava plateaus
- These are formed by the large outpourings of fluid lava from long narrow openings in the crust
3. Calderas
- Are formed when a composite volcano explodes violently that its top is blown off leaving a crater which
is greatly enlarged by inward collapse of a volcano. When water accumulates in a crater it is called a
caldera lake
4. Hot spring
- Are areas of natural hot water that bubbles to the surface from the ground
- They occur when underground water is heated up by hot rocks beneath the surface. The heated water
rises through cracks in the ground
- The hot springs are common along the rift valleys because fault lines in the rift valley provide areas
where water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by hot volcanic rocks
- Malawi has 21 hot springs. Examples of hot springs in Malawi are Mawira at Liwonde and Mphizi at
Chiweta in Rumphi district
5. Geysers
- Geysers are fountain of hot water and super-heated steam periodically shooting out of the ground in a
spectacular fashion
- They are caused when underground chambers of water are heated to the boiling point by volcanic
rocks
- The jet of water is usually emitted with an explosion, and often triggered off by gases seeping out of the
heated rocks
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6. Fumaroles
- Fumaroles are holes in volcanic areas from which steam and hot gases are emitted
- Fumaroles are similar to geysers, but releases burst of hot gases instead of water
- They occur when volcanic activity is dying.
7. Volcanic mountains
- Volcanic mountains are formed when materials deep within the earth, erupts, and piles upon the
surface and solidifies.
Benefits of volcanic activities to human activities
i. Ash that fall may change the soil to become fertile
ii. They give rise to beautiful and attractive sceneries and these do attract tourists. E.g. Mount Kenya and Mount
Kilimanjaro
iii. Volcanoes form new land masses and islands for settlement and other activities
iv. They bring about precious minerals that are of economic important e.g. Diamond.
v. Some volcanoes produce geothermal energy which can be used in homes and industries e.g. geothermal
energy is used to produce electricity in Mexico.
vi. They produce hot water through spring which is used by people to heat homes.
vii. Volcanic mountains may lead to the formation of relief rainfall or ice caps which are a source of many rivers.
Rivers may provide water for domestic use and generate hydro-electric power
viii. They help scientists to know about the interior of the earth
Problems caused by volcanoes
1. Pyroclastic flows engulf and burn everything in their path including people and wildlife
2. Eruption of volcanoes may cause large waves in oceans and seas called (Tsunami) which affects coastal
areas.
3. Lava flows can destroy settlements and clear areas of woodland or agriculture and a large number of people
are forced to desert their homes and land forever
4. Carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes adds to the natural greenhouse effect. Sulphur dioxide cause
environmental problems, because they are converted to sulphuric acid in the stratosphere; the main cause of
acid rain
5. Surfaces of volcanoes remain barren for long time and some remain rugged to cross
6. Volcanic ash clouds can disrupt aircraft travel
7. Violence features especially mountains act as barriers to communication and rainfall especially on the leeward
side (rain shadow areas), causing aridity

UNIT 11: EARTHQUAKES

Definition of earthquake
 Earthquake refers to a sudden earth movements or vibrations in the earth’s crust produced by a rapid release
of energy. Alternatively, it can be defined as
 Sudden shaking or vibration of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks
Causes of earthquake
- Earthquakes can naturally occur or can be human induced
The following are natural causes of Earthquakes
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1. Plate collision
- Converging movement of tectonic plates which generate a lot of force that cause the ground to shake
2. Faulting
- One tectonic plate sliding over or past another plate along the line of fault. This causes rocks to grind
against one another causing the ground to vibrate e.g. at San Andreas Fault in California
3. Gravitative pressure
- The force of gravity acts on the rocks of the earth’s crust lying over the empty chambers left when
magma escapes to the surface. The rocks collapse inwards and this causes the ground to shake.
4. Explosive volcanic eruptions
- Explosive volcanic eruptions exert a lot of pressure which causes rocks of the earth’s crust to vibrate.
This leads to seismic waves which cause the earthquake. E.g. Krakatoa eruption in 1883 caused
massive Earthquake there
- Magma moving within the earth can also make the crust to shake
However, earthquakes are also formed by the following human causes which are not as severe as caused
by the above processes
5. Underground nuclear tests
- Atomic or nuclear tests which are usually conducted below the earth surface, may trigger vibrations felt
on the earth’s surface in form of earthquakes or tremors
6. Use of explosives in mining and dam construction
- Deep mining, quarrying and dam construction sometimes require use of explosives (e.g. dynamite) to
loosen the rocks. These trigger vibrations in rock structures around causing the earth’s surface to
shake
7. Fluid injection into the ground (Fracking)
- When fluids are injected into the ground, pressure on faults increases and this increases the chances
of tectonic plates slipping hence triggering Earthquakes

Nature of earthquakes
- The point inside the Earth where an Earthquake originates is called a focus. The point on the Earth
surface directly above focus is known as epicentre. The epicentre is where shock waves first hit earth’s
surface. Shock waves give rise to earthquakes or vibrations which cause a great deal of damage.

- Based on focal depths, earthquakes are grouped into three

i. Shallow-focus earthquakes
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- These earthquakes occur at the depth of less than 70 km are classified as
ii. ‘Mid-focus’ or intermediate-focus’ earthquakes.
- Those with a focal-depth of between 70 and 300 km
iii. Deep focus earthquakes
- may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometres)
Shallow earthquakes cause most damage because the focus is near the earth surface where people live
- The earthquake is strongest at the epicentre because it is where the waves first reach the ground
Types of seismic waves
 Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth carrying energy released during an earthquake
Seismic waves are categorised into two as follows
1. Body waves
o These can travel through the interior of the earth
o Body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake
o These waves are of higher frequency than surface waves
Body waves are categorised into two types according to the relative direction of disturbance with
respect to direction of propagation
a. P waves or primary waves
 They are the fastest kind of seismic wave which travel through the interior of the earth
 They are able to travel through solid rocks such granite, and liquid material, such as volcanic
magma
 They push and pull rock they move through, causing the ground to buckle and fracture
b. S waves or secondary waves
 They are the second wave felt in an earthquake
 They move the ground up and down, and side to side
 They only move through solid rock as a liquid is not rigid enough to transmit an S wave.
2. Surface waves
o These are restricted to near the ground surface
o Though they arrive after the body waves, it is surface waves that are almost entirely responsible for
the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes
o This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquake
o The surface waves are also divided into two as follows
a. Love (L) waves
 Named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for
this kind of wave in 1911
 It’s the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at
right angles to the direction of propagation
 The horizontal shaking of Love waves is particularly damaging to the foundation structures
b. Rayleigh (R) waves
 Named after John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence
of this wave in 1885
 They move both vertically and horizontally just like rolling ocean waves
 They travel slowly than body waves (P and S), and of the two surface waves
 Love waves travel faster than Rayleigh waves
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 Love wave do not propagate through water, whereas Rayleigh waves, because of the vertical
component of their motion, can affect the bodies of water such as lakes
Differences between body and surface waves
Body waves Surface waves
They travel through the interior of the Earth They travel along the Earth’s surface
They travel faster They travel slower
MEASUREMENT OF AN EARTHQUAKE
 Earthquakes are measured in terms of intensity and magnitude.
Magnitude of an earthquake
 This is the total amount of energy released by an earthquake.
 The magnitude of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called Seismograph which records vibrations
or waves of the earthquake.
 Seismologists (people who study earthquakes) use magnitude scales to measure and compare magnitudes
of different earthquakes
 The waves recorded by seismograph are compared on magnitude scale to measure the magnitude and the
famous magnitude scale is a Richter scale
 Richter scale was devised in 1935 by an American geologist known as Charles Richter in 1935.
 Richter scale are given numbers with a range from 0 to 10.
 The Richter scale is logarithmic: an earthquake measured at 7 is 10 times stronger than one measured at 6
and 100 times stronger than one measured at 5.
 The higher the number on the scale the more destructive the earthquake
 Earthquakes with smaller magnitude are called earth tremors
Intensity of an earthquake
 It is the measure of the degree of damage to the surface and effects on humans
 Intensity largely depends on observations of effects on the crust, not actual ground motions recorded by
seismographs
 The Mercalli scale, invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, uses the observations of people who
experienced the earthquake to estimate its intensity
 It classifies the effects of an earthquake on a scale using Roman numerals from I to XII, and takes into account
the effects on the Earth’s surface, people and buildings.
The Mercalli scale of Earthquake intensity
I Is rarely ever felt by people but rather instruments
II–IV Feeble to moderate effects; felt by people, but no damage
V-VII Strong effects, causing panic but only slight damage
VIII Destructive to poorly built structures but only slight damage to those well
designed
IX-XII Ruinous, disastrous, very disastrous to catastrophic
with almost total destruction
 While intensity helps to determine how much of an area was affected, the amount of damage
caused by the earthquake may not accurately record how strong it was because of the
following reasons
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a. The way in which seismic waves travel varies as they pass through the crust and surface material the
building rest on. Solid rock usually shakes less than sand, so a structure built on top of solid rock should
not be as damaged as it might if it was sitting on a sandy lot
b. Different building designs hold up differently in an earthquake, some buildings can withstand the violent
shaking of an earthquake while others cannot
c. Some of the witnesses of the earthquake might exaggerate just how bad things were during the
earthquake
NB. Earthquake can have the same magnitude but different intensities because intensity varies with
location
Earthquakes are much more damaging in less economically developed countries than in more
economically developed countries because
a. Buildings are poorly built and often cannot resist shock waves
b. Buildings are often made of heavy, local or rock and when they collapse, the people inside have the little
chance to survive
c. Most of the poor countries are unable to mount a quick rescue operation because their emergency
services are usually few in number and not well trained
World earthquake zones
 The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt (the Ring of Fire), which affects many populated
coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean. For example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the
Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the Western coasts off North and South America

Earthquake zones are marked in shaded. Black dots indicate active volcanoes and open dots dead zones.
Effects of earthquakes
 The effects of earthquakes are grouped into two; primary and secondary effects
 Primary effects are the immediate damage caused by an earthquake whereas secondary effects are often
effects of the earthquake
a. Primary effects of earthquakes
i. Collapsing of buildings such as houses thereby killing people inside them
ii. Damaging communication lines such as roads, bridges and railways
iii. Services such as water and electricity maybe disrupted
b. Secondary effects of an earthquake
i. Causes fire as earthquakes destroy gas pipes and electricity wires causing fire to spread. This fire
may destroy cities.
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ii. Cause tidal waves known as tsunami when an earthquake has its focus in seas and oceans. These
huge tidal waves destroy houses of people living along low-lying coastal areas. For example, on
26th December 2004, a tsunami happened across Asian countries of Indonesia, India, and China
leaving many people homeless while 300,000 died.
iii. Landslides especially in steep river- valleys and areas of weak sand and clays. In 1970 an earth
quake of magnitude 7.8 in Peru caused a huge landslide high in the Andes Mountains which killed
20,000 people.
iv. Diseases such as typhoid and cholera spread easily when burst pipes lead to shortages of fresh water
and to contamination from sewage
Relationships among Fold Mountains, Earthquakes and Volcanic Zones
a. They all result from movements of the earth’s crust
b. They all occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates
c. They have a causal connection with each other i.e. the formation of each is associated with the other
 As molten rock forces its way through the upper parts of a volcano’s interior the ground shakes, causing
minor earthquakes
 Similarly, earthquakes can lead to volcanic eruptions; violent shaking of the ground during an
earthquake can create fractures and other ground disturbances that can affect shallow magma
reservoirs, hence causing volcanic eruption.
HOW DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS COULD BE APPLIED IN MOUNTAIN
BUILDING ZONES (Measures to Avoid Disastrous Effects of Earthquakes and volcanoes)
i. Awareness campaigns to people living in disaster prone areas
ii. Complying with warning and orders by Seismologist. People should be taught how to prepare to respond to
earthquake, volcanoes and landslides
iii. Buildings should be erected away from vulnerable areas e.g. along fault line or near dormant volcanoes.
iv. Building in areas that often experience earthquakes should be furnished with materials that can absorb the
shock of the earthquake, thereby sparing them from collapsing.
v. Buildings should be made from materials that cannot easily get disintegrated e.g. wood materials, plastic or
fiberglass.
vi. Settlement should be prohibited near or on the hill side of volcano
vii. People should be relocated to safer areas

UNIT 12: ROCKS

Definition of a rock
- A rock is any naturally formed aggregate of mineral particles whether hard or soft.
Rocks are classified according to the following factors
1. Texture
2. Structure
3. Permeability
4. Degree of resistance to erosion
NB. Generally rocks may be classified according to origin and appearance
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Types of rocks
- There are three types of rocks based on how they are formed; igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
1. Igneous rocks
- The name comes from Latin word ‘ignis’ which means fire.
- These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
Formation of igneous rocks (flow diagram)

Characteristics of Igneous rocks

i. They are crystalline (contain crystals) in nature
ii. They do not have layers
iii. They contain no fossils due to high heat when forming, so all fossils get burnt
iv. They are less dense and lighter in colour e.g. granite
v. They contain basic oxides formed from magnesium or aluminium
vi. They contain high proportion of silica which are said to be acidic
Classes of Igneous Rocks
- There are two groups of igneous rocks based on where they are formed; intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive
(volcanic) rocks
a. Plutonic or intrusive rocks
- These are formed when magma cools deep down the earth crust and have large crystals because they
cool slowly.
- Magma that forms intrusive igneous rocks cools slowly deep under the earth’s surface because
temperatures are very relatively high.
- Examples are granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite and pragmatite
b. Volcanic or extrusive rocks
- These are formed when magma cools on the surface of the earth and have small crystals because they
cool faster. Magma cools quickly due to low temperature and crystals have no time to grow
- Examples of these rocks are obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, andesite, komatiite, basalt etc.
2. Sedimentary rocks
 The sediments are pieces of earth that have eroded or worn away and washed downstream into water
bodies and settled out
 As subsequent layers of sediment are laid over previous layers, the pressure from the weight causes the
underlying sediments to harden into a rock
 There are two major classes of sedimentary rocks, clastic and non-clastic
a. Clastic sedimentary rocks (mechanically or physically formed)
- These are made from the broken particles of other rocks. Examples include Sandstone and Shale
Formation of clastic sedimentary
- These rocks are formed when an existing rock is broken after being subjected to weathering and form
[Link] sediments are transported by wind and water and are deposited in shallow areas
(lowlands and basins) such as a geosyncline where they settle and accumulate in layers. With time,
the layers are compressed and consolidated into hard rock by weight of overlying materials. Finally, the
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layers get compacted and cemented together to form sedimentary rocks by a process called
lithification

b. Non-Clastic sedimentary rocks

- These are formed from chemical and organic substances. Non-clastic sedimentary rocks are divided into
two as well types
i. Organic sedimentary rocks: these rocks are made from accumulation of the remains of living
things such as plants and skeletons of animals, e.g. coal, chalk and limestone
Formation of organic sedimentary rocks
o These are formed when fossils or the remains of plants and skeletons of marine animals
accumulate in water bodies (ocean and lakes) while others are buried on land where they
accumulate in layers. With time, these remains are cemented or compacted together under hot,
wet conditions by the weight of overlying materials to form rocks
o The best examples are coal from plant remains and limestone from animal fossils
ii. Chemical sedimentary rocks:
Formation of chemical sedimentary rocks
They are formed in two ways
1. These rocks are formed when minerals found in existing rocks dissolve in water. These
minerals are transported in solution form and deposited in lakes and seas. Minerals then
precipitate and accumulate on the sea bed in layers which harden to form rocks
2. Others are formed when minerals dissolved in water are left behind when solution evaporates
o Examples include rock salt (evaporate) and gypsum (precipitate), nitrates and borax
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks
a. They have layered appearance. This is because they are formed from sediments that were deposited on
top of each other over time
b. They contain fossils, that is, they are fossilized. This is because they form in environments where there
are a lot plant and animal life
c. They are non-crystalline, that is, they do not contain crystals
d. They are soft rocks or porous rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic comes from Greek word meta-morphe which means change of form
 These are rocks which are originally igneous or sedimentary but have changed character and appearance
due to application of intense heat, pressure, water and air.
 Air molecules enter rocks through their holes and react chemically with different rock elements and
thereby changing their composition
Examples of these rocks include;
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i. Slate which changed from clay
ii. Marble which changed from limestone.
iii. Quartzite which changed from sandstone
iv. Schist changed from shale
v. Graphite changed from coal
Their formation
 These rocks are formed when already existing rock is exposed to great heat and pressure and their mineral
grains are rearranged to form new metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic rocks are grouped into two
b. Foliated: when the existing rock are rearranged into layer to form new metamorphic rocks e.g. slate
from shale, gneiss from granite
c. Non-Foliated: form when an existing rock do not form layers. Marble from limestone and graphite
from coal
Any rock can be changed into metamorphic rock
 Heat: this causes minerals to re-crystallize
 Pressure: this alters/changes the rock structure
 Water: dissolves some rock materials thereby changing the composition of the rock
 Air: move through the rock pores and come into contact with different rock elements changing its
composition
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks
a. Most are sufficient course-grained
b. Rocks are almost invariably layered. In some cases, layered arrangement is probably inherited from
sedimentary bedding. In other cases, layering is probably developed by metamorphic processes
c. The rocks are harder than equivalent sedimentary rocks
d. They contain grains which are generally quite intergrown with each other
e. Some rocks contain fossils that have been greatly distorted out of their original shape. These can originate
from sedimentary rocks
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AND AMONG THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCKS
Rock Cycle
 The rock cycle is the process in which rocks transform from one rock type into another under different
conditions
 Each of the three types of rocks i.e. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks may form on the expense of
another
 Sedimentary rocks can form from weathering, erosion, deposition and lithification of other rock material, either
igneous, metamorphic, or other sedimentary rocks.
 Metamorphic rocks are formed when intense heat and/or pressure are applied to sedimentary or igneous rocks
 Any of these three rocks can melt to form magma, which later solidifies to form igneous rocks
 This relationship of rocks continues on and on, creating a type of natural recycling of rocks.
 Below the diagram depicting the rock cycle
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ROCKS

a. Rocks weather to give fertile soils suitable for farming
b. Some rocks are used as building materials. For instance
i. Sandstone for road surfacing
ii. Limestone is used for making cement
c. Some rocks act as underground water stores. Therefore. boreholes are then sunk to get this water to be
used
d. Igneous rocks contain mineral deposits such as gold, silver, zinc, and copper. These are mined and
economically used. For example, diamond in South Africa.
e. Some rocks such as coal acts as source of fuel. Coal is used in thermal energy production
f. Sedimentary rocks are used to date the past since they occur in layers. The lowest or the most bottom layer is
the oldest and upper most, the youngest.
g. For human consumption e.g., Rock salt (halite) which used for making table salt

UNIT 13: RIVERINE LANDFORMS

 Riverine landforms are features produced by the rivers as they interact with geology and topography of
the land
 They include waterfalls, rapids, gorges, valleys, meanders, oxbow lakes, levees, flood plains, deltas and
estuaries
1. Waterfalls
- A waterfall is a steep drop in the course of a river
Formation
- Waterfall is formed when a band of hard resistant (cap rock) rock lies over softer and less resistant
rock. The softer rock is quickly eroded, causing a step in the riverbed.
- The great force of falling water and rocks carried by a river cut into the land and the foot of the
waterfall, creating a depression known as a plunge pool at the foot of the waterfall
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- Examples of waterfalls include; The Angel Falls in Venezuela which is the world’s highest waterfall at
979 metres. Other well-known falls include the Victoria Falls of the Zambezi River, Niagara Falls in
North Africa, Inga Falls of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nkula and Tedzani Falls in Malawi.
2. Rapids
- Rapids are a series of very short and fast waterfalls. At the rapids, the river is shallow and flowing very
quickly over rocks, boulders and stones sticking out the water level
Formation of rapids
- Rapids are formed when a river flows through an area of alternating bands of resistant and less
resistant rocks. The less-resistant rocks are eroded more quickly, resulting in more resistant rocks are
at a higher level compared to the less resistant rocks.
- Therefore, this results in the river falling in a series of steps along the bands of resistant rocks to form
rapids
- A series of rapids is called a Cataract
3. Gorges
- A gorge is a narrow valley between hills or mountains, typically with steep rocky walls and a river
running through it or it may not have a river. A gorge and a canyon are just the same thing
Formation of a gorge
- Gorges are formed as a result of vertical erosion of the river bed due to river flowing along the fault.
The speed of water from the slope flowing downhill creates the steep sides on the gorge
- It may also be caused by rejuvenation, when a river begins to cut downwards into its channel
- Examples are Mpatamanga gorge on Shire River and steep Ruo Gorge at Minunu on the Mulanje
Massif
4. Meanders
- Meanders are bends in a river’s course or channel
Formation of meanders
- Meanders form when water in the river erodes the banks on the outside of the channel. The water
deposits sediments on the inside of the channel
5. Ox-bow lakes
- It is a crescent shaped lake lying alongside a winding river
Formation of Ox-bow Lake
- Forms when the neck of the meander becomes narrow and narrower as the outer banks of a meander
continue to be eroded through processes such as hydraulic action
- Eventually, the two outer bends meet due to the narrowing of the neck and the river cuts through the
neck of a meander usually during a flood event when the energy of a river is at its highest
- Deposition gradually seals off the old meander bend forming a new straight river channel. The old
meander bend is left isolated from the main channel as an oxbow lake
Importance of oxbow lake
a. Animal habitats: the still fresh water in an oxbow lake creates a significant aquatic habitat for wetland
and marshland
b. Water retention: they act as a sponge for returning water that is dispersed slowly during dry seasons,
thereby providing water to plants animals at a time when other sources have dried up
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c. Flood control: oxbow lakes also capture flood waters during rainy season, slowing the land erosion
and property destruction of an overflowing river
6. Floodplains
- A floodplain is the wide, flat area of land on either side of the river in its middle and lower courses
- A floodplain includes both a river and the flat land surrounding it

Formation of floodplains
- A floodplain forms through both erosion and deposition. The river’s lateral erosion as its meanders
widens the valley.
- When the river overflows, water pours into its banks and as it drains away, the fine material (alluvium)
is deposited. This creates a floodplain
- Examples: Lower Shire Basin in Malawi, lower Amazon basin in Brazil, Mississippi Plain in USA, Benue
River in Nigeria, Lower Nyando River in Kenya, Lower Rufiji River in Tanzania etc.
Importance of floodplain
a. They are very fertile areas due to deposition of nutrients from upstream, hence good for agriculture
b. They accommodate flood waters, thereby making the floods less severe and delaying the onset of
flooding further downstream
c. They often include wetlands, which have high wildlife value
7. Levees
- Levees are natural walls of silt along the banks of a river channel, which are often several metres
higher than the floodplain
- They provide natural protection against flooding
8. Deltas
- A fan-shaped alluvial area at the mouth of a river is called a delta.
- Deltas are formed at the end of rivers (mouth) as it flows into the sea or a lake
Formation of a delta
- When a river reaches the lake or sea, the water slows down and loses the power to carry sediments.
- The materials it has not yet dropped are deposited at the mouth which builds up over the years
- Due to obstruction caused by the deposited alluvium, the river may empty its water through several
channels called distributaries.
Conditions necessary for the formation of a delta
a. The load carried by the river must be large and heavy enough to be deposited at the mouth
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b. The river should flow slowly as it enters the sea. This allows suspended material and other sediments
to be deposited
c. The river should deposit sediments faster than the sea is able to remove them, so the delta grows
outward into the sea
d. Presence of shallow water at the point where the river enters the sea or lake to facilitate deposition.
e. There should be no obstacle along the channel to prevent filtering the materials
f. There should be obstacles such as sandbars at the mouth of the river which block the river forcing it
to deposit its load.
Types of deltas
 Deltas vary in shape, depending on the conditions that created them. The following are the most common
types of deltas:
1. Arcuate delta
- It is fan-shaped with many active, short distributaries taking sediments to their mouths
- They are called arcuate deltas because the outside edge has a very regular shape, just like the arc of a
circle. e.g. Nile River

2. Bird’s-foot delta
- Shaped like a foot of a bird, this delta tends to have one very few major distributaries near their mouths
- A broad, shallow shelf deepens abruptly, so tributaries grow long and thin like a bird’s toes. The
Mississippi River has this type of delta
3. Estuarine delta
- This type of delta has a river that empties into long, narrow estuary that eventually becomes filled with
sediment (inside the coastline) e.g. Seine River in France, the mouth of River Zambezi, River Elbe,
Rhine River, River Vistula in Poland and River Zaire.
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4. Cuspate (tooth shaped)

- This usually has one distributary emptying into a flat coastline with regular wave action hitting it
head-on. It is shaped like a tooth e.g. Tiber River in Italy and River Ebro in Spain
Why do People live in Deltas?
1. Agriculture: the soil in delta areas id generally fertile and easy to cultivate. The freshwater of the river can
be used for irrigation
2. Fishing: there are rich fishing grounds because of the deposition of sediments which provide nutrients for
growth of planktons. Planktons are food for fish and therefore attract large shoals of fish. This makes people to
settle closer to delta areas for fishing
3. Transportation: many of the world’s major ports are situated at the mouth of delta forming rivers e.g.
Rotterdam harbour in Rhine Delta of Netherlands and Shanghai in China
4. Mining: Oil and gas are often related to delta regions, for example in the Niger Delta (Nigeria)
5. Tourism: Delta areas inspire great interest to many tourists
Problems of living in delta areas
1. Flooding: Deltas are vulnerable to flooding due to sinking of deltas due to the following reasons
a. Sediment compaction due to removal of gas, oil and water from the delta’s underlying sediments
b. Upstreaming trapping of sediments in dams and reservoirs
c. Rising sea level due to melting of glaciers and ice caps due to global warming
d. Increased frequency of storms and tsunamis
2. Pollution: deltas being areas of intensive agriculture, settlements and industrialisation also see large
amounts of nutrient inputs from fertilisers or sewage which reach coastal waters resulting in eutrophication
(depletion of oxygen in water) and pollution related problems
3. Ecosystem collapse
a. Dams, barrage, water diversion into irrigation canals, and exploitation of groundwater aquifers have
reduced the flow of water and sediments into the delta and this has resulted in increased loss of
estuarine flora and fauna.
b. Construction of ports and coastal structures has also disrupted ecosystems in delta regions
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UNIT 14: COASTAL LANDFORMS

 A coast is a broad area of land that borders the sea or lake.

 Erosion and deposition constantly shape this area of land into various spectacular features
A. EROSIONAL FEATURES
1. Headland/ Point
- A Headland is a piece of land that juts into the sea from the mainland coastline.
- It is made up of hard rock resistant to erosion. It usually forms between bays and is surrounded by
water on three sides
Formation
- They are formed when the sea attacks a section of the coast consisting of alternating bands of hard
and soft rock. The soft rocks erode more quickly than the more resistant hard rock. The resistant rock
would form a headland.
- The headland of large size is called a Cape. Examples of headlands or points are Bua point,
Namikombe point and Kambiri point and some examples of famous capes around the world are Cape
of Good Hope, south Africa, Cape Town South Africa, Cape Maclear
2. Bays
- It is a body of water that is surrounded by land on three sides
- They are areas where soft rocks have been eroded forming sheltered bays from strong winds and
water waves. Bays are found between headlands where there alternating outcrops of resistant rock and
less resistant rock
- They are popularly used as ports. e.g. Senga Bay, Monkey Bay, Koko Bay and Nkhatabay
3. Lagoon
- It is a body of water that is partly or completely surrounded by land.
Formation
- It forms when a ridge of sand develops across the entrance of a bay or concave coastline. The partly or
completely cut off body of water is called a lagoon e.g. Chia lagoon.
4. Spit
- It is a long, narrow ridge of deposited materials that extends from mainland into the lake or sea.
- It is formed when long-shore drifts occur on a coastline, across the entrance of a bay
- Long-shore drift is the movement of sediments along the coast parallel to the shore line. The drift’s
sediment is then deposited where the water deepens forming a spit. e.g. Sungu spit in Malawi
5. Island
- An Island is a body of land which is completely surrounded by water. The following are predominant
types of islands
a. Continental islands
Formation
i. Earth’s shifting continents breaking apart.
 They were formed when the Pangaea broke apart into several pieces which began to drift apart.
When the breakup occurred, some large chunks of land split and became islands e.g. Greenland,
Australia and Madagascar are continental islands
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ii. Changes in sea level
 As the water rises due to rise in temperature and melting of glaciers, ocean floods the low- lying
areas, creating islands such as British Isles, which were once part of mainland Europe
b. Volcanic islands, also known as oceanic islands
Formation
o They are formed by when the two plates pull apart, lava erupts to form an undersea ridge. Layers of lava
build up until a ridge breaks the water’s surface to form an island
NB volcanic islands often occur in groups or chains. A chain of islands that are close to one another is called
archipelago. The Aleutian Islands of Alaska and Hawaiian Islands are both archipelagos
c. Coral islands
o These are low islands that are formed in warm waters by tiny sea animals called corals
Formation
 Formed when sea animals called corals build up hard external skeletons of calcium carbonate
 Colonies of corals may form huge reefs. Some coral reefs may grow up in thick layers from the
sea floor, until they break the water’s surface, creating coral islands.
 Other organic and inorganic material, like rock and sand, helps create coral islands. The islands
of Bahamas, in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, are coral islands
d. Barrier islands
o Barrier islands are narrow and lie parallel to coastlines. Some are part of continental shelf (continental
islands) and made of sediment; sand, silt, and gravel
o They are called barrier islands because they act as barriers between the ocean and the mainland
o They protect the coast from being directly battered by storm waves and winds
6. Tombolo
- A Tombolo is a sandbar that connects an island to the mainland. Once attached, the island is then
known as tied island. Tombolos are often formed where a spit continues to grow by longshore drift,
joining land to an offshore island
- A well-known example of a Tombolo is Chesil Beach in Dorset, South West England
7. Peninsula
- It is a piece of land that is almost surrounded by water but connected to mainland by an isthmus
- Isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting a peninsula to the mainland. e.g. Nankumba Peninsula
and Arabian Peninsula is the world’s largest
8. Fjords
- Fjord is a Norwegian word that means ‘long arms of the sea’
- Basically, fjords are valleys that were carved out by glaciers long ago and then flooded by water
- It is a long, narrow sea inlet that is bordered by steep cliff.
- Fjords are deep because they are formed by heavy glaciers that erode the bottoms of river valleys.
9. Gulf
- It is an arm of a sea or ocean that extends into land. It is larger than a bay and connected with the sea
with one or more straits e.g. Gulf of Mexico.
10. Strait
- It is a narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water. e.g. strait of Gibraltar
- If the passage is long and wide, it is called channel or sound e.g. The English Channel.
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11. Estuary
- An estuary is the point where a river drains its waters at the mouth into a larger water body.
- Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments and are subject
to both marine influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment
OTHER COSTAL FEATURES
Include, caves, arches, stumps, deferred mouth, littoral plains etc.
IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL LANDFORMS
1. For tourism – many people visit coastal landforms to watch wildlife, fish, swim and site see.
2. Transportation: They serve as harbours and ports e.g. bay. They act as route ways e.g. estuary,
straits/channels.
3. Fishing: Estuaries, bays and lagoons support plankton growth hence are habitats for fish and ecosystems.
4. Settlement: Capes, peninsulas, bays and other coastal features attract human settlement for fishing,
transportation, industry and trade.
5. Wildlife habitats: Birds, fish, amphibians, insects and other wildlife depend on coastal landforms to live, feed,
nest and reproduce.
6. Electricity generation: some coastal landforms such as lagoons and estuaries are dammed to generate tidal
energy.

UNIT 15: RELIEF FEATURES OF THE OCEAN BASINS

Relief features of the ocean basins

Oceanic basin
This refers to the nature or the view of the oceanic floor from the shoreline to the ocean or sea. This oceanic basin has
several relief features that lie below the water level.

Fig 15.1: Relief features of the ocean basin

The following are the relief features that are found on the ocean floors
2. Continental shelf
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- Continental shelf is the submerged part of a continent that stretches from the coastline towards the ocean
basin. Examples of places with continental shelf include western coast of South America, Canada and the
coast of Greenland.
Characteristics of continental shelves
a) It is gently sloping
b) It has fairly smooth surface
c) It varies in width from place to place i.e. in it wider in some areas while narrower in other areas
d) It is shallow and this favour the growth of planktons
e) It has deep canyons which were formed through various processes like river erosion and faulting
Significance of continental shelves
a) They enable sunlight to penetrate due to their shallowness. This allows planktons to photosynthesise and
multiply abundantly and they are therefore good fishing grounds
b) A large quantity of the world’s petroleum and natural gas is obtained from continental shelves
c) Coral reefs that have a variety of uses are common on the continental shelf
d) It is a source of minerals such as sand and gravel
Disadvantages of continental shelves
a) They can hinder shipping and other marine activities since ships can only enter and leave a port on a tide
3. Continental slope
- This is a steep slope that extends from the edge of the continental shelf to the deep sea plain. It is often cut by
massive underwater canyons (submarine canyons) and gorges
Characteristics of continental slope
a) It has submarine canyons
b) It has depth of 1200 metres
4. Continental rise
- Continental rise is the gently inclined slope between the base of the continental slope and the deep ocean
floor.
- This is known as the continental apron. It is covered by sediments which are moved from the continental
shelf by powerful storms and waves or by earthquakes.
- The continental shelf, slope, and rise are known collectively as the continental margin
5. Abyssal plain or deep-sea plain
- Abyssal plains are the deepest regions of the ocean basins (with exception of subduction trenches), and they
form vast expanse of flat, cold, dark terrain
- Despite the name, abyssal plains are not solely flat, but are punctuated by hills and seamounts. It is covered
by fine sediments of clay and silt eroded from the earth`s land surface. Fossils of microscopic plants and
animals are also found on the deep-sea plain. The abyssal plain has some features such as:
A. Abyssal hills: these are hills that rise from the floor of an abyssal plain. They rise up 1000 metres
above the sea floor. They are also called sea-knolls
B. A Seamount: these are isolated undersea mountain of volcanic origin that rises from the seabed to a
height of up to 1000m to 2000m below the surface of the sea. They sometimes rise above the sea as
isolated islands. Examples include Hawaii and Tahiti Islands are the exposed tops of volcanoes
C. Guyots or Tablemounts these are seamounts with flat topped surface rising above the ocean floor.
They are flat topped because of erosion through waves which remove the top part.
Characteristics of deep-sea plain
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a. It has relatively smooth floor
b. It has submarine plateaus
c. It has hills
d. The plain is covered by basaltic lava which is covered by sediments
6. Trenches or oceanic deeps
- These are deep cracks in the oceanic floors formed when two plates move away in a divergent boundary.
However, they are also formed in the convergent boundary where one plate dives under the other. Some
trenches can be as deep as 10000 metres.
Examples of oceanic trenches are the Mariana and Atacama trenches.
a) Mariana Trench in the Pacific: it is thought to be the deepest trench in the world at 11,034 metres deep and
thus the deepest location on Earth
b) Aleutian Trench in the Pacific Ocean
c) The Atacama Trench off the coast of Peru and Chile
d) Mindanao Trench off the Philippine coast
e) Tonga Trench in the Pacific Ocean
f) Java Trench

7. Submarine or oceanic ridges

- An oceanic ridge is a narrow, largely continuous range of underwater mountains found in all major oceans
- They form under tensional forces that break the lower crust, plate and mantle, allowing magma to come out.
This magma spreads on the sea bed where it cools and solidifies to form the solid rock or mountain range
known as the oceanic ridge. The very good examples of oceanic ridges are
i. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
ii. Hawaiian Ridge in Pacific Ocean
iii. South West and South East Indian Ridge
Earthquakes and volcanoes occur at mid oceanic ridges.

Materials deposited on the ocean floor

a. Muds: these are derived from land and deposited on the continental shelves
b. Oozes: these are derived from ocean and they are made of shelly and skeletal remains of marine micro-
organism
c. Clays: clay occurs as red clay in the deep parts of the ocean basins. Red clay come from volcanic dust blown
out of the volcanoes during volcanic eruption
Importance of the oceanic floor
1. Are areas where fishing is done due to the penetration of light for planktons, e.g. in continental shelves.
2. Harvesting some other resources such as sea weed, Oysters, Shrimps, minerals
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OCEAN CURRENTS

Explanation of the terms

a) Ocean currents are large bodies of water that circulate in regular patterns around oceans
b) Drift is an ocean current that is primarily caused by the prevailing winds. E.g. West Wind Drift, North Atlantic Drift
and North pacific Drift
c) Stream is a continuous flow of the current in a specified direction. Stream currents occur where an ocean
current flows through a constriction between two land masses, e.g. Gulf stream
Water in the oceans has two major movements as follows
1. Horizontal movements- Ocean currents
2. Vertical movements- the rising of bottom water and sinking of surface water
Major types of ocean currents
Ocean currents can be classified into two major types depending on depth and temperature
A. There are two main types of ocean currents based on depth. These are deep and surface
currents
1. Deep currents
- Deep currents are the movement of water far below the surface of the ocean that are caused by changes in
density.
- Deep ocean currents are caused by differences in water densities which are as a result of differences in
temperature and salinity
i. Changes in temperature: colder water has more density and will sink
ii. Changes in salinity: the more salt in the water the greater the density
These flow slowly beneath the surface below 400 metres and make up about 90% of the ocean. The rising of deep
ocean currents to the surface (and when they come close to the continental land mass) is called upwelling. Benguela
and Canaries are cold currents by upwelling
2. Surface currents
- These are horizontal circulations of surface water to a depth about 400 meters from the surface of the ocean.
They usually travel over long distances and make up about 10% of all the water in the ocean
B. There are two types of ocean currents based on temperature; thus, warm currents and cold
currents
1. Warm currents
- Warm currents originate from equatorial regions and flow towards the Polar Regions. They have higher
surface temperature.
- Examples of warm ocean currents include the following Brazilian, Kurosiwo, North Atlantic, Mozambique, East
Australian currents, North Pacific Current, Cayenne Current
2. Cold currents
- Cold currents originate from the Polar Regions and flow towards the equator. They have lower surface
temperatures than warm ocean currents. Examples of cold currents are Peruvian (Humboldt), Labrador,
Canaries, Kamchatka, West Australian, Benguela, California, Irminger/ Eastern Greenland currents, West
Wind drift, Oyashio-Bering Current. The major ocean currents of the world are shown in the Figure 15.2 below
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Location of the major ocean currents of the world

Fig 15.2: Ocean currents of the world

Causes of ocean currents

1. Prevailing winds
- When planetary winds blow over the ocean, surface water is dragged and pushed in one direction, causing the
water to move in the direction that the wind is blowing to
2. Temperature
- Water along the equator is warm and lighter and therefore it rises and moves slowly along the surface towards
the poles
- While the polar waters are cold and denser, and therefore descend and move towards the equator at the low
depth in the ocean
3. Salinity
- Water of high salinity (saltines) is denser than water of low salinity. Therefore, water of low-density flow on the
surface of the denser water.
4. Rotation of the Earth
- When the earth is rotating, it creates a force known as a Coriolis force, which pushes surface water of an
ocean in one direction and this creates an ocean current.
Factors that influence the direction of ocean currents
1. The shape of continents (landmasses)
- The landmass obstructs an ocean current and direct it to a certain path. Examples of the ocean currents
whose direction have been influenced by shape of the continents include; North Atlantic Drift and
Mozambique current
2. Rotation of the earth
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- This makes ocean currents to deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere from their normal courses. For example, the Mozambique warm ocean current deflects to the
left encircling Madagascar as a result of the earth’s rotation which brings Coriolis force into effect.
3. Wind direction
- The direction taken by the planetary winds is the same direction taken by an ocean current in that
particular area. For example, the flow of the north Atlantic drift follows the planetary winds
4. Temperature
- Temperature also influences the direction of an ocean current. Equatorial regions have a high temperature
while polar areas have low temperatures. Warm ocean currents flow towards the Polar Regions as it is a
warm current while as canaries flow from the Polar Regions towards the equator as it is a cold ocean
current
Effects of ocean currents
Ocean currents have several effects in regions they move to. Some of them are as follows:

The effects of ocean currents

I. SHIPPING
Positive effects
(a) Ships sail following the direction of flow of ocean currents; hence easing their movements, less fuel which
reduces expenses and transit time.
(b) Warm ocean currents melt ice along the coast of temperate regions in winter thereby allowing the ports to
be ice free. They are useful throughout the year. Examples include the North Pacific and North Atlantic
Drift
Negative effects
(a)
The meeting of cold and warm ocean currents creates fog. Fog causes visibility problems for ships
(b)
Ocean currents increase the height of tides and can make ship loading and offloading difficult
(c)
Ships moving in the opposite direction to the ocean current can capsize
(d)
Cold ocean currents freeze coastal waters in winter, leading to the closure of such routes, for example,
the Labrador current
II. FISHING
(a) Major fishing grounds are found where cold and warm currents meet, this happens because such a
meeting encourages the precipitation of minerals that facilitate the growth of microscopic plants called
planktons, which are food for fish. For instance, the Western Pacific grounds where the Kamchatka
meets Kurosiwo, the North-western Atlantic where the Labrador and North Atlantic Drift creates the
fishing ground
III. ON CLIMATE
(a) Warm currents distribute heat from tropics to the poles, thus influencing the climate. E.g. North Pacific Drift
warms the west coast of Alaska and British Columbia in the end melting the winter ice and making
Vancouver Port ice-free in winter and having mild winters
(b) Cold currents from Polar Regions also distribute cool temperatures to the tropics, thus influencing the
climate. For example, Benguela cold current lowers off the coast of Namibia (Kalahari) where fogs are
common. In addition, winds blowing over a cooler land surface usually bring little or no rain
(c) Warm ocean currents bring rains to the coastal areas. This is because winds passing over warm ocean
currents absorb a lot of moisture which can condense and form a cloud. For example, the Mozambique
warm oceans current bring rainfall to the coast of East Africa
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(d) Ocean currents often have a considerable influence on climate and human activities. E.g. North Atlantic
drift is responsible for the mild winters of North Western Europe. The meeting of the Gulf Stream and cold
Labrador currents gives dense fogs off Newfoundland. See Fig 15.3 below

Source: R.B Burnett Physical Geography in diagrams for Africa P.149

The influence of the North Atlantic Drift on the winter temperatures of coastal Western Europe
 Note: the town of Nain has a mean January temperature of -21.6°C and Glasgow with 3.9°C, but these towns
are lying on the same latitude of 561/2 °N. But have different mean temperatures because Nain is influenced by
Labrador Cold Ocean current which lower the temperature of the town while Glasgow is influenced by the
North Atlantic drift which helps to raise the temperature.
 New York and Oporto also lie in the same latitude 41°N. New York is influenced by the Labrador which is a
cold ocean current which the temperature of Oporto is raised by the North Atlantic drift warm ocean current.
IV. Alternative energy
- The currents carry an enormous amount of energy that is captured and converted into usable form through the
use of water turbines

TOPIC 16: World Pressure Belts

AIR PRESSURE
 Air pressure is the weight of air in the atmosphere pressing down on the earth surface at any given place and
time. Sometimes it is called atmospheric or barometric pressure.
 The standard unit for measuring air pressure is Pascal (pa). However, meteorologists use millibars (mb) to
measure air pressure. One millibar is equal to 100 Pascal or the force of one gram on a square centimetre.
 A pressure of 1013.25 mb will be equal to the weight of a column of mercury with a height of 76cm at sea
level.
 Isobars are lines that join places of equal atmospheric pressure on surface weather maps
Measuring air pressure
Air pressure is measured by an instrument called barometer. There are two types of barometers; Mercury barometer
and Aneroid barometer
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1. Mercury barometer
- A mercury barometer measures the pressure by noting the height of mercury in a glass tube, which is
supported by the weight of the column of air over the barometer.
- One centimetre of mercury is equal to 13.33 mb. At sea level, the normal atmospheric pressure can
support a column of mercury about 76 cm or 760 mm high, and this is equal to 1013 mb
How a Mercury barometer works?
 When air pressure increases, the air pressing on the surface of the mercury will force it up the mercury
column, to register high pressure. When the pressure decreases, the mercury column drops to register low
pressure. The pressure is read off the scale on the glass tube.
2. Aneroid barometer
- It consists of a collapsible metal box with most of the air driven out to form almost a vacuum.
How the Aneroid Barometer work?
- When there is an increase in air pressure on the outside of the box, the collapsible metal box is pushed
downwards. This makes the spring to contract and the chain is pulled to the right thereby forcing the indicator
to move to the right too; thus registering high pressure by the indicator on the graduated scale. When
pressure reduces, the lid springs outwards, the indicator moves to the left to show low pressure.
Advantages mercury barometer has over an aneroid barometer
a) The mercury barometer is very accurate as compared to an aneroid barometer
Disadvantages mercury barometer
a) It is very heavy and cumbersome, that is, it is difficult for it to be carried from one point to another
b) A mercury barometer is not good for outdoor measurements. It only requires mercury for it to measure air
pressure and no any other liquid
Factors that influence air pressure
1. Altitude
- Pressure is higher at sea level than it is at higher altitude like the top of the mountain. At sea level, air
has to support a greater weight of air than at the top of the mountain. The molecules of air at sea level
push outwards with a great force equal to that exerted by the air above it.
- On the contrary, air molecules on the top of the mountain push outwards with much less force
because the weight of air above it is less. That is why pressure increases when air descends
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Fig 16.3: Effects of altitude on air pressure

2. Temperature
- When air is heated, it becomes lighter and therefore rises and pressure falls. If it is cooled it becomes
heavier and sinks back to the earth’s surface and pressure to be high. This means that high
temperatures reduce air pressure and low temperatures increase air pressure.
3. Rotation of the earth
- Rotation of the earth causes air at the poles to blown away towards the equator, air thrown away from
the poles spreads and occupies longer latitudes thereby reducing its pressure. The air that goes back
to the poles from the equator occupies shorter latitudes and gets concentrated in small space. This
increases its pressure.
4. Humidity
- Water vapour is lighter compared to air, so as water vapour increases in the air, density of air
decreases, causing low pressure
5. The volume
- When the volume is small, air pressure increases. This is because air molecules are concentrated in a
small space. This makes the air molecules to push out with a lot of force which in turn increases
pressure
- Conversely, when the volume is increased, air pressure becomes low. This is because the space
becomes large and air molecules have a lot of room. This makes them to push out with less force
which in turn lowers the pressure
Distribution of pressure belts in the world
 A pressure belt is a region on the Earth that is dominated by either high pressure cells or low pressure cells
and lies parallel to latitudes.
 The pressure belts of the world can be classified into two; high pressure belts and low pressure belts.
 Low pressure belts exist over the Equator or Doldrums (0º) and the sub-polar latitudes (at 60º in both
hemispheres). High pressure belts are found at horse latitudes (30º north and south of the equator), and in the
polar latitudes belts.
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Fig 16.5: World pressure belts

Causes of different types of pressure belts

a. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt
- The Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ lies along the equator between 10ºN and 10ºS latitudes.
The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year; as a result, the air gets
warmed up and rises over the region, creating low pressure at the surface.
- Since the larger part of this low-pressure belt passes along the oceans, the vertical winds obtain huge
amount of moisture, which lead to formation of cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms (convectional
rainfall).
- Surface winds are absent since winds approaching this belt begin to rise near its margin. Only vertical
currents are found. Therefore, this belt is called doldrums (the zone of calm) due to virtual absence of
surface winds. This belt coincides with the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
b. Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts
- These belts are located at about 30º north and south of the equator. The major cause of the high
pressure is the descending movement of air
- The air rising in the equatorial latitudes is deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation and
eventually gets cooled and descends in the sub-tropical latitudes
- The descending air is dry causing little or no precipitation. This is responsible for the formation of deserts
in these regions
- These regions are also called horse latitudes
c. Temperate low-pressure belts (sub-polar low-pressure belt)
- These belts are located between 60ºand 70º in each hemisphere.
- Despite being located in regions that are much colder than the sub-tropical high-pressure belts near the
equator, the temperate low belts are persistently low-pressure areas.
- The reason for low pressure is the meeting warm air from the Equator and cold air from the poles and then
warm air is forced to rise over cold air and this creates low pressure
d. Polar High-Pressure Belts
- These are found at the North and South poles, between 70º to 90º North and South
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- In Polar Regions, the sun never shines vertically, sun rays are always slanting here resulting in extremely
low temperature. Low temperature makes the air to be cooled and contract whereby creating high
pressure region
Figure 16.6 is the cross section of pressure belts and air movements across the belts

Fig 16.6: Cross-section of pressure belts and air flow

The pressure belts are not continuous or steady because
1. The surface of the earth is not uniform or smooth. There is uneven heating due to land/water contrasts
2. The sun does not remain over the equator, but moves from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south of
equator and back over the course of a year. This variation in the position of the overhead sun causes the
pressure belts to shift north and south through about 5 to 10 degrees of latitude

PREVAILING WINDS
Prevailing winds
- Prevailing winds are winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction over a particular point on
the earth’s surface
- The prevailing wind systems of the earth blow from the high-pressure belts towards adjacent low-pressure
belts. Winds are named according to the compass direction of their source. For example, the wind blowing
from the north east towards the south west is called north east wind
Differences between local winds and prevailing winds
PREVAILING WINDS LOCAL WINDS
caused by pressure differences between caused by the immediate influences of the surrounding
latitudes topography

affect very large areas affect small area

Are named after the local names in areas which a) Have global names such as trade winds, westerlies and polar
they exist winds.

Types of prevailing winds

Prevailing winds are divided into three wind types as follows; the polar winds, the westerly, and the trade winds
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Fig 17.2: Prevailing winds

I. Trade Winds
- Trade winds blow from sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the equator. They curve towards the west due
to spin of the Earth.
- In the northern hemisphere they blow from north easterly direction and they are called the northeast trade
winds and in the southern hemisphere they are from the south easterly direction and they are known as
southeast trade winds
Characteristics of trade winds
a. They blow from high pressure areas (Horse latitude) to Low pressure area (doldrums).
b. They deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and become North East Trades and to the right in the
Southern hemisphere and become South East Trades.
c. They are more pronounced over oceans than over continents (because on land, there more impediments such as
mountains, trees, human-made structures that cause resistance to wind
d. They are warm winds, carrying enough moisture to produce heavy precipitation
e. They are constant in both strength and direction.
f. They contain cyclones and anticyclones
II. Westerlies
- These winds blow from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the poles to 60° parallel, both North and
South of the equator
- In both hemispheres, they blow from the westerly direction hence the name Westerlies.
- In the southern hemisphere the Westerlies blow with great force and regularity throughout the year over the
oceans and are variably called roaring forties or the furious fifties or the screaming sixties
Characteristics of Westerlies
a. They blow from Horse Latitude to the temperate Low Pressures.
b. They blow from the west towards the east
c. They are deflected to the right to become South Westerlies in the Northern hemisphere and to the left to become
North Westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere.
d. They are warm winds
e. They are strongest in winter when the pressure is lower over the poles and weakest during the summer and when
pressure is higher over the poles
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f. They change from time to time in both strength and direction
g. They contain depressions (area of low pressure) and cyclones.
III. Polar winds
- They blow persistently from the poles towards the equator. They are formed as cold air at the poles sinks and
begin to move towards the equator
Characteristics of polar winds
a. They blow from the Polar High Pressures to the Temperate Low Pressures.
b. They are extremely cold winds
c. They are best developed in the Southern hemisphere; this is because there is more water than land as compared
to the Northern hemisphere.
d. They deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere to become North East Polar winds and to the left to be the
become South East Polar winds in the Southern Hemisphere.
e. They change in terms of strength and direction in the Northern Hemisphere and Constant in the Southern
Hemisphere
Importance of prevailing winds
a. Prevailing winds determine the location of wind farms in order to generate electricity
b. The winds also determine the amount of rainfall different regions get. For example, In the Mediterranean climate,
the westerlies help to bring rainfall in winter
c. The vessels and aeroplanes move fast in the direction of prevailing winds whereby saving time and fuel. This is
true especially with respect westerly winds
d. Prevailing winds especially trade winds are responsible for persistence of surface ocean currents and oceanic
upwelling which is economically important, particularly for the Pacific fishing industries
Problems associated with prevailing winds
a. Trade winds and westerlies are associated with tropical storms called hurricanes or typhoons once in a while
which destroy people’s lives and properties
b. When ships sail against westerlies, the journeys become slow and a lot of fuel is used. There is also poses a
danger of ships capsizing
c. They cause soil erosion when they blow across loose and dry soil surfaces can cause soil erosion
d. Prevailing winds are associated with wind chills which is the most debilitating factor of Antarctic expeditions. Cattle
and sheep are prone to wind chill, rendering their hair and wool coverings ineffective. Note that a wind chill is the
cooling factor caused by the combination of wind and temperature to produce conditions that would be much
colder than the temperature alone
Influence of pressure belts on prevailing winds
The direction of prevailing winds is influenced by pressure belts (high or low) because air always moves from an
area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. For instance, the winds move from sub-tropical high-pressure
belt towards equatorial low-pressure belt and also the wind move from polar high-pressure belt towards temperate
low-pressure belt
a. Polar wind
They blow from the Polar High-Pressure belts to Temperate Low-Pressure belts
b. Westerlies
They blow from Horse Latitudes or Sub-Tropical Pressure belts to the Doldrums Low Pressure belts
c. Trades
They blow from the Horse Latitudes or Sub-Tropical High-Pressure belts to Doldrums Low Pressure belts
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How the Ferrel’s law of deflection (Coriolis force) affects prevailing winds
- Ferrel’s law of Deflection states that when the earth is rotating, it creates Coriolis force which deflects all
freely moving objects to the right in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in an
anticlockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.
- Therefore, the Ferrel’s law of deflection affects prevailing winds in the sense that winds do not blow
straight from one pressure belt to another but rather are deflected to the right in northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Ferrel’s law of deflection

Patterns of the prevailing winds on a rotating and on a non-rotating globe

a. On a rotating globe
- On a rotating globe, prevailing winds deflect to the right in the northern hemisphere and to left in the
left in the southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis force.
b. On a non-rotating globe
- On a non-rotating globe, prevailing winds take a straight path without deflecting either to the left or
right. This is because on a non-rotating globe there is no effect of Coriolis force hence no deflection
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Interpret isobars on an air pressure map

Determining wind strength and direction from an isobaric map
a. Wind strength
o When the isobars are closer to each other, it means that the wind is stronger. While when the isobars
are far apart, it shows that the wind is weaker

b. Wind direction
o Winds always blow or originate from areas characterised by close isobars to areas where isobars are
far apart. Winds also move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure

ISOBARS AND PRESSURE GRADIENT

What is pressure gradient?
 This is the rate at which the atmospheric pressure changes horizontally in a certain direction on the earth’s
surface.
Interpretation of pressure gradient using isobars on an air pressure map
 When the isobars are close together, it means that there is a fast change of pressure from point to point. This
is shown at right angles.
 The gradient is steep and air is quickly drained (the movement of air or wind is great). On the contrary, when
the isobars are far apart, the gradient is slight and wind speed is slow
Calculation of gradient

Calculate the pressure gradient in the figure above

COMPILED BY BS.S. LUQOTO. 0888548490/0999952712.
Solution:
Pressure gradient = Difference in value (millibars) between two adjacent isobars
= 80 mb – 72 mb = 8 mb
This means that air pressure is changing at the rate of 8 mb horizontally to the East on the earth’s surface.

Plotting isobars on an air pressure map

- Isobars are lines drawn on air pressure map (also called synoptic weather chart) connecting places of the
same atmospheric or barometric pressure.
- Isobars are usually drawn at 4 millibar interval: 1004 mb, 1008 mb, 1012 mb, 1016 mb and so on connecting
all points having the same pressure reading. Isobars just like contours, never crosses over one another
- The following are some of tips on drawing Isobars
1. Isobars drawn in 4-milllibar intervals
2. Always label the isobar value
3. Pressure lower than the isobar value are always on one side and higher pressure are consistently on the
other side
4. Draw isobar until it reaches the end of the plotted data or closes off a loop as it encircles data
5. Neighbouring isobars tend to take similar paths
6. Isobars never cross and never split
7. Do not skip isobar values if they fall within the pressure range on the map
8. When the highest or lowest pressure values reported on the map are equal to an isobar value, do not draw
the isobar. If a pressure value appears abnormally out of place, just circle the value
Figure below is a map of Southern Africa showing pressure readings. Copy the map into your exercise book and use it
to complete the activity that follows.
1. Using a line, join the places with the same pressure readings.
2. What name is given to these lines in 1 (a) above?
3. On the map itself, insert H on an area of high pressure and L on an area of low pressure.
4. Indicate the direction of wind on the map
5. What instrument was used to arrive at the readings shown on the map?
COMPILED BY BS.S. LUQOTO. 0888548490/0999952712.

UNIT 18: AIRMASSES

Definition of the term air mass

- An air mass is a large volume of air with uniform temperature and moisture
- Air masses can stretch up to thousands of kilometres horizontally over the Earth surface and vertically
from the ground level to stratosphere
Formation of Air Mass
 They are formed when conditions of an area remain the same for long periods of time and eventually the
air takes on the characteristics of the surface below.
- The areas in which air masses develop are called source regions
Classification of air masses
 Air masses are classified according to Latitudinal position of the source region and the Nature of the
underlying surface (whether on land or water surface)
a. Classification according to latitudinal position of the source region . According to this, air
masses are classified as:
i. Polar air mass (P)
 These originate from near the Polar Regions. Such air masses are cold or very cold.
 Cold air masses are made up of air that is cooler than the surrounding
ii. Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA) Air mass
 These air masses originate over the cold Arctic and Antarctic regions.
iii. Tropical (T) air masses
 These originate over the warm tropics. Such air masses are warm
 Warm air masses are made up of air that is warmer than the surrounding and they form in an
area where temperature is warmer than the average temperature
b. Classification based on the surface of the source region
According to this, air masses are classified as:
I. Continental (c) air mass: These originate from land masses and are generally dry.
II. Maritime (m) air mass: These originate from over water (seas and oceans) and are generally moist.
Naming of the Air masses
 Air masses are given a two-part name such as Continental Tropical (cT) or Maritime Polar
(mP).
i. The first part always uses lowercase letter and describes humidity of the air. For example, air
masses that form over the ocean (maritime air masses) are more humid than those that form
over land (continental air masses)
ii. The second part of the name uses uppercase letter which describes the temperature of the
air mass, which depends on the latitude where it formed. Air masses that form near the
equator or in the tropics (equatorial or tropical air masses) are warmer than air masses that
form in polar areas or in the Arctic (polar or arctic air masses).
COMPILED BY BS.S. LUQOTO. 0888548490/0999952712.

Main types of air masses

1. Continental polar (P) or Continental Arctic (cA)
- These originate from polar landmasses such as Siberia, Northern Canada, Alaska and Antarctica.
- The air masses are cold and dry. They have high pressures and the air is stable. There are few clouds
and the weather is dry, sunny and mild. The air masses may become unstable when they blow
towards the tropics and they lower temperature of a particular region whereby causing weather to
become old
2. Maritime Polar (mP):
- These originate from cold polar seas. As they pass over the ocean, they pick up moisture, they tend to
be cold, not as cold as continental polar. They are moist. As they blow towards lower latitudes, they
become unstable and can cause precipitation to occur.
3. Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA):
- These originate in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The air masses are similar to Continental Polar air
masses. The only difference is that they originate over the permanent ice cap near the north or south
poles. They are bitterly cold making the weather very cold.
4. Continental Tropical (cT) Air Mass
- Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses form approximately 25° north and south of Equator over the dry,
mostly arid regions of the world.
- The areas experience intense heat but there is little water to draw from to make the air more humid.
The weather is hot, dry with clear skies.
- This air mass has ability to induce heavy precipitation as they increase evaporation rate. These air
masses usually originate from tropical deserts and high plains.
5. Maritime Tropical (mT):
- These originate from the tropical oceans. The air tends to be warm, moist and usually unstable and
bring about heavy precipitation. Summer weather may be hot and muggy with hazy sunlight and
scattered thunderstorms in the afternoon. Winter weather may be warmer and damper.
6. Maritime equatorial (mE):
- These originate over the equatorial oceans or water bodies. The air is moist and hot and therefore
very unstable. This results in heavy rainfall. Since the equator does not have large land area and
most of this land is covered by rainforests, the equatorial air is not dry. This means that the
continental Equatorial air mass is not found; there is only maritime Equatorial air which is moist
and hot. The
COMPILED BY BS.S. LUQOTO. 0888548490/0999952712.

Fig 18.1: Main types of air masses on a world map

STABLE AND UNSTABILLE AIR MASSES
Stable air masses
 A stable air mass is one which relatively cool and denser than the air surrounding it. This air resists rising and
remains in place.
Unstable air masses
 An unstable air mass is air that is warmer than its surrounding and so rises easily. The rising air encourages
convection currents to rise to great height. This may cause large quantities of vapour to condense to give
showers or thunderstorms.
Differences between stable and unstable airmasses (weather characteristics)

Stable air mass Unstable air mass

1. Poor visibility due to pollutants trapped near the Good surface visibility as pollutants are constantly
ground blown around by updrafts and downdrafts
2. Calm conditions because air resists vertical Severe turbulence because the air continuously rise
movement and sink.

3. Produces flat, layered (stratus) clouds which settle Vertical Cumulonimbus clouds that produce heavy
on the ground as fog. showers.
4. Continuous showery precipitation Heavy precipitation

5. Associated with high atmospheric pressure Associated with low atmospheric pressure

Air masses which influence weather types on the African continent

There are a number of air masses that influence the weather patterns of African continent. See figure 18.2
COMPILED BY BS.S. LUQOTO. 0888548490/0999952712.
1. North East Trade winds originate from South West Asia and Sahara Desert. This wind is hot and dry and
brings no rainfall. These winds affect the weather of North Africa.
2. South East Trade winds which are warm and moist affect the south eastern part of Africa. They originate
from Indian Ocean and bring heavy rain
3. Warm, moist, unstable air from the Atlantic Ocean blowing towards the south western parts of Gabon, Congo
and Angola, normally brings conventional rains
4. Cool, moist, unstable air, blowing towards north eastern parts of Morocco and Mauritania
5. The Harmattan local winds blowing towards the western coast of Africa. Guinea is mostly affected where
evaporation increases due to high temperature, hence it brings heavy rainfall
6. Chiperone local winds that affect the south eastern parts of southern Africa. The winds affect the southern
part of Malawi

Fig 18.2: Air masses which influence weather types on the African

UNIT 19: FRONTS

Definition of the term “Front”
 A front is a boundary separating two different air masses
Formation of fronts
 Fronts form when one kind of air mass enters an area occupied by another air mass. Cold air and warm air
masses do not mix easily because they have different temperatures making them to have different densities.
Types of fronts
A classification of fronts depends on:
1. The direction in which the air mass in moving
2. The characteristics of the air mass
Basically, there are four types of fronts namely cold front, warm front, stationary front and occluded front.
1. COLD FRONT
 This is a zone where the cold air mass is pushing into a warmer air mass.
 The air behind the cold front is colder and drier than the air ahead of it, which is warm and moist.
COMPILED BY BS.S. LUQOTO. 0888548490/0999952712.
 Cold air mass moves faster than warm air mass. Cold air is dense so it is able to quickly plow a warm air
mass ahead of it and uplift it. As the warm air rises, its water vapour condenses to form clouds which fall
as rain
Characteristics of cold fronts and the weather
a. They have steep slopes.
b. They move faster than all other fronts.
Weather characteristics associated with a cold front
a. Brings cold air which decreases the temperature.
b. A decrease in humidity as cold air does not contain as much moisture as warm air.
c. It lifts warm air resulting into the formation of cumulonimbus clouds bringing heavy rainfall which last for
short time and it is accompanied by thunder and lightning.
d. There is a change in the direction of winds called wind shifts through backing, that is, changing to the left in
the Southern hemisphere and veering, that is, changing it to the right in the Northern hemisphere
On a weather map, a cold front is drawn as a line with triangles. (see Figure 19.1)

Cold Front
2. WARM FRONT
 It is a zone where a warm air mass is pushing into a cold air mass. The warm air is less dense and moves
faster than cold air and therefore slides and uplifts over a cold air mass.
 Warm fronts move more slowly than cold fronts because it is more difficult for the warm air to move against
the cold, dense air. The air behind a warm front is warm and moist while that ahead of it is cooler and less
moist
Characteristics of warm fronts and the weather
a. They have gentle slopes.
b. They tend to move slowly.
c. They are less violent than cold fronts.
Weather characteristics associated with a warm front
a. Brings warm air which makes temperatures to increase.
b. There is a drop-in air pressure determined by a fall in barometric reading.
c. Associated with more extensive nimbostratus clouds and precipitation particularly frontal rainfall
d. A change in the direction of wind.
On a map, a warm front is drawn as a line with semi-circles.
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3. OCCLUDED FRONT
- This front occurs when a fast moving cold front catches up and overtakes slow moving warm front. Then
the two cold air masses surround warm air and lift it up completely from the ground. At this point, cold air mass
from the cold front meets the cool air that was ahead of the warm front forming an occluded front

There are two types of occluded fronts; thus Cold occluded and warm occluded front
a. Cold Occluded Front
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- The cold occlusion happens when the overtaking cold air is colder than the cool air ahead of the warm
front and plows under both air masses. Then the warm front becomes an upper level front, and the
occluded front is an extension of a cold front (Figure 19.4)
b. Warm occluded Front
o The Warm occlusion happens when the overtaking cold air is warmer than cold air ahead of the warm
front and rides over the colder air mass. The cold front becomes the upper level front, and the occluded
front is an extension of the warm front.
NB. Occluded fronts have weather characteristics typical of both cold and warm fronts. The weather is very
unsettled, marked by heavy rains and thunderstorms potentially over a prolonged period
4. STATIONARY FRONT
- This is a zone where cold air mass and warm air mass meet and neither of the air mass has enough force to
push into the other. They remain stationary, or ‘standing still’. A stationary front line is indicated by blue
triangles on one side of the line alternating with red semi-circle on the opposite side of the line. Triangles point
away from the cold air while semi-circles point away from the warm air

Fig 19.6: Stationary front

Weather characteristics associated with a stationary front

 Along steady rain or snow which is followed by changes in the direction of wind and then clearing of the sky.
When warm and cold air meets, clouds and fog form, and it may rain or snow. Can bring many days of clouds
and precipitation
 The air masses may move parallel to the boundary producing weak winds and prolonged rainfall.
 On a weather map, the stationary front is represented by a line with alternating triangles and semi circles
facing opposite directions.
DRYLINE: This is a boundary that separates a warm moist air from a hot dry air. It is common in areas where dry
continental tropical air meets maritime tropical air. These boundaries have intense thunderstorms, rain and tornadoes.
On a weather map, it is represented by a dashed line. (see Figure 19.7)
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Dry Line
IMPORTANT FRONTS IN GLOBAL WEATHER
1. POLAR FRONT: This lies between polar air masses and tropical air masses.
2. INTER TROPICAL FRONT (The ITCZ): This lies between N.E. trades and S.E. trades wind belts
THE INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ) AND ITS IMPACT ON WEATHER

 This is the belt of low pressure which circles the earth near the equator where the trade winds from Northern
and Southern hemispheres meet. The ITCZ follows the overhead sun, shifting slightly to the north of the
equator during northern hemisphere summer and slightly to the south of the equator during northern
hemisphere winter.
 But the mean position of the ITCZ is north of the equator because there is much more landmass in the
northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere.
 Variations in the location of the ITCZ result in the alternation of wet and dry seasons in the tropics.
Weather associated with ITCZ is characterized by:
a. Strong convection activity.
b. Violent thunderstorms.
c. Massive rain-bearing cumulonimbus clouds associated with heavy rains.
MOVEMENT OF THE (ITCZ) ON THE AFRICAN CONTINENT DURING THE YEAR

Position of the ITCZ in January

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- It is pushed to the southern hemisphere. This is because the sun appears to the overhead in the over the
tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere.
- This brings intense heat thereby making the area to develop a low pressure. Winds such as the S.E. trades,
the Congo air mass, and N.E. trades converge in the area resulting in rainfall. Figure 19.6 shows the position
of ITCZ in January
Effects of the development of ITCZ over Central Africa
- This brings heavy rainfall in the area. This is because some winds blow into the area are moist as such air
masses cross water bodies such as oceans e.g. the Congo air mass, which brings conventional rainfall. These
are the main rains that affect Malawi during the warm wet season.
- Thus, during November to April southern Africa receives rains while the North which has high pressure is under
the influence of hot and dry air masses experience no rainfall
Position of the ITCZ in July
- The ITCZ now shifts to the North of the equator where now it is hot as the sun appears to be overhead at
Cancer
- North Africa receives heavy rainfall due to the meeting of moist winds over the area. Currently over southern
Africa including Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe a high pressure develops as the air is cool. Any winds that blow
from this high-pressure area will be dry. This makes central Africa to experience generally dry sunny weather
during the cool season. At times, however, the S.E. winds move inland and bring the cloudy, moistly, rainy
weather known as CHIPERONE.
There is not much rain in October in Central Africa, despite the heat, because the low pressure has not developed
sufficiently to allow the in-blowing of the moist winds which bring convectional rain.

The impact of ITCZ on the weather pattern in Malawi

- The coming of ITCZ on Malawi in late October marks the beginning of rainy season in Malawi and thus it
becomes very cloudy and rainy
- The ITCZ then hovers around Malawi until late March-April when it starts to move northwards, and thus marks
the beginning of dry season (which is divided into cool and hot dry)

UNIT 20: LOCAL WINDS

Meaning of the term local winds
 Local winds are the kind of winds that blow for a short period of time and affect a limited area. They are
caused by the immediate influences of the surrounding relief or topography.
 Examples of local winds are Fohn, Santa Ana, Chiperoni, Harmattan, Leveche, Chinook, Sirocco, Zonda,
Bora, Mistral, Brickfielder, Pampero and Burster
 Among the listed winds, some are hot winds such as Santa Ana in North Americ, Zonda, Brickfielder).
General characteristics of local winds
a. They blow over a smaller area
b. They tend to be short-lived lasting, typically several hours to a day
c. They change direction and speed over a short period of time
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Fig 20.1: location of local winds on a world map

Characteristics and effects of local winds
A. Chinook winds
- The wind originates from the Pacific Ocean and descends the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in
North America towards Canada in winter and spring (Figure 20.2).
- They are called the ‘snow eater’ because the winds help to melt snow which is important for wheat
cultivation in the Prairies. The melted snow also provides moisture for grass or pasture to grow for animals

Characteristics of chinook winds

i. They are warm wind
ii. They bring rains to the west of the Rockies
iii. They are extremely dry since it had dropped moisture on the windward side
iv. Temperature rise as they descend over the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains
v. They blow from the western side of the Rocky Mountains on the Pacific coast, and descend on the eastern
side of the mountain
Effects of the Chinook
i. Their temperature rises by 19ºC within a period of15 minutes as a result, they can melt and dry winter snow. It
is for this reason that they are called ‘snow eater’. These winds are thus of economic value in pastoral
regions such as areas from Southern Colorado (USA) to Mackenzie River (Canada)
ii. Strong and frequent Chinooks mean that winter is mild, and pasture is available
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iii. Rapid melting of ice due to the temperature results into widespread avalanche and floods
iv. They increase the risk of fire
v. Abrupt temperature changes can cause pneumonia, septicaemia and shipping fever in cattle
B. Föhn winds
- The Föhn is a type of down-slope wind that occurs in the leeward of Alps Mountains in Europe
- It occurs when moist winds from the Mediterranean Sea blow over the Alps Mountains
Characteristics of Föhn winds
i. They are warm winds
ii. It is dry as it results from air which has dropped most of its moisture on windward slope
iii. They blow down the leeward slope of Northern Alps Mountain
Effects of Föhn winds
i. They bring warmer and dry weather
ii. The winds are capable of melting snow because they raise temperature by 8ºC to 14ºC (snow-eater)
iii. As they melt snow, they can cause avalanches and floods
iv. Snow melting makes pastureland ready for animal grazing
v. Residents of surrounding areas suffer from a variety of illnesses like migraines and psychosis
vi. The higher temperatures also help the grapes to ripe early
vii. They bring drought, dry up plants and farmlands, and exacerbate forest fires
C. Harmattan winds
- The Harmattan is a wind that blows from Sahara Desert to the western coast of Africa (Figure 20.4 shows
the Harmattan Wind)

Characteristics of the Harmattan winds

i. It is hot since it originates from a hot desert region
ii. It is intensely dry, but gets moist with distance because it causes evaporation of moisture from the ground
surface
iii. wind usually carries large amounts of dust,
iv. They blow from Sahara Desert to the western coast of Africa
Effects of the Harmattan winds
i. They bring hot air towards coast of Guinea. This encourages evaporation which brings about heavy rainfall
and cooling effect. This is why the Harmattan wind is called the Doctor
ii. It is a serious health hazard, particularly eye infection due to the dust
iii. It accumulates some amount of moisture and gives rainfall in West Africa region, providing relief to the
inhabitants of the area
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iv. The wind can cause severe crop damage and splitting trunks of trees since it is very hot and intensely dry.
v. Large amount of dust can cause visibility problems which affects air transport
vi. They increase the risk of fire
D. CHIPERONI WIND
o Chiperoni is a term used in Malawi to refer to a kind of drizzle. The name is derived from Mt. Chiperoni in
Mozambique. When the wind blows inland from the Indian Ocean, they are forced to rise over Mount
Chiperoni
Characteristics of Chiperone
i. They originate from Mozambique
ii. They are warm and moist
iii. It is accompanied by cold rainy conditions over the Shire Highlands and surrounding areas
iv. It is associated with Mwera on Lake Malawi, which disrupts fishing activities in the lake
v. It occurs during cool, dry season between May and August
Effects of Chiperoni winds
i. They bring persistent clouds which lead to a form of precipitation called drizzle which is suitable for growing
winter crops in the Shire Highlands.
ii. It lowers the temperature such that cold conditions are experienced
iii. The Mwera it brings on Lake Malawi disrupts fishing activities
OCCURRENCE OF LAND AND SEA BREEZE
 These are air circulations which occur locally along the shores of water bodies such lakes and oceans. They
are influenced by variations in temperatures between land and sea respectively

a. Sea breeze
A sea breeze is a wind blowing from the sea towards the coast. It happens during the day.
Occurrence of a sea breeze
o During the day, land heats up much quicker than water. As the land heats up, it warms the air close to the
ground. The warm air becomes less dense and begins to rise and low pressure is created. While over the
ocean, air remains cool and thus denser and pressure is higher than over the land. The wind will blow
from the higher pressure over the water to lower pressure over the land to replace warmer rising air as
sea breeze
b. Land breeze
A Land breeze is the type of wind that blows from the land to the sea, and usually occurs at night
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Occurrence of land breeze
o During the night, land cools off much quicker than water. The water will be warmer than the land. The air
over the water slowly begin to rise, low pressure is created over the water. Then cold and dense air over
the land move towards the water surfaces to replace the rising warm air as land breeze
Land and water surfaces have quite different properties in absorption and radiation of heat.
Land surfaces are heated faster than water surfaces because of the following reasons
a. The land does not move
b. Molecules are close together which help to transfer heat faster
Water surfaces gain and lose heat more slowly than land surfaces. The following are the
reasons
a. The water moves inform of waves which affects the distribution of heat
b. The sun light rays struggle to reach the deeper parts of water
c. Molecules of water are far apart compared to land and this affects the transfer of heat.
Influence of land and sea breeze on local weather and human activities
A. Effects of sea breeze
i. It keeps the coastal communities cooler than other locations inland during the day and during summer
ii. Many tourists choose these areas as travel destinations during summer for heat comfort
iii. Help to bring rainfall to the coastal areas due to the moisture collected from the sea when forced to rise
above a mountain barrier. This is helpful for farming
iv. The sea breeze aids sailors in moving towards the land during the day
B. Effects of land breeze
i. Land breezes assist fishermen to go to the sea at night in their small fishing boats
ii. The land breeze can also help move pollutants out to sea
iii. The land breeze has a cooling effect over the ocean surface

UNIT 21: CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES

Definition of the term Cyclone

 A cyclone is mass of air whose isobars form a circular shape where air pressure is low at the centre and
increases outwards
 A cyclone is a system of wind rotating around a centre of low pressure, turning clockwise in the southern
hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere
 The movement of a cyclone follows a Buys Ballot’s Law
 Buys Ballot’s Law: This law states that if a person stands with his back to the wind in the Northern
Hemisphere, the atmospheric pressure is low to the left and high to the right while in the Southern Hemisphere
low pressure will be to the right and high pressure to the left
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 This law means that cyclones obey Buys Ballot Law such that they are deflected to the right in a clockwise
direction, in the southern hemisphere, and to the left in the northern hemisphere

Characteristics of cyclones
1. Are well developed in the westerly winds and sometimes in the trade winds.
2. Are rarely stationary and tend to follow definite tracks usually in an easterly direction
3. Most often found in maritime areas because they are weakened over land masses.
4. Are associated with cloudy conditions and continuous rains as the moist air converge and rise.
5. The circulation of wind is in an anti- clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
southern hemisphere
Types of cyclones
Basically, there are of two types cyclones depending on latitudinal areas where they are
formed
a. Temperate cyclones: formed in temperate latitudes of 60°N and 60°S in the belt of westerly winds.
b. Tropical cyclones: these are formed in the tropics between 0° to 30°N and South of the equator in the belt
of trade winds.
A. TEMPERATE CYCLONES (ALSO CALLED DEPRESSIONS OR EXTRA-TROPICAL CYCLONES)
 Arise in the westerly winds belt at the polar front (temperate low-pressure belt). Temperate cyclones are
caused by the mixing of cold air form the polar regional with warm, humid air from tropical regions. Consists
of swirling masses of air that circulate anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clock wise in the
southern hemisphere and they affect large areas. Bring prolonged rain to coastal regions and often very
windy weather
Development of temperate cyclones
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Temperate cyclones develop along the polar front where cold air mass from polar region and warm tropical air
mass from tropics converge in the following way
a) Firstly, cold polar air moves in a general westerly direction and warm tropical air moves in general easterly
direction causing friction between the two air masses
b) Then frictional force of the two different air masses causes a wave to develop. The wave bulges into
colder air as it is heavier and gets larger.
c) Finally, air pressure falls at the tip of the wave and winds begin to circulate around the low pressure point
anti-clockwise in the NH and clockwise in the SH

Characteristics of temperate cyclones

1. They have the weather fronts as the basis for their whole structure and existence
2. They are very large, since they contain two fronts and several air masses, which also help to make their
weather effects last for a long time
3. The isobars are in elliptical shape
4. They have a bent oval shape which is often described as a comma
5. They are associated with unsettled weather conditions, which can be long-standing and various, because
they contain air masses of contrasting temperature and humidity
6. They usually move over land rather than water, and this limits the moisture they pick up.
General weather conditions associated with temperate cyclones
1. Clear sky except for a little cirrus clouds
2. Wind blows from South east to South west.
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3. Some cloud cover.
4. Light showers which progress into heavy rainfall.
B. TROPICAL CYCLONES
They develop along the ITCZ where trade winds meet. They mainly develop over tropical seas. The air
temperature of the sea must be above 27°C. When the two air masses meet along the Inter-Tropical front one
is lifted up. This causes instability and large cumulonimbus clouds develop giving rise to intense thunderstorms
Development of tropical cyclones
 Warm dry air mass and warm moist air mass meet over the ocean at the inter-tropical front and air pressure
falls greatly. Warm moist air rises, cools and moisture condenses to produce heavy rainfall. Condensation
releases latent heat energy which makes the cyclone to rotate.
CONDITIONS FOR A TROPICAL CYCLONE TO DEVELOP
i. Abundant supply of warm moist air of temperature of about 27ºC (Tropical sea/ocean).
ii. The air must be blowing inwards and rising rapidly to great height to give clouds of great vertical extent
capable of producing torrential rainfall.
iii. There must be sufficient amount of Coriolis force. This would cause the storm to spin as cool air flows into the
low-pressure centre. Cyclones cannot occur along the equator, as there is insufficient Coriolis force to deflect
the air moving towards the low-pressure centre
iv. The vertical wind speed (shear) must be low. Under this condition, the heat and moisture are retained rather
than being exchanged and diluted with surrounding air
Structure of the tropical cyclone
The tropical cyclone consists of different parts as follows
1. EYE: the central part of it which is a very calm area and is usually 30 to 50 km across
2. EYE WALL: an area of powerful updraft surrounding the eye of a cyclone. It is the most destructive and
dangerous part of a cyclone as it contains cumulonimbus clouds, intense rainfall and very strong winds
spiraling upwards
3. VORTEX: this is the region surrounding the eye. It is a region of high speed winds (150-250 per hour) and
thick cumulonimbus clouds with heavy rain-the vortex. These weather conditions in the vortex are caused by
moist condensing as it rises. The region is the most violent part of the storm. Away from this region, the wind
speed gradually decreases
Diagram of a tropical storm here
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Weather associated with a tropical cyclone

Before arrival of the cyclone the air is still. Temperature and humidity are high. However,
a. As the front arrives, gusty winds develop and thick clouds appear.
b. When the vortex appears, winds become violent (up to 240km/hr) dense clouds and torrential rains fall
(visibility is reduced to a few metres).
c. Calm conditions return when the eye of the cyclone arrives.
d. The arrival of the rear vortex brings again violent winds, dense clouds and heavy rains. The wind now blows
from a direction opposite to that of the front vortex.
e. After the rear vortex has passed, calm conditions return. The air becomes still and temperature and humidity
are high
Different names for tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones have different names in different parts of the world:
i. Hurricanes - in the Caribbean region
ii. Cyclones - in the Indian Ocean
iii. Typhoons - in South East Asia
iv. Willy Willies - in Australia
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Similarities and differences between temperate and tropical cyclones
1. They are both associated with stormy conditions
2. Both cyclones are formed when two air masses meet
3. They both circulate in an anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and clockwise direction in the
southern hemisphere (this is Buys Ballot’s Law)
Differences between tropical and temperate cyclones
1 A tropical cyclone usually occurs in the tropics within the belt of trade winds while as temperate cyclone
occurs in the temperate regions within the belt of Westerly winds
2 Tropical cyclones cover small areas while temperate cyclones cover large areas
3 Tropical cyclones move in a westerly direction whiles as temperate cyclones move in an easterly direction.
4 A tropical cyclone is more violent accompanied by very strong winds as compared to a temperate cyclone
5 Tropical cyclone is accompanied by heavy rains while temperate cyclone is accompanied by light rains
6 Tropical cyclones occur only on warm water surfaces whereas temperate cyclones usually move over land
rather than water
7 Tropical cyclones are almost perfectly round while temperate cyclones have a bent oval shape
HOW DO TROPICAL CYCLONES AFFECT THE CLIMATE OF MALAWI?
 Malawi is affected by the cyclones from the Indian Ocean. This happens between December and February.
The cyclones bring heavy rainfall, accompanied by very strong winds over Malawi after passing through
Mozambique. Such rainfall results into floods which destroy a lot of property in Malawi
 In Malawi, Southern region is more prone to cyclones than the other parts of the country. This is due to
development of cyclones in the Mozambique channel of the Indian Ocean which lies opposite Southern Malawi
EFFECTS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES
1. Coastal destruction by storm waves and very high tides due to the development of a low pressure. Water is
pushed towards the coast by strong winds in a storm surge causing destruction to settlements.
2. High rate of flooding due to torrential rains. These cause losses of life and property.
3. Associated with strong winds which blow off roofs of buildings and destroy infrastructure and power lines.
4. Cyclones are associated with heavy rains which can lead to landslides which can bury life and property
especially houses
5. Interruption of land transport, air travel and shipping as tropical cyclones can destroy key bridges, overpasses,
and roads, and also causing big waves which can cause shipwrecks
6. Disruption of economies as cyclones can lead to the loss of investments and jobs e.g. through destruction of
factories, closure of shops and businesses
7. They can lead to environmental damage as sensitive ecosystems may be destroyed and plant and animal
habitats lost. For instance, fresh water fish may be killed in storm surges and also sea fish are often killed
because of silting
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ANTICYCLONES
 An anticyclone is a system of wind rotating around a centre of high pressure, turning clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere

 The pressure gradient is gentle and winds are light. They normally herald fine weather. Skies are clear, the air
is calm and temperatures are high in summer but low in winter. In winter great cooling of the lower atmosphere
may result in thick fogs.
 The main anticyclones of the world include: South Atlantic High and Indian Ocean High.
Characteristics of anticyclones
a. They remain stationary for a long period or moves very slowly before fading out
b. They affect weather over a whole continent since they cover a larger area.
c. They have cloudless and rainless weather conditions since air descends at the centre due to high pressure
d. They only involve one type of air mass which usually covers large areas and do not have any fronts
e. Their centres are cooler than surroundings
f. Anticyclones have very light winds blowing outwards from the centre
g. They observe Ferrel’s law of deflection in that; they blow in clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere
and anticlockwise direction in the southern hemisphere
Hazards of anticyclones
a. Prolonged heat waves or drought. During the summer, a persistent warm core anticyclone that becomes that
becomes stationery over a region may produce drought conditions (due to lack of rainfall and evaporation from
the earth’s surface) causing death, crop failures, and wild fires
b. Ice caps and glaciers melt at a faster rate in mountainous region, causing floods. Rivers and lakes that are not
glacially fed can dry up

UNIT 22: CLOUDS

 A cloud is a mass of small water drops or ice crystals, formed by the condensation of the water vapour in the
atmosphere.
 Almost all air around us is moist, meaning that it contains water in the form of vapour. Water vapour in the air
cannot be seen unless it collects and condense to form a cloud
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Relating the hydrological cycle to cloud formation

 Cloud formation is related to the hydrological cycle in which the water is released from vegetation, land and
water bodies in form of water vapour and move into the atmosphere with the help of winds.
 After reaching the dew point, clouds are formed. When such clouds are heavy, they come down inform of
precipitation
Formation of clouds
 Cloud formation starts with the processes of evaporation and transpiration which releases water into the
atmosphere. The water vapour then rises and cools when subjected to low temperatures. Water vapour then
begins to condense around different condensation nuclei which include small particles of dust, smoke, salt
and other particles of matter. Tiny water droplets are formed when the dew point (a temperature at which
water vapour begins to condense) is reached. These drops enlarge and combine to form a cloud
Types of clouds
 There are many different types of clouds. The type of cloud depends on how high up in the atmosphere the
water condenses and its appearance (texture) from the ground
Criteria used to classify clouds
 Clouds are classified according to
i. Appearance,
ii. Altitude (height)
a. Classification based on general form or shape and appearance
 Based on shape and appearance, there are four types of clouds. Latin words are used to describe the
appearance of clouds as seen by an observer on the ground.
1. Cirrus which means curl of air e.g. cirrus cloud
2. Cumulus which means heap e.g. cumulus cloud
3. Stratus which means layer e.g. Altostratus
4. Nimbus which means rain bearing e.g. Cumulonimbus
The word ‘nimbus’ in front of any type of word or cloud name means a cloud that produces precipitation
This is a descriptive classification that was suggested by a British called Luke Howard in 1803.
b. Classification based on height
 Clouds can occur at any level of the atmosphere whenever there is sufficient moisture to allow condensation to
take place. Based on height, the following types of clouds exists
1. High clouds e.g. Cirrus, cirrocumulus and cirrostratus
2. Middle/medium clouds e.g. Altostratus and altocumulus
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3. Low clouds e.g. Stratus, stratocumulus and nimbostratus
4. Clouds with vertical development e.g. Cumulus and cumulonimbus
1. LOW LEVEL CLOUDS
 Low level clouds are closer to the ground; occur below 2,100 metres.
 When observed from the ground they appear to move faster than other clouds. They generally move in the
direction of the surface wind.
CLOUDS CHARACTERISTICS WEATHER
1. Stratocumulus a. They are round and bumpy clouds they mean fair or clear weather
(St-Cu) b. They are grey-white and patchy, appearing in long rows but sometimes produce light
or in rolls rain
c. They are more wavy form than altocumulus
2. Nimbostratus a. They are dark and dull clouds They bring continuous rain,
(Ni-St) b. They are clearly layered but may have detached darker snow or sleet as forms of
patches precipitation
c. They have grey-black colour
3. Stratus (St) a. They are grey in colour a. They bring dull weather
b. They are thick which is associated with
c. They look like a low ceiling or highland drizzle
b. They reduce visibility

MIDDLE LEVEL CLOUDS

 The clouds develop in the middle layers of the atmosphere.
 Between 2,000 metres and 6000 metres Or between 2 km to 6 km above the ground
 These clouds are brighter and less fragmented in appearance due to their distance from the ground and higher
composition of ice crystals. They move slower than the low-level clouds
 The two types of medium or middle level clouds are altocumulus (Alt-Cu) and altostratus (Alt-St)
 Alto means middle level

CLOUDS CHARACTERISTICS WEATHER

1. Altocumulus a. White grey clouds a. They bring about fine weather
(Alt-Cu) b. Woolly, bumpy and are arranged in layers b. Small amount of precipitation
clouds c. They appear like waves or lumps in the blue sky that are occasional
d. The sun or moon may be surrounded by a halo
2. Altostratus a. They are denser than altocumulus a. Small amounts of precipitation
(Alt-St) clouds b. They are layered and puffy that are occasional
c. Greyish in colour with watery look
d. They have fibrous or striated structure through
which the sun’s rays shine faintly

3. HIGH CLOUDS
 These clouds exist between 6000 metres to 12000 metres above the ground
 They are in the highest and the coldest levels of the troposphere
 They mostly appear brilliant white because the water drops have turned into ice crystals at that level
 Their direction of movement does not necessarily represent the wind direction at the ground level
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CLOUDS CHARACTERISTICS WEATHER
Cirrus a. They look fibrous and appear like wisps in the a. They indicate a fine and fair
blue sky weather
b. They give a brilliant sunset
b. They are thin, white and icy
c. No precipitation
Cirrocumulus a. They appear as white globular masses a. Cold air at high altitudes causes
b. They have ripped appearance small cloud droplets to freeze into
c. They look like scales of fish, hence the sky filled with ice crystals
these clouds is called a ‘mackerel sky’ b. No precipitation
d. They are thin, white and icy.
Cirrostratus a. They look like a thin white sheet or veil a. The sun or moon shines through
b. The sky looks milky cirrostratus and often form a
c. The sun and moon may shine through them ‘halo’. Haloes are circular
shapes resembling the sun or
moon
b. No precipitation

4. CLOUDS OF GREAT VERTICAL EXTENT

 These clouds have no definite height. 1500 metres to 9000 metres i.e. 1.5 km-km above the ground

CLOUDS CHARACTERISTICS WEATHER

Cumulus a. Have round tops a. Are associated with uprising
b. Resemble a cauliflower convectional currents
c. Tall, narrow and puffy b. They bring fair weather
d. White and grey
e. Have flat bases and look like the globe
f. Common in tropical regions where humidity is high
Cumulonimbus a. Black and white globular mass a. They bring about heavy
b. They have a cauliflower top that spreads out like anvil convectional rainfall
c. Common within tropics in the afternoon hours after a lot b. The rain is accompanied by
of evaporation in the morning thunder and lightening
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MEASURING CLOUD COVER

 Cloud cover refers to the fraction of the sky obscured or covered by clouds when observed from a particular
location.
 There is no instrument that can measure the amount of cloud cover in the sky. Cloud cover is estimated by
studying the sky visually. Cloud cover is measured in OKTAS
 An oktas is a circle drawn to represent the sky. When there are no clouds, the cloud cover is zero oktas

 Sky conditions are estimated in terms of how many eighths of the sky are covered in cloud ranging from 0
oktas (completely clear sky) through to 8 oktas (completely overcast)
 In addition, there is an extra cloud cover indicator ‘9’ indicating that the sky is totally obscured (i.e. hidden from
view); usually due to dense fog or heavy snow
 Lines on a map joining places of equal cloud cover are called Isonephs
IMPORTANCE OF CLOUDS
a. They help regulate the earth’s energy by carrying heat they have absorbed in hot regions and re-radiated it
back down toward the surface of other regions of lower temperatures.
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b. They are a source of precipitation. This happens especially from nimbostratus and cumulonimbus clouds
c. Clouds indicate what type of atmospheric processes are occurring (e.g. for example, cirrus suggest the coming
of a storm)
d. They regulate temperature in the sense that during the day they shield the sunlight thereby keeping
temperature cooler while during the night they trap heat on the Earth surface and therefore keeping the Earth
surface warm
HOW DO CLOUDS CAUSE RAIN?
 When water condenses into cloud, the clouds have to be heavy in order to fall on earth. Water droplets need to
acquire more water and become larger.
 If the droplets keep growing, they will reach a mass where they cannot stay floating in the cloud because they
are too heavy and will start to fall to earth as rain

UNIT 23: PRECIPITATION

 This is the falling of water either in liquid or solid form which reaches the earth from the atmosphere
MAJOR FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
 The following are the major forms of precipitation.
a. Precipitation in liquid forms which include rain, drizzle, and freezing rain
b. Precipitation in solid form which include hail, sleet and snow
STATES OF WATER
 Water occurs in three states: solid (ice), liquid as water, and gaseous as water vapour. It can change from one
state to another depending on temperature.
 From gaseous state, molecules may pass into the liquid state by condensation if temperatures are below
freezing point, or can pass into a solid by sublimation to form ice crystals.
 By evaporation, due to high temperatures, water can change from a liquid to a gaseous state or from liquid to
solid by freezing; or from solid to liquid by melting.
CONDITIONS FOR PRECIPITATION
a. Air must be saturated.
b. Air must contain small particles of dust or nuclei around which the droplets form.
c. Air must be cooled below its dew point.
 Dew point is the temperature at which a volume of air gets saturated. Air cools down by
 rising in form of convection currents
 by coming across mountains, e.g., winds, warm air rising over cold air
 by passing over cold surfaces such as cold ocean currents or land.
Why sometimes rain cannot reach the ground?
1. Sometimes rain evaporates before reaching the ground, resulting in virga. These are grey streaks below a
cloud that do not reach the ground
2. If the wind is blowing upwards faster than the rain is falling there by creating updrafts

A. LIQUID PRECIPITATION
I. Rain
 Rain is the precipitation that reaches the ground as liquid water from the atmosphere. It is the most common
form of precipitation
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 For drops to be classified as rain, they are required to be 0.5mm and 6mm in diameter
II. Drizzle
 It is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in form of drops that are in between 0.2 mm to 0.5 mm in
diameter
III. Freezing rain
 Refers to rain droplets which fall in super cooled liquid form, but freeze upon impact with any surface they
encounter, including, the ground, trees, electrical wires and automobiles to form clear ice
 The rain drops become super-cooled while passing through a subfreezing layer of air in the atmosphere
IV. Dew
 This is a form of precipitation where water droplets condense on the ground or on objects near the ground.
 Dew forms during calm, clear nights, when the ground surface and other exposed objects, such as tips of
grass or leaves, lose heat by radiation to the sky. Then temperature drops and objects cool down and this
forces water vapour in the air around objects to condense into small water droplets as dew
B. SOLID PRECIPITAION
I. Hail
 Hail is formed when raindrops in the sky freeze and then fall to the earth as crystals, ice or small pellets.
 Because of their size, they can cause extensive damage to buildings, car windscreens and crops and have
caused fatalities of animals and even humans
II. Snow
 Snow is tiny ice crystals stuck together to become snowflakes. It is the most common form of solid
precipitation
 Snow forms when temperatures are too cold (below 0ºC) than water vapour changes directly into crystals. Ice
crystals are usually six sided. Snow can fall as individual ice crystals or combine to form snowflakes
III. SLEET
 Sleet is a mixture of ice and snow which falls as frozen raindrops
 Sleet is formed when the upper air temperature is below freezing point, allowing snowflakes to form

UNIT 24: RAINFALL

TYPES OF RAINFALL
 There are three basic types of rainfall. These convectional, cyclonic and relief rainfall
I. Convectional rainfall
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 The surface of the earth is heated by the sun. The warm land surface heats the air above it, and the heated air
then rises and cools and water vapour condenses to form clouds. When the clouds become heavy, they fall as
rain
Characteristics of convectional rain
i. It is usually accompanied by lightning and thunderstorms i.e. tropical depression (typhoons)
ii. It falls heavily, but it is short-lived
iii. It covers a small area
iv. They are characterised by an anvil-shaped cumulonimbus clouds
v. It commonly occurs in the late afternoon after the maximum heating, and in hot areas such as
equatorial/tropical
II. Frontal/cyclonic/depression rainfall
 Also known as convergent rainfall, it is formed when two air masses meet along a line of separation called a
front. Then the warm air mass rises over the cold air mass because it is lighter while cold air mass tends to
remain close to the ground as it is denser. The rising warm air cools and forms clouds which

Characteristics of cyclonic/frontal or depression/ convergent rainfall

1) In tropical cyclones, the rainfall is often very heavy but it lasts for only a few hours
2) In temperate depressions, the rainfall is much lighter but it lasts for many hours or even days
3) Cyclonic rainfall is common throughout the doldrums where trade winds meet
4) It usually occurs in winter, but can occur any time of the year
5) It produces cumulonimbus clouds
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III. Orographic or relief rainfall
 This type of rain is formed when winds blow over the sea and pick moisture. As the warm moist wind pass over
the higher land like a mountain, it is forced to rise. The rising air cools and form clouds which fall as rain. As the
air is descending on the other side of the mountain, air is compressed and warmed, a condition not favourable
for rain
NB. The side of a hill facing the wind is called windward side. This side is facing the rain-bearing wind. Leeward side
is the side that receives heavy rainfall because it receives descending dry air. It is also referred to as rain shadow due
to the limited rainfall experienced

Formation of orographic rainfall

Characteristics of relief rainfall
i. It is widespread as it occurs in all latitudes and of longer duration
ii. It occurs in the mountains on the side that faces the direction of wind (windward side)
iii. Warm, dry, descending winds bring no rainfall on the leeward side
iv. It is common along the coastal areas with mountain ranges
Examples of areas which experience orographic rainfall in Malawi and beyond
a. Southeast facing slopes of the Nyika plateau where winds originate from Lake Malawi
b. Southeast facing slopes of Viphya plateau where winds originate from Lake Malawi
c. Southeast facing slopes of Mulanje Mountain where winds originate from Indian Ocean
d. Western side of the Rockies fold mountain where onshore winds originate from the Pacific Ocean
Similarities and differences
All the three types of rainfall are similar in that they involve the following
a. Warm moist air rising
b. Warm air cooling
c. Water vapour condensing to form clouds
d. Further cooling leading to precipitation
The difference is the reason why the air is rising
a. In convectional rainfall, air is rising because it is being heated
b. In orographic rainfall, air is forced to rise over the mountain
c. In frontal rainfall, warm air rises over the cold air
INTERPRETATION OF RAINFALL DATA FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
 It is extremely important to be able to interpret rainfall data from various types graphs and tables, this will
definitely help to compare rainfall patterns of different locations
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 Rainfall data collected at different locations over a specific period of time are used to make graphs and maps
 The average rainfall typically experienced in a particular location is shown on a bar graph or histogram. It is
usually presented alongside with temperature, but the temperature is shown on a line graph. The two are
presented on the same axes with months of the year along the base
 Things to look out when interpreting rainfall or temperature data
i. Overall shape of the graph. Is the temperature line steep or gentle? Does it change throughout the year
and/or look almost flat?
ii. Look for extremes; quote the highest and the lowest temperature and rainfall and the month in which it
occurs. Remember to quote units, e.g. Celsius or millimetres
iii. Identifying the seasons when most rain or least rain falls or when the highest and lowest temperature are
experienced
iv. Workout the temperature range by subtracting the lowest figure from the highest figure
v. Add the rainfall totals for each month together to work out the total annual rainfall
Mean annual temperature
This is the sum of mean monthly temperatures for one year divided by the total number of months in a year
= sum of mean monthly temperatures for 1 year
12
Interpreting rainfall data from various sources
- Rainfall is measured in millimetres using an instrument called a rain gauge
- The rainfall data that are collected from different weather stations over a given time period are used to make
climate graphs and maps. Ability to interpret climate graphs helps to compare rainfall patterns of different
locations in the world.
- When interpreting climate graphs to understand rainfall distribution and the temperature for a given location,
pay attention to the following:
1. Look at the top of bars to identify bars for the month showing high rainfall and those with low rainfall.
2. Take note of months when there is no rainfall at all. These months indicate a dry season. The dry season
can be winter depending on the temperature experienced in the area.
3. Identify the months when there is high rainfall. This indicates a summer season.
4. The annual distribution of rainfall and temperature will help you identify the climate region from which the
data was collected. For example, rainfall throughout the year will tell you that the area is an equatorial
region.
5. Total annual rainfall can be worked out by adding total rainfall of each month.
6. Annual average rainfall can be identified by dividing the annual rainfall by 12months.

UNIT 25: CLIMATIC REGIONS AND WORLD VEGETATION

(BIOMES)
Meanings of some terms related to climate
1. Weather
Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere observed over a short period of time and over a small area.
Weather includes temperature, wind, air pressure etc. Weather is unpredictable
2. Climate
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Climate is the average weather condition of a certain area observed over a long period of time for a given
area. It is easy to predict the climate.
3. Biome
A biome is the division of the world’s vegetation that corresponds to a defined climate, characterised by
specific type of plants and animals
The climate of a region will determine what plants will grow there, and what animals will inhabit it
4. Climatic region
This is part of the world which has similar climatic conditions. It can similarly be defined as the main areas into
which the earth is divided according to climate.

Figure 25.1: World map showing different climates

Criteria that is used to classify world climate
There are a number of factors to consider when classifying world climate, however, temperature and
rainfall are the most important ones
a. Temperature: This refers to degree of hotness or coldness of air in the atmosphere. There is un even
distribution of heat over space and this will result into different climatic regions
b. Rainfall: The type and amount of rainfall experienced in an area differ from Place to place. Other types of
rainfall dominate in a specific area.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

A. Equatorial Climate
Location
It is found in lowlands between 5° North and 5° South of the equator, though it sometimes stretches for 10ºN and 10ºS
of the equator. The areas experiencing this climate include the following
a. South America: West coastlands of Ecuador and Colombia, and the Amazon Basin
b. Eastern Central America: parts of Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala etc.
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c. Africa: Gabon, Guinea coast, Central African Republic, the Congo Basin, Southern Ivory Coast, South
Western and Central Ghana, and Western and Coastal Nigeria and Cameroon
d. Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Philippines, and Singapore
NB. It must be noted that not all places that lie along the equator have Equatorial Climate. The high mountain
areas like the Andes in South America, Kenyan Highlands experience cool climate despite lying within the equator.
Figure 25.2 show the areas experiencing equatorial climate

Fig 25.2: Equatorial climate regions

Fig 25.3: Equatorial climate graph for Andagoya, Columbia

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Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 27 27 28 28 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27
Rain mm 554 519 557 620 655 655 572 574 561 563 563 512

Table 25.1: Climate of Andagoya, Columbia 5°N, Elevation 65m

Climatic characteristics of Equatorial Climate

1. There are no definite seasons. This is because it lies along the doldrums where temperature is constantly high
throughout the year.
2. High temperature throughout the year with average of around 26°C.
3. Low pressure all the year-round due high temperatures
4. It experiences heavy convectional rainfall that is well distributed throughout the year.
 There are two periods of maximum rainfall, in April and October. These occur shortly after equinoxes
because there is more and intense heating. however, this simple pattern maybe upset by local conditions
5. Humidity is always high throughout the year
6. Mid-day sun is always near-vertical. It is overhead twice a year, at the equinoxes
7. It experiences the South East and North East trade winds which meet here
Vegetation
- Vegetation found in Equatorial regions is described as tropical rainforest vegetation. This rainforest vegetation
contains far more species of plants and animals than any other biome. (see Figure 25.4)
Characteristics of tropical evergreen or tropical rainforest vegetation
i. Dense vegetation which is evergreen i.e. they never shed their leaves
ii. It contains many species of trees and trees
iii. Growth is continuous (some plants being in flower, others in fruit, and others shedding leaves) throughout the
year because of lack of climatic seasons
iv. The typical vegetation is hard wood which include Mahogany, Ebony and chengal, green heart, iroko, sapele,
okoume, teak and rubber.
v. There is little or no undergrowth because taller trees cut off most of sunlight. As the result the ground is with
ferns and herbaceous plants which can tolerate shade
vi. Trees are huge, tall, slender and are arranged in layers
vii. The tropical rainforest has four layers as follows (see Figure 25.5)
a) Emergent layer: the uppermost layer where tallest trees rise above the rest. The trees grow up to 40
to 48 m to capture direct sunlight
b) Canopy layer: tall trees in this layer are called canopy trees. They grow so close together that their
crowns interlock to form a continuous canopy (a cover or a ceiling for the rainforest). The canopy later
shuts out most of the sunlight from the forest
c) Understory layer: short trees are found in this layer. Some epiphytes and lianas are also found here
d) Ground or forest floor layer: shrubs, ferns, mosses, fungi and other small plants are found here
because they do not need much sunlight to grow
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Fig 25.5: Layers of an Equatorial rainforest.

viii. There are a lot of creeping stems known as lianas which reach up to 200metres long.
Features of adaptations by plants in hot, wet tropics
a. They have thin and smooth barks, because there is no need for protection against harsh weathers. The
smoothness helps water to drain off easily and prevent bacteria from growing on it
b. The trees have branches on top most portion of the trunk to get as much sunlight as possible
c. Roots are very shallow; they do not need to reach deep since nutrients in the soil are near the surface.
However, tall trees have buttress roots which grow one to five metres above the ground to support weight of
trees
d. Their leaves often have pointed tips called drip tips which allow rain water to drain off quickly

Buttress roots Drip tip leaf

e. Thousands of flowering plants grow onto trees so they get sunshine. There also many climbing plants into the
canopy so their leaves get more sunlight
f. The leaves are large and broad to maximise the surface area for photosynthesis
g. The leaves are also waxy to prevent bacteria from growing on the leaf
Economic activities in the equatorial climate region
a. Agriculture
 Due to heavy rainfall, plantation agriculture is carried out with crops such as palm oil, cocoa, rubber
being grown
 Livestock farming due to heavy rainfall that favours the growth of abundant pasture
b. Tourism
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 Presence of many wild animals and big forests attract tourists
c. Mining
 Many rainforests are rich in oil deposits and mineral reserves such as bauxite, coal, copper, diamond,
gold, iron ore, kaolin, nickel, tin, uranium
d. Lumbering
 Dense and diverse vegetation provides a wide variety of woods for making furniture, pulp, and ship board
e. Fishing
 Due to heavy rainfall, there are numerous rivers which make fishing one of the occupations in the region
f. Electricity generation
 Some of the rivers have been developed for hydroelectric power generation, and this has attracted some
industries
g. Hunting
 Due to the presence of many wild animals in dense forests
Factors that limit development in the equatorial climate region
a. There are many diseases and pests which attack human, animals and crops
b. Development of transport routes is difficult due to dense forests, rivers and swamps
c. Heavy rains result causes leaching and soil erosion which affect soil fertility
d. There is excessive heat and high humidity make the climate uncomfortable for human settlement.
e. Impassable rivers
f. Dangerous snakes and other wild animals thrive in this region that attack people
g. Flooding of rivers due to heavy rainfall which lead to destruction of property and people’s lives

B. TROPICAL CONTINENTAL /SAVANNA (SUDAN TYPE) CLIMATE

Location
o It is found between latitudes 5°- 15° North and 5°- 15° south of the equator. It is a transitional climate between
the equatorial forests and the hot deserts. The savanna climate is confined within the tropics and it is best
developed in Sudan where dry and wet seasons are most distinct, hence it is also called Sudan Climate
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Regions with Tropical Continental Climate

The main areas where this climate is found are

i. Africa: Tanzania, Kenya. Uganda, Western Sudan, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and
Northern Nigeria
ii. South America: Llanos in Venezuela, Campos in Brazil, Colombia and Guyana
iii. Australia: northern areas to the north of the tropic of Capricorn
The distinguishing feature of the savannah climate
 This climate is characterized by alternating hot, rainy season and cool, dry season.
 In the northern hemisphere, the hot, rainy season usually is from May to October. The rest of the year is cool
and dry. In the southern hemisphere, the hot, wet season is from November to April and the rest of the year is
cool and dry.
Climatic characteristics of Savanna climate
a) The climate is characterised by alternate wet and dry seasons
b) Summers are hot with temperature around of 32ºC and cooler winters of 21ºC
c) Humidity is high in the summer in low in cooler drier months
d) Heavy convectional rainfall is common in summer. Winters are usually dry
e) Annual rainfall is moderate, often around 760 mm. This amount of rainfall may be more in coastal regions and
less near the hot deserts
f) Trade winds are the prevailing winds mainly experienced
g) The highest temperature occur just before the rainy season begins e.g. April in Northern Hemisphere and
October in Southern Hemisphere
Malawi’s climate is generally subtropical, with the characteristics of the Savanna climate. A hot, rainy season runs
from November through April. From May to November, it is cool and dry throughout the country
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Fig 25.9: Tropical continental climate

The graphs above show that they are for Tropical continental or Sudan climate as it has alternating dry and wet
seasons.
The graph for Bulawayo indicates that the climatic station from where the data was gathered is from southern
hemisphere. Reason why it is for southern hemisphere?
 The graph has temperatures around June-July when it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere since the sun is
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere or it can be said that the temperatures are
higher around Dec-Jan when it is summer in the southern hemisphere as the sun is overhead at the Tropic of
Capricorn
The other graph indicates that the climatic station is for Northern Hemisphere. Why Northern Hemisphere?

 The graph has the lowest temperatures in Dec-Jan when the sun is overhead in the southern hemisphere or it
can be said that the temperatures are higher around June-July when it is summer in the northern hemisphere
as the sun is overhead at the tropic of cancer
Natural Vegetation
The type of vegetation is mostly savannah or tropical grassland, which has the following
characteristics
a. Consists of tall grass with scattered trees
b. Trees are deciduous, meaning that they shed their leaves in dry season to prevent excessive loss of water
through transpiration
c. They lie dormant during the long drought
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d. Grass dries out in the hot and dry season
e. Plants have long roots, which reach deep down to the moist rock layers in search of ground water
f. Many trees are umbrella shaped to shield the roots from the scorching heat and maintain moisture of the soil
under them. The umbrella shape also protects the tree trunk from strong winds (see Figure 25.10)
g. The appearance of vegetation changes with season. It appears green and fresh in rainy season and yellowish
brown and parched with the ensuing dry season
h. They have broad trunks (e.g. baobab to store excessive water)
In Africa, the vegetation is called Savanna while in South America is known as Llanos (Guinea highlands)
and Campos in Brazil
Savannah is the home of wild animals. It is called big game country

Fig 25.10 Savanna vegetation

Examples of the trees found in this type of climate
 Baobab trees, Palms, Acacias, Gum trees, Elephant grass
Economic activities in the tropical continental climate
i. Agriculture
o This type of climate is suitable for arable farming especially growing of annual crops such as cotton, bananas,
ground nuts in west Africa and millet
o Savanna climate is favourable for livestock farming e.g. cattle and goats are kept
ii. Tourism
o Grasslands provide shelter and pasture for wild animals, this makes tourism an important activity
iii. Mining
o Savannah areas are also rich in mineral reserves such as bauxite, coal, copper, diamonds, gold, nickel, tin and
uranium
iv. Fishing
o The heavy rainfall received during the short rainy season give rise to permanent water bodies. This has made
fishing one of the most important occupations in the region
v. Electricity
o The seasonal heavy rains also made some of the rivers support hydroelectric power generation
Factors that affect development in the region
1. Unreliable rain limits development of agriculture
2. Diseases and insect pests which attack people and animals e.g. Tsetse flies
3. Loss of soil fertility through leaching in summer during the torrential rain
4. The dry season makes much of the region prone to wildfires
C. HOT DESERT CLIMATE
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Location:
 The hot desert climate is found around the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer, usually on the west side of
continents in the trade wind belt, hence they are also called tropical deserts
The most important regions of hot deserts are found in the following continents
a. Africa: Sahara, Kalahari and Namib Desert
b. Asia: Arabian Desert, part of Israel, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Iran and part of Pakistan (Thar desert)
c. Australia: Central and Western Australia
d. South America: The Atacama Desert in Chile
e. North America: Mohave/Californian desert
General pattern on the way the deserts are distributed across the globe

Fig 25.11: Hot desert climate regions

a. Most are located on the western sides of continents along the western coasts. These are known as coastal
deserts e.g. Namib, Atacama and Californian
b. Some deserts are found in the interior of continents. These are called continental deserts. For example, the
Sahara Desert, Kalahari and Central Australian Desert are located in the interior
Distinguishing features of the hot desert climate
o Its climatic graph will show a very high temperature but very little rainfall, even in the wettest months
Why the major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents
between 15° and 30° North and South of the equator?
1. They lie along the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts where air is descending; a condition not favourable for
precipitation of any kind to take place
2. They lie in western coastal areas where rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and westerlies that are on-
shore blow outside the desert limit
3. They lie adjacent to cold currents. when the onshore winds blow over the cold current, they are cooled and
condensed to form fogs and low stratus clouds, when they reach the desert, they are dry
- Some deserts lie on the leeward side of mountain barriers. As the prevailing winds cross the mountain
barrier, they drop their moisture on the windward side, creating a rain shadow on the leeward side. For
example, the Kalahari is in the rain shadow of the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa
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Climatic characteristics
a. Rain rarely falls. Some desert areas may receive rain only once every two to three years. Average rainfall is
usually 120 mm
b. Temperature is high throughout the year
c. High wind velocity due to little frictional force
d. Humidity is low and evaporation rate is high
e. There is no cold season in hot desert
f. Diurnal temperature range is high. This is because during the day, the sky is cloudless and therefore the area
receives full insolation and temperature reach over 40ºC. At night the sun the cloudless skies allow the heat of
the ground to radiate into the atmosphere leading to temperature dropping below 0ºC
NB Diurnal (daily) temperature range refers to difference between daily maximum and daily minimum.

Fig 25.12: Hot desert climate

Natural vegetation
Vegetation in the hot desert climate is scanty due to lack of rain and is therefore described as xerophytic or drought
resistant.
How desert plants have adapted to hot and dry conditions of the deserts
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a. They develop long roots to tap water from deep down the soil
b. They have very thick leaves and stems to store water
c. Have waxy layers on the outside of their stems and leaves which helps to reflect some of the heat and reduce
loss of water
d. Some plants are halophytes. This means that these plants are adapted to survive in saline conditions
e. They have thick succulent stems to store water and prevent loss of water through the stems.
f. Few and no leaves or thorns instead of leaves to prevent the loss of water through transpiration (see Figure
25.13)
g. Some flowering desert plants are ephemeral; they live for a few days at most. They produce sleepy seeds (those
that lie dormant) and germinate when water is available. The most common plants are cacti, thorny bushes,
coarse grasses and thorn bushes
Countries which are likely to have this climate are
i. In Northern Hemisphere: Mali, Chad, Niger, Libya, Mauritania, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, etc.
ii. In the Southern Hemisphere: Chile, Australia and Namibia
Economic activities in the hot desert
a. Hunting and gathering
For example, the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert are nomadic hunters and food gatherers; they do not grow
crops or keep animals
b. Agriculture
The crops are grown by irrigation using the oases. Wheat, barley, dates, figs and a variety of vegetables are
grown for both commercial and local use. Animals like sheep, goats and camels are also kept
c. Mining
Hot desert areas are source of enormous wealth in natural resources like petroleum and copper
d. Tourism
Hot deserts are attractive places for tourists in various countries, providing different tours and sports such as
motorcycling, hiking and camel riding
e. Solar power generation
High temperatures in deserts make them suitable places for producing solar energy
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Problems which prevents further development in the desert areas
a. Lack of rainfall and very limited availability of fresh water.
This affects farmers who keep animals as they have to move from place to place in search of water and
pasture.
b. Strong, dusty winds that blow across the deserts. This affects driving, flying and walking
c. Poor sandy soils that cannot support agriculture because they drain quickly
d. Plenty of locusts which live on plants and migrate in swamps
e. Too much heat from the sun
f. Communication problem
As large areas are covered by sand, roads and railways cannot be constructed

D. MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE (WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN)

LOCATION

- Mediterranean climate is experienced between 30º and 45º North and South of the equator in the western
margin or sides of continents. The greatest extent of this type of climate is found around the shores of
Mediterranean Sea, hence the term Mediterranean Climate.
Other Mediterranean regions include
- Southwest Africa (around Cape Town), Central Chile, Central California, Southwest and Southern
Australia. However, the best developed form of this climatic type is found in central Chile
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Fig 25.14: Mediterranean climate regions
COUNTRIES EXPERIENCING MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
I. In the Northern Hemisphere
Southern Europe and North Africa in the lands bordering Mediterranean Sea: includes countries like
Spain, Greece, Italy, Algeria
II. In the Southern Hemisphere
a. South west tip of Africa: around Cape Town in South Africa
b. Central Chile in South America
c. South West and South Australia
Distinguishing features of the Mediterranean climate
 The distinctive feature of this climate that makes it easy to identify is summer drought and winter rains. It
receives rain in winter, hence it is also called winter rain climate while the rest receive rain in summer.
The basic cause of the climate
- The basic cause of this climate is the shifting of wind belts.
- When the sun is overhead at the tropical of cancer in June, all the belts move about 5º-10º north of their
average position. Then Mediterranean parts of the southern continent then come under influence of westerlies
and receive rain in June (winter in the Southern Hemisphere)
- In the same manner, when the sun is overhead at the Capricorn, all the belts swing 5º-10º south of their
average position. Then the Mediterranean parts of Europe and California then come under influence of
westerlies and receive rain in December (winter in the northern hemisphere)

Fig 25.15: Shifting of wind belts in the Mediterranean climatic region

Climatic characteristics of Mediterranean climate
a. Experiences cyclonic rain in winter because of on-shore westerly winds
b. Rainfall decreases inland
c. There are distinct seasons i.e. summer, autumn, winter and spring
d. Summers are dry because trade winds are blowing off shore there by not bringing rainfall
e. Summers are hot with temperatures of about 21°C
f. Mild winters of about 10°C
g. Areas affected experience local winds both cold and hot. Sirocco, Mistral, and Bora as examples
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Fig 25.16: Mediterranean climate

 The graph for Cape Town shows that it is for Mediterranean because it receives rain in winter i.e. May, June,
July where temperatures are low. Also, the climatic station is located in the southern hemisphere because it
has lower temperatures in June-July when is winter in the south
 The Algiers station also has most rain in winter i.e. November, December and January. This station is located
in the northern hemisphere because it has higher temperatures during June-July when the sun is overhead in
NH and is summer there (Figure 25.16)
Natural vegetation
- Vegetation in Mediterranean areas is varied. It ranges from scrub to grassland to woodlands. Some people call
this kind of vegetation ‘chaparral’, a Spanish word that means ‘an area of small evergreen oak trees.
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- Some common trees found in Mediterranean regions includes the following; Red wood (sequoia), Eucalyptus,
Pine, Firs, cypress, cedar, beech, and chest nut. Figure 25.17 shows Mediterranean vegetation
The following types of vegetation exist in Mediterranean regions
a. Mediterranean evergreen forests
- Comprises of open woodlands with evergreen oaks, giant sequoia and eucalyptus
b. Evergreen coniferous forests
- These include different kinds of cedars, cypresses, firs and pines. This vegetation is common in cooler
areas where droughts are rare
c. Mediterranean bushes and shrubs
- This is the most dominant type of vegetation in Mediterranean regions. The most common species
include the evergreen sage, thyme and rosemary

Fig 25.17: Mediterranean vegetation

Many plants have adapted themselves to the demands of Mediterranean temperatures (long
hot dry summers and short cool wet winters)
a. Some plants thick leaves to avoid using water e.g. Euphorias
b. The vegetation is short, dense, and scrubby in order to survive in dry habitats. This is called a drought-
resistant strategy for survival
c. Many of these plants have the ability to lose their leaves when times get tough.
d. Some plants are small, silvery or light coloured to reflect excessive light e.g. olive, rosemary, lavender
e. They have both a long deep taproot, and a dense network of lateral roots close to the surface to absorb as
much moisture as possible
f. They produce thick, woody tubers called burls, which are found at the base of the plant. These burls are so
thick they can even resist being burned all the way through in a fire. The fire-resistant burl at the base of the
trunk can re-sprout, enabling the shrubs to re-grow to their original size in just a few seasons
g. Some plants are nocturnal. They have a short growing cycle to avoid the summer drought
h. Others have hair on their leaves to trap moisture from fog or rain and to insulate them from the high heat in
summer. For example, rosemary and thyme
NB. The vegetation in Mediterranean regions have been affected in the following ways
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i. Forest fires due to hot, dry conditions. In addition, some plants contain flammable fuels or sometimes
fires deliberately have also destroyed the vegetation
ii. Extensive livestock (goats and sheep) grazing and deforestation have destroyed the vegetation
Economic activities in the Mediterranean Climatic Region
a. Agriculture
Agriculture is more developed in the Mediterranean region
i. Fruit farming
There is widespread growing of various species of fruits in the region including oranges, lemons, and
grapes. Other fruits include peaches, pears, figs and cherries
ii. Crop cultivation. The climate suits growth of many crops e.g. wheat, barley, olive trees for making oil,
vegetables etc.
iii. Livestock farming. Mountain pastures with their colder climate, provide favourable conditions for goat,
sheep and sometimes cattle rearing
Some industries common in these regions are
i. Wine making from grapes
ii. Fruit canning
iii. Flour milling from wheat and barley
iv. Food processing
b. Tourism
The long hot, dry summers attract many tourists from the cold regions
c. Mining
The Mediterranean climate region has abundant mineral resources such as coal, gold, diamond, platinum, etc.
However, the following problems are common
a. Fires start due to hot, dry conditions.
b. Limited amount of water
c. Land shortage due to population increase. In order to find the solution for land problems, people are terracing
the upland areas.
d. The spread of irrigation has created environmental problems such as soil salinity due to intense heat in
summers which cause a lot of evaporation

UNIT 26: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Terminologies
a. Environment: This is the sum total of all surrounding conditions for a person, animal or plant
b. Environmental issues: These refer to the harmful aspects of human activity on the biophysical
environment or the planet’s systems (air, water and soil).
 Environmental issues include problems with the planet’s system (air, water and soil etc.) that have developed
as a result of human interference or mistreatment of the planet
 Some of the environmental issues include pollution, climate change, global warming, desertification, resource
depletion, over population, hazardous wastes, toxicants and deforestation.
c. Environmental problems:
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 These refer to the difficulties that are caused by human activities that result in changes in the
environment. These changes have disastrous effects on certain aspects of the environment
 These are processes such as resource consumption that have negative effects on the sustainability of the
environmental quality for the well-being of the organisms living in it
 Environmental problems include greenhouse effect, ozone depletion, air pollution, air quality, waste water,
urban run-off, water crisis, habitat destruction, non-recyclable wastes, population explosion, eutrophication
etc.

The following some of the environmental issues

1. Climate change
• Climate change is triggered by human activities such as deforestation and emission of greenhouse gases
2. Destruction of ecosystems
• Human activities such as cultivation of forested areas may lead to the extinction of plant and animal species,
which poses a threat to the environment.
3. Environment degradation
• The environment can be destroyed in many ways.
i. Soil can be degraded through rampant erosion.
ii. Mining activities lead to land becoming completely useless and unproductive
4. Overpopulation
• Overpopulation this leads to depletion of resources which cause the extinction of various species in the
environment
5. Waste management
• Humans generate wastes and failure to manage waste well can be disastrous to the environment
6. Ozone depletion
• The ozone layer is being depleted through the emission of greenhouse gases. The effects of ozone depletion
include flooding and droughts

A. POLLUTION
Definition
 Pollution is the introduction of waste materials into natural environment that renders part of the environment
unfit for intended or desired use
 Most of the pollution results from human activities. As people use natural resources, they produce pollutants.
pollutants are the normal by-products of people
 Environmental pollution can be classified as air pollution, water pollution, water pollution and land pollution.
There are other types of pollution known as noise, pollution, visual pollution which can actually be embedded
in the three major pollution
The main types of pollution
1. Air pollution
 Refers to the addition of harmful chemicals, toxins, particulate matter into the atmosphere
Causes of air pollution
a. Harmful gases emitted through volcanic eruption
b. Burning of fossil fuels e.g. burning of fuels in factories and automobile exhaust fumes
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c. Deforestation. Vegetative cover purifies air and its removal can cause pollution
d. Increased urbanisation which leads to more construction, transport and industrial activities which cause fine
particles of dust to rise into the atmosphere
e. Setting of bush fires which pollute the air
f. Bursting of sewages which releases gas into the atmosphere which pollute the air
Harmful effects of air pollution
a. Diseases such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and heart diseases may affect people
b. May lead to the formation of acid rain. Acid rain damages trees and causes soils and other water bodies to
acidify, thereby making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife
NB. Acid rain is a precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulphuric acids. These acids are formed
primarily by nitrogen and sulphur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned.
c. Poor visibility or haze
 Haze obscures the clarity, colour, texture and form of what we see, and this causes serious problems in the
transport industry, especially aviation and shipping.
NB. Haze occurs when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air
d. Depletion of the protective ozone layer.
 This can cause increased amount of Ultra-violet radiation to reach the earth, which can lead to more cases of
skin cancer and impaired immune systems
 Ultra-Violet radiation can also damage sensitive crops, such as soya beans, and hence, reduce crop yield
e. Global climate change
 The production of large amount of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane has caused the
earth’s atmosphere to trap more of the sun’s heat. This had caused the earth’s average temperature to rise;
a phenomenon known as global warming
 Global warming could have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests,
wildlife, and coastal areas
2. Water pollution
 Water pollution refers to any contamination of water bodies with chemicals or other foreign substances that are
harmful to human, plant, or animal health
Causes of pollution
a. Dumping of industrial wastes that contain heavy metals, harmful chemicals, organic toxins and oils into
the nearby source of water
b. Oil spills from ruptured oil rigs, refineries or oil tankers can produce widespread and potentially
hazardous substances into water bodies
c. Improper disposal of human and animal wastes
d. Residues of agricultural practices, including fertilisers and pesticides which enter the groundwater
systems through rain water causing pollution
e. Natural disasters like hurricanes can destroy nuclear power plants and automobiles into water bodies
causing widespread damage to marine life
f. Some fishing methods such as use of chemicals pollutes water
Harmful effects of water pollution
a. Waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhoea are produced by the pathogens present in
polluted water, affecting humans and animals alike
b. Scarcity of safe and portable water for humans, animals and plants
c. Water pollution kills life and lead to extinction
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d. Pollutants such as toxic chemicals can change the acidity, conductivity and temperature of water. This
would in turn affect the pattern of ocean currents as well as the climate of the surrounding regions
e. Eutrophication in water masses such as lakes and rivers.
Eutrophication is the build-up of large amounts of minerals such as nitrates and phosphates in fresh waters
3. Land pollution
 Land pollution refers to the degradation of the earth’s land surface through deposition of hazardous solid or
liquid waste materials on land or underground
Causes of land pollution
a. Dumping of toxic materials such as chemicals and paints on land
b. Increase in urbanisation which causes large amounts of rubbish to be left untreated and then dumped
along streets.
c. Improper treatment of sewage solid lead to the accumulation of solids, such as biomass sludge. These
solid wastes overflow through the sewage, making the entire area look dirty.
d. Littering of rubbish anyhow in road sides, streets such as food remains and food wrappers
e. Overuse of agricultural chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and chemical fertilizers
f. The disposal of non-biodegradable wastes: including nuclear wastes, containers, bottles and cans
made of plastic, used cars and electronic goods, also leads to the pollution of land
g. Burning of solid fuels which leads to the formation of ashes, which is yet another cause of land
pollution
h. Mining leads to the formation of piles of coal and slag
Harmful effects of land pollution
a. It leaves places dirty and makes them unhealthy. Skin problems and other diseases are often diagnosed
due to land pollution
b. The toxic chemicals disposed of on land may leach into the ground water, posing serious long-term
hazards to the environment
c. Land pollution releases airborne chemicals and smell, which endanger health and lower property values
in an area
d. Unpleasant and smelly environment
e. Leads to less productivity of the land and land becomes unfavourable for growth of crops
4. Another form of pollution is Noise pollution
 Noise pollution refers to the excessive propagation of noise which is harmful or negative effects on the
activities of human or animal life
Causes of noise pollution
a. Social events e.g. music concerts, wedding ceremonies, birthday, and other parties, cheering
crowds in events like football matches, and activities in market centres where people engage in loud
conversations
b. Construction activities e.g. drilling and blasting of rocks and the mixing of various materials
required for construction
c. Industrialisation: Factories and industries use massive machines
d. Transportation: Many vehicles on the road cause noise pollution through the sounds produced by
their engines. Also hooting and honking of their horns. Airplanes and Trains make a lot of noise as
they move
e. War zones: e.g. the use of guns and atomic bombs
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Effects of noise pollution
a. Excessive noise produced may lead to loss in hearing
b. Health issues like cardiovascular and hypertension problems in human being
c. Breakdown in communication
d. It may cause stress, which can lead to psychological disorders.
e. It may affect sleeping patterns and lead to sleep disorders
Ways of controlling noise pollution
a. Using silencers in automobiles will allow them to generate less noise on the roads
b. Planting more trees in strategic areas. Trees will act as sound barriers for the noise produced
c. Ensuring that all machines are well lubricated to reduce the noise they produce
d. Using sound insulating equipment in buildings and for all workers operating in noisy environment
Why environmental degradation is a gender issue?
a. When the environment is degraded women and girls do more work, such as walking long distances to
gather water and firewood
b. Environmental degradation prevents women and girls from leisure activities and education because they
have to spend much of their time fulfilling traditional responsibilities such as food growers, water and fuel
gatherers, and caregivers
c. There is also an increased incidence of physical and sexual assault when women have to walk long
distances to remote areas for water and sanitation, particularly in situations of conflict and war
Possible control measures to air, land and water pollution
a. Using renewable and clean sources of energy such as solar and wind
b. Using recycled products
c. Reusing things such as paper and plastic bags
d. Public awareness campaigns on causes and dangers of various forms of pollution
e. Legislation and enforcing laws that protect the environment against all forms of pollution
f. Planting more trees to act as ‘carbon sink’. Vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide for the process of
photosynthesis
g. Encouraging the use of public transport to reduce the number of vehicles on roads
h. Effective collection and treatment of waste in urban areas

UNIT 27: DERSETIFICATION

 Desertification is a process in which habitable land is gradually transformed into a desert

 Desertification involve the expansion of an existing desert or the formation of a new desert
 Desertification sometimes is referred as “creeping desert”, this is because it spreads slowly once it starts
Causes of desertification
 The causes of desertification are classified into two main categories, that is:
a. Human causes
b. Non-human causes
A. Human causes
a. Deforestation
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 Deforestation leads to soil erosion, which results into Loss of soil fertility and this restricts future growth of
vegetation.
 When trees have been cut down carelessly, the rate of transpiration is reduced leading to little or no rain
b. Overgrazing by livestock and wild animals
 This habit destroys vegetation and causes compaction of soil under trampling hoofs. This makes the earth’s
surface bare, hard, infertile, and thus unproductive
c. Shifting cultivation
 This involve converting more forest dry land into crop lands by slashing and burning of pre-existing vegetation,
hence increasing the area of land which is of poor quality
d. Incorrect irrigation in arid regions
 Irrigation of pumping water from underground to water crops has reduced the level of water
table, this causes plants to dry since their roots can no longer reach water supplies.
 Poor irrigation methods have led to the accumulation of salts in the surface soil causing
massive death of plants
e. Pollution
 Some pollutants like sulphur dioxide combine with water to form acids in the atmosphere. This leads to acid
rains, which kill many forests. Disappearance of forest cover causes the atmosphere to contain less water
vapour, hence leading to less rain
f. Industrialisation or urbanisation
 Urbanisation is also encroaching upon agricultural lands causing immense damage to our natural resources
g. Mining
 Mineral exploitation takes up vast areas of productive land, destroying vegetative cover. This triggers soil
erosion and siltation of water bodies, resulting in land degradation and water scarcity
B. Natural (physical) factors
a. Existence of cold currents on the path of rain-bearing winds
 The winds passing over a cold current is cooled and condense to form low stratus clouds and fogs. So when
they reach the land masses they are dry and create a desert condition. For instance, the Namib and
Atacama deserts are good examples of deserts influenced by cold currents
b. Rain shadow effect of high mountains
 Warm moist winds deposit most of the moisture on the windward side of the mountain. As the winds descends
to the leeward side, they are compressed, warmed and become dry, hence no rain. For example, California
lies on the leeward side of Rockies
c. Formation of sub-tropical high-pressure belts
 Air sinks in sub-tropical high-pressure belts at about 30º North and South of equator which is unfavourable
condition for rain. These conditions make it difficult for vegetation to survive resulting to desertification.
d. Rain shadow effects of easterly trade winds
 They lie in western coastal areas where rain-bearing trade winds blow off-shore and drop their moisture in the
eastern edges of the land masses and westerlies that are on-shore blow outside the desert limit
Levels of desertification
 The process of desertification is not a desert itself. The process varies from place to place depending on the
factors in place.
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As a result, the process falls into four categories as follows
1. Slight: There is significant reduction in plant cover due to human activities.
2. Moderate: The top soil is eroded and the productive grassland is replaced by some scrubs which are not
productive.
3. Severe: There is total destruction of land where there are deep gullies and desertification process is
irreversible.
4. Very severe: This is where deserts already exist and human activities cannot affect land cover. E.g.
Kalahari
Effects of desertification
1. It prevents regeneration of various valuable plant species
2. It causes the land to be prone to landslides
3. It encourages soil erosion and contributes to the silting of river beds
4. It causes climate change
5. It leads to poor crop yield leading to food shortage
6. It leads to drying up of water bodies and water catchment areas
7. It triggers the migration of people to other more agriculturally productive areas
8. It leads to the loss of vegetation and animal species resulting into extinction
9. Increased frequency of sand and dust storms which contributes to air pollution and causes eye infections,
respiratory problems, and allergies
10. Flooding due to high run-off
Why is desertification becoming a threat to Malawi?
a. Reduced agricultural land since Malawi depends on agriculture for its economy
b. Poverty and underdevelopment as more foreign currency is used to import food supplies rather
than concentrating on developmental programmes
c. Depletion of water resources as loss of vegetation result in little rainfall
d. Loss of biodiversity since animal species loses their habitats and hence affects tourism
e. Increased flooding as protective plant cover disappears due to desertification
f. Increased illiteracy rates among women because women walk long distances to fetch water and
collect firewood instead of spending time in school
g. Increased urbanisation rate as people abandon their unproductive land and this pile pressure in
their new destinations
Reason why desertification is fast in the developing countries like Malawi.
a. Most people do not have alternatives for energy because of poverty; as such they mostly use fire wood as the
main source of their energy.
b. Illiteracy level is high as such they fail to understand the long term impact of desertification.
c. Over population i.e. the rate of their population increase does not match with the rate at which vegetation is
replaced.
Measures to control desertification
1. Afforestation and Re-afforestation
2. Proper land husbandry- These include all processes that promote conservation of land e.g. practicing
crop rotation, rotational grazing and making ridges across the slope.
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3. Civic education campaigns- people must be taught about the dangers of deforestation and
desertification
4. Controlling rapid population growth-this reduces pressure on the vegetation
5. Provision of alternative sources of energy- These will reduce pressure on vegetation, which in turn
will control desertification. These alternative sources of energy include; solar, hydroelectricity, energy from
wind, biogas, thermal energy, geothermal energy and nuclear energy.
6. Creating other opportunities: for people to earn a living would help to relieve dependence on land and,
in turn, the pressures that are causing desertification
7. Irrigation improvements
Use irrigation techniques that can reduce water loss from evaporation and prevent salt accumulation. This
involves changes in the design in irrigation systems to prevent water from pooling or evaporating easily from
soil. For example, the use of drip irrigation helps to save water

UNIT 28: CLIMATE CHANGE

 Climate change is the significant long-term changes in global or regional climatic patterns
 Climatic change includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among others that
occur over several decades or longer
 Global warming is the rise in average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere.
 Precipitation patterns have also shifted dramatically in response to the rise in global temperatures
 Climate change is attributed largely to increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the over
use of fossil fuels
 The climate changes that have occurred are caused by both natural and human factors.
A. Natural causes of climate change
a. Volcanic eruptions
 The immense quantities of dust and sulphur dioxide released into the atmosphere during major volcanic
eruptions can remain suspended in the atmosphere for several years. It blocks solar radiation which
eventually lowers global temperatures. Therefore, the periods that have greater volcanic activities also
experience cool climatic seasons as a result
b. Plate tectonics and continental drifts
 As continents drifts from one latitudinal position to another, areas that were previously in warmer latitudes can
drift to cooler latitudes while those that were previously in cooler areas may have drifted into warmer areas
causing climate change.
c. Slow changes in the earth’s orbit around the sun
 Sometimes the orbit Earth becomes more elliptical and the earth passes closer to the sun and
temperature become warmer than normal or the Earth passes away from the sun and temperature
become cooler

d. Changes in sun’s heat

 Sun’s energy output changes over time with respect to sunspots available on the sun. more spots mean more
energy being fired out from the sun towards the earth, causing slight changes in the earth’s climate
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NB. Sunspots are dark areas on the surface of the earth. Sometimes the sun has more of these spots; and at
times they disappear
e. Changes in the amount of sun’s heat
 As the earth spins on axis, it does not achieve perfect rotation. The angle of tilt changes slightly with time,
moving from 22.1 degrees to 24.5 degrees and back again in about 41,000 years.
 When the angle of tilt increases, the summers become warmer and winters become colder, but when the angle
decreases summers and winters become mild.
f. Changes in the ocean’s circulation
 Any changes in ocean current can cause changes in climate. El Niño is an example of such changes. Every 2-
7 years, the waters off the western coasts of South America become warmer than usual. The cold water of
Peruvian current is covered by a sheet of warm water from the equator caused by change in direction of the
prevailing easterly winds that blow over the central Pacific Ocean. The change pushes warm water and
heavy rains towards North and South America and brings drought to Australia and Asia.
 When the reverse occurs, the strong winds blow warm air westwards and produce rains and flooding in
Australia and Asia while North and South America experience drought. This reversal of ocean current is
called La Niña (a feminine form of the word El Niño)
NB. El Niño refers to an event that occurs every two to seven years in the Pacific Ocean during which winds shift and
push warm surface water towards the coast of South America and it causes dramatic changes in climate change
B. Human causes of climate change
a. Deforestation
 Firstly, when trees are cut, the rate of transpiration is reduced leading to little or no rain.
 Secondly, the removal of vegetation means there will be more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since
vegetation absorb carbon dioxide
b. Emission of various gases into the atmosphere (greenhouse effect)
 The release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere causes global warming which leads to climate change.
Example of greenhouse gases are
i. Carbon dioxide: originates from burning of fossil fuels
ii. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s): these are gases released from aerosols and by refrigerators
iii. Methane: originates from farming, waste disposal, mining and rice fields
iv. Nitrous oxide: it is emitted from power stations, vehicles, and from the use of fertilisers
c. Urbanisation
 Construction of tall concrete buildings, tarmac roads and other modern infrastructure modify the drainage and
heat conductivity of the earth’s surface.
 The tall buildings towers and flyovers may reduce the free flow of air, causing climate change.
d. Rapid population growth
 Rapid increase in population leads to greater consumption of food, water and energy; putting a great stress on
the environment. This may also lead to climate change
Effects of climate change
i. Declining food production due to severe droughts
 Climate change creates increasingly dry conditions that could cause permanent drought, causing crop failure
ii. Loss of biodiversity
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 Climate change changes habitats, causing changes in the abundance and composition of plant and animal
species. Animals may either move to cooler habitats or die due to increasing temperatures
iii. Increased frequency and severity of storms
 Warm ocean surfaces are conducive to formation of storms, as the temperatures increasingly rise, so does the
frequency of severe storms
iv. Spread of diseases
 With climate change, disease causing organism multiply rapidly, as a result, diseases like malaria will spread
to different areas, affecting the health of many people
v. Shifting water resources
 In some regions, climate change threatens to reduce fresh water availability due to decreased rainfall that
ultimately feeds major reservoirs.
 In other regions, there is increased flooding from the intense rainfalls due to warmer, more moisture-laden
atmosphere.
vi. Global warming
 Caused by the release of greenhouse gases e.g. methane, carbon dioxide etc.
 Global warming is the gradual increase in the overall temperature of the atmosphere of the earth
Indicators of global warming
a. Global sea level has risen
b. Glaciers are melting
c. Ocean currents are changing
d. The Arctic and Antarctic Ice caps are thinning and shrinking
Impact of global warming
 Heavy rains, flooding, blizzards and storms
 Droughts in Africa and India
 Desertification
vii. Changing Ocean Currents:
 Normally, warm currents flow from the equator polewards while cold ocean currents flow from the poles
towards the equator. An increase in temperatures due to global warming especially in regions around the
poles can change the direction of flow of ocean currents. The movement of warm and cold currents is vice
versed
viii. Shrinking of the Antarctic Ice Cap.
 Global warming increases temperature of Antarctic belt, thereby melting part of this ice cap. This results into
shrinking of the Antarctic ice cap. This has also led to flooding
ix. Increased flooding due to rising of sea levels:
 Melting of mountain ice, increased rainfall and expansion of sea water from increased warming cause sea
levels to rise. Rising sea levels could put some small, low-lying island states and coastal communities at a
greater risk of flooding
Indicators of climate change in Malawi
1. Malnutrition
 Drought often lead to poor crop yield which lead to malnutrition
2. Occurrence of diarrhoea and cholera
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 Due to excessive rainfall brought about by climate change, flooding occurs, which eventually increases the
prevalence of such diseases
3. Rising cases of Malaria
 Large amounts of rainfall experienced will create waterlogged conditions which will create favourable
conditions for mosquitoes to breed.
 Hot weather may encourage people to sleep outdoors or discourage them from using mosquito nets
4. Frequent disruption of production of hydro-electric power
 Droughts and floods leads to the fluctuation of water in the Shire River that consequently affects the production
of power
 Flooding has led to siltation in the Shire River, resulting into inability of turbines to rotate at Nkula A and B as
well as Tedzani power stations
5. Loss of biodiversity
 Droughts are responsible for drying up of water masses which leads to the loss of animal species especially
fish. For example, droughts have been responsible of drying up of lakes in Malawi such as Lake Chirwa in
1995 where a lot of fish died
6. Loss of forests through fires
 Droughts result into intense heat which leads to natural fires in forests. For example, during the drought of
1995, some 5550 hectares (30%) of Chongoni Forest was destroyed by forest fires
Climate change mitigation and adaptation practices in Malawi
 The differences between climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation
1. Climate change mitigation refers to measures that are taken to reduce the harmful human activities
that are causing climate change
2. Climate change adaptation refers to the efforts to reduce the impact of climate change on
vulnerable communities and their livelihoods through various measures, while not necessarily dealing
with the underlying cause of those impacts
 It involves reacting to changes that have already happened or anticipate changes that might happen and
prepare for them
A. Mitigation measures to climate change
a. Afforestation to remove the greater amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reduce flooding
and droughts
b. Providing alternatives to fossil fuels e.g. solar and wind power
c. Recycling and reusing of some products
d. Inclusion of climate change issues in school curriculum
e. Increase the use of non-motorised transport e.g. cycling and walking
f. Civic education among the rural and urban dwellers on the importance of conserving the environment
B. Adaptation measures to climate
a. People must be encouraged to grow drought tolerant food crops like cassava, millet, sorghum, sweet
potato
b. Promoting irrigated agriculture by developing irrigation schemes along river basins.
c. Creating functional linkages with development partners for technology enterprise initiatives
d. Diversifying rural economies through integrating activities like livestock keeping, fish production and crop
growing
e. Improving weather and flood forecasting can assist evacuation, relief and rehabilitation
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UNIT 29: WORLD FISHING

i. FISHING: Fishing involves the catching of fish and other aquatic or marine animals. Other aquatic or marine
animal includes the following seals, whales, crabs, lobsters, prawns, oysters and seaweeds plus many more
ii. FISHERIES: Fisheries are fishing grounds or areas where water resources such as fish, whales, seals are
exploited
iii. Fishing piracy: It refers to the illegal fishing of endangered species. Fish are abundant where food supplies
are most plentiful. They feed on very small marine organisms, collectively called plankton
Factors that influence development of the Fishing Industry
A. Human factors
I. Presence of a large population: provides labour to carry out fishing and a market for the fish
II. Skilled personnel: is required in the development of fishing equipment like ships, boats and fishing nets
III. Technology: commercial fishing requires long distance movement to and from natural habitats for fish and
therefore advanced and sophisticated fishing equipment is needed.
Examples of advanced and sophisticated fishing equipment are
i. Ships or boats equipped with radar, eco-sounders to locate the fish in case of deep fishing
ii. Also requires refrigeration as well as processing plant and canning facilities on board in case of
off-shore fishing
B. Physical factors
I. Meeting of warm and cold ocean currents which encourage precipitation of minerals such as
nitrates hence the growth of planktons
II. Indented coastlines for natural harbours and provide high quality breeding sites for fish. Here the fish
are sheltered from strong winds and ocean currents
III. Presence of continental shelves or shallow waters that allow penetration of sunlight to stimulate
`growth of abundant planktons
IV. Availability of planktons (green, microscopic plants) on which fish feed
V. Existence of cool climate. Fish are cold-blooded animals and they survive in temperatures lower
than 20ºC. This climate also helps in the growth of planktons
VI. Scarcity of cultivated land in the coastal areas which may force the people to resort to fishing in
order to survive
C. Economic factors
I. Market availability: Areas which are highly populated offer a wide market for the fish caught
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II. Transport facilities: Since fish is highly perishable, it requires readily available and fast means of
transport
III. Capital: Fishing is a capital-intensive activity requiring large sums of money, since fishing equipment
such as vessels and refrigeration system has to be bought

Major fishing grounds are confined in the Northern Hemisphere because:

1. It is land hemisphere with large population.
2. Great length of indented coastlines for harbours.
Why there are no major fishing grounds along or near the equator
1. Because the water is much warmer in the area and fish do not breed fast enough in such waters. Fish do
well in cool waters outside the tropic
MAIN FISHING GROUNDS ARE AS FOLLOWS
1. NORTH EAST ATLANTIC or NORTH WEST EUROPE
 The meeting of North Atlantic drift warm current and Irminger or Eastern Greenland cold current makes fishing
industry a possibility all year round
 This is the coastal waters of North-Western Europe. The area has many rivers draining into the sea, depositing
large quantities of nutrients, hence, making the area rich in planktons and fish
 The North East Atlantic is the greatest fish exporting region of the world
 Fishing grounds in this area include Barents Sea, Iceland, North Sea and Bay of Biscay. The fishing countries
include France, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain and Norway. Norway is the leading fishing nation in
this region
Why Norway the leading fishing nation in this fishing ground?
a. Harsh climate makes farming difficult and hence people focus on the sea for their livelihood
b. Absence of extensive minerals and forest resources has forced Norway to turn to the sea
Reasons for large scale fishing
a. Ideal cool climate
b. Presence of ports and fish breeding places
c. Large markets for fish because the fishing ground is close to densely populated areas of the world
d. Improved technology enabling mechanisation to take place
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e. Good and wide continental shelves
f. The mixing of the North Atlantic Drift warm current with cold waters of the arctic ocean over shallow waters
above continental shelves
Examples of fish caught include
 Mackerel, cod, herring, haddock, plaice, halibut, sole, hake and skate.
2. NORTH-WESTERN ATLANTIC/EASTERN CANADA
 This is the coastal waters of Eastern Canada where the North Atlantic Drift and cold Labrador Currents meet,
causing rapid growth of plankton and plenty of fish
 Fishing is centred on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, off the coast of Canada. This area has a problem
of overfishing
REASONS FOR LARGE SCALE FISHING
i. It has indented coast with good natural harbours
ii. Presence of harsh climate and infertile soils has forced people to look for alternative source of income
iii. The meeting of North Atlantic Drift warm current and Labrador cold ocean current facilitates precipitation of
minerals which creates good conditions for plankton growth
iv. Presence of shallow waters due to continental shelf extending from southern Florida to Newfoundland area that
allow penetration of sunlight to stimulate `growth of abundant planktons
v. The warm current raises the temperature of ocean water making it ice free thereby encouraging fishing
throughout the year
vi. Availability of capital
vii. Availability of advanced technology
viii. Nearness to markets which are found close to densely populated areas of the North Eastern part of the United
States of America
ix. Cool temperate climate
x. Availability of coniferous forests which provide timber for the manufacture of sailing boats and fishing crafts
EXAMPLES OF FISH CAUGHT
 Cod, Haddock, Sardines, Halibut, Hake, Flounder, Mackerel
- Fishing in this area is very important because it provides employment to many people more especially
Newfoundland. Fish from this area are exported to South Africa, Southern Europe, North Africa, USA
and Canada.
3. NORTH-EAST PACIFIC or NORTH WEST AMERICA
- This fishing grounds extend from California to Alaska
Reasons for large scale fishing
a. Advanced technology enabling modern methods of commercialisation
b. Indented coastline with safe sheltered harbours
c. Unfavourable climate and presence of steep slopes prevents people from carrying out other agricultural
activities. This has forced people to divert to the ocean for their livelihood
d. Presence of mountain rivers such as Fraser and Skeena where fish like Salmon can easily multiply
e. Upwelling of ocean waters along the coastline encourages plankton growth
EXAMPLES OF FISH CAUGHT
 Halibut, Cod, Herring, Salmon
- Salmon fishing is the most important type of fishing activity that takes place from Bering Strait to Oregon.
4. NORTH WESTERN PACIFIC OR NORTH EAST ASIA
 This fishing ground includes Japan (major fishing ground) which extends from Bering Sea to the East of China
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Reasons for large scale fishing
a. High demand for fish and its products both locally and internationally due to high population
b. Good transport
c. Advanced technology in ship building which are used in large scale and deep sea fishing.
d. Presence of indented coastlines, for example, Japan provides sheltered fishing ports, calm waters, and safe
land places which are ideal for fishing industry. Hakodat and Kushiro are large fishing ports
e. The absence of lowlands and pastures which mean that only few animals can be kept to supply meat and
other sources of protein. Therefore, there is increased demand for food
f. The continental shelves are rich in planktons because of the meeting of Kuroshiwo Warm current and
Kamchatka cold current
g. Industrialisation has enabled fishing to be scientific thus more efficient
EXAMPLES OF FISH CAUGHT
 The type of fish that thrive in cold waters include
- Cod, Halibut, Herring, Salmon
 The type of fish that thrive in warm waters include
- Sardine, Tuna, Mackerel
WHY JAPAN DIVERTED HER FOCUS TO THE SEA FOR FISHING
a. It is not well developed with natural resources i.e. about 80% of her land is not used for agriculture.
b. Presence of planktons on the continental shelves around the islands of Japan because of Kurosiwo warm
current and Oyashio cold current.
c. The fishing ports are present on the coastline of Japan, calm waters and safe land places e.g. Hakodat and
Kushiro
d. Absence of lowlands and pastures which mean that only a few animals can be kept to supply meat and other
protein foods.
e. Industrialisation has made fishing to become scientific
5. PERU
 The fishing ground extends from Southern Chile to Northern Peru. The main fishing nations are Chile and Peru
REASONS FOR BEING ONE OF THE MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS
i. It has plenty of planktons due to upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water and the narrow continental shelf
ii. Harsh climate such as the Atacama Desert and Andes mountains which do not encourage other
economic activities
iii. An indented coastline with good natural harbours
- Anchovy is the most common fish caught in large quantities and Chimbote is the main fishing port
Examples of fish caught
 Bonito, Herring, Sea bass, Tuna
- Most of the fish caught are used for making fertilisers and fish meals
6. South Africa
 In this region, fishing is important over the Agulhas Bank. Important fish caught include cape hake, South
African Pilchad, Cape Anchovy.
 The major fishing ports include: Port Elizabeth, Port Nolloth, Durban, Saldana Bay
REASONS FOR FISHING
i. Presence of shallow waters that enable sunlight to penetrate to catalyze photosynthesis process in
planktons
ii. Availability of planktons for fish growth.
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Other fishing grounds include the coasts of Brazil, Morocco, India and some inland water bodies
TYPES OF FISHING
a. Inshore fishing: this is carried out along the coastal waters, stretching to only 70 km kilometres from the
shore. small fishing vessels are used, and these usually stay at sea for only one or two days
b. Offshore fishing: this is done beyond the 70 km limit into the sea, and involves much larger fishing vessels
that are well refrigerated. Since they are equipped with refrigerated holds, the vessels may remain at sea for
several weeks at a time without the fish going bad
MAIN TYPES OF FISH CAUGHT
 The following are the types of fish caught
a. Pelagic Fish
 These are fish that live, breed and feed near the surface of the water. Examples of fish include Herring,
Mackerel, tuna, and pilchard, Sardines, Anchovies and Menhaden.
[Link] Fish
 These are fish that live, breed and feed on the sea bed on the continental sea. Examples of demersal fish are:
Sole, Cod, Haddock, Halibut, and galloup, Plaice, Hake and Skate.
c. Anadromous Fish
 These are the fish that spend part of their life in fresh water rivers and lakes where they are born and spends
much of its time in the saltwater of the sea and then returns to the fresh water for spawning.
 The good example is Salmon
FISHING METHODS
 The method of fishing is determined by whether the fish are pelagic or demersal, whether fishing is for
commercial or subsistence. The following are the different fishing methods
1. Drift Netting (Gill Netting)
How drift nets are used to catch fish
The net is put vertically in the sea and it is fitted with floats on the upper edge and weights below keep it straight
and floating.
Fish are caught by their gills as they try to pass through the net. Once trapped they can move neither forward or
backward. When the fish has been caught the net is removed onto the drifter/ ship where the fish is removed
 This method is efficient in catching pelagic fish e.g. herring. It is drifted by an engine boat called drifter.

2. SEINE NETS:
There are two types of these:
a. Purse Seine Net
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 Purse seine nets are flat just like drift nets.

How does purse Seine nets works?
o When the shoal of fish has been located, the nets are stretched between two fishing boats called
Seiners Then the nets are pulled by their ends to surround a school (group) of fish. Then ships move
close together to enclose the fish. The lower end of the net is closed by pulling the string (purse line) at
the bottom of the net to prevent the fish from escaping downwards. Then the net is lifted onto the boat/
seiner and fish is removed
o This is used for catching pelagic fish.
b. Haul Seine Netting

 It involves pulling a net through water to catch fish. Firstly, fishermen identify a suitable location for the school
of fish. Then two fishermen pull the net through water, encircling the fish. The net is then pulled tight and the
bottom partially closes and the fish is trapped inside. The fish is lifted, and the caught fish is removed.
3. Trawl nets
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 This type of net has a conical shape which is open at the base and attached to a ship or a trawler. The mouth
is kept wide open by a system of floats on top part and weights at the bottom. The fish is caught by dragging
the net along the sea bed by a trawler or ship.
 They are used to catch demersal fish
4. Line Method
- This is a commercial technique that uses a long fishing line with a series of baited hooks (hundreds or
even thousands) hanging from the main line. The long lines are operated from special boats called long
liners

Importance of Fishing Industry

a. It is source of raw materials for production of fertilisers, fish meals, soap, cosmetics, glue and oil
b. Provides much needed proteins and minerals such as iron, calcium, iodine, copper, phosphorus and
magnesium
c. It attracts tourists who normally study or do research on various species of fish
d. It is a source of employment. The fishing industry provides a wide range of employment opportunities in
fishing, net making, boat building, fish processing, canning, transport and marketing around the world
e. Source of income to fisher men
f. Source of foreign exchange through export of fish items
Why is fishing also known as robber industry?
 The rate at which the fish are caught does not balance with the rate at which they replace themselves (through
breeding).
Other resources from the sea apart from fish
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 Apart from fish, there are several resources that can be obtained from the sea; they include the following: whales,
seals, shellfish, minerals (petroleum, common salt, magnesium, potassium bromide, etc.), sea weed, fresh water,
etc.
Social and economic importance of other resources obtained from the sea
1. Natural gas: used as fuel for domestic and industrial purposes
2. Prawns and shells: these provide food for people
3. Sea weed: used as raw materials for ice cream, malted milk, salad dressing, mayonnaise, jellies etc.
4. Crude oil: it can be separated and purified to produce such products as kerosene, gasoline, bitumen or
asphalt, petroleum gases, lubricants etc.
5. Sand and gravel: materials used in construction industries
6. Fresh water: salt water can be distilled to produce fresh water supplies. Fresh water can be used for
domestic and industrial purposes as well as irrigation
7. Minerals: such as sodium chloride for flavouring food, magnesium used in medicine, bromine used in
photography, sulphur used as sterilising agent in medicine and also used in matches manufacturing.
8. Salts: e.g. ammonium sulphate used in the manufacture of fertiliser, sodium carbonate used in glass making,
magnesium sulphate used in medicines as a laxative etc.
Challenges faced by the fishing industry
1. Over fishing
 It is the catching of more fish at a faster rate than they can be replaced by natural means (production). This is
as a result of population growth
2. Water pollution
 Industrial wastes discharged into water bodies contain poisonous chemicals that are dangerous to all aquatic
life. Oil spills may cause oil slicks on the surface of water, depriving the fish of oxygen and this can kill fish
and underwater plant life
3. Climate change
 Rising global temperatures have seriously disrupted the pattern of ocean currents and upwelling of nutrient-
rich waters
 In some regions, climate change has dried up fresh water sources due to decreased rainfall
4. Deforestation
 Deforestation has led to an increase in soil erosion and siltation of water bodies and degradation of fishing
grounds
5. Indiscriminate fishing
 This is the catching of immature fish when fishermen use nets whose mesh size is very small leads to the
decline of fish population
6. Lack of knowledge
 Some people lack knowledge of how to manage and conserve fish. this ignorance contributes to death of most
marine species that in turn adversely affects fishing
7. Destruction of fishing grounds
 Most fishing grounds are used for various activities which include sporting and recreation and therefore,
habitat for aquatic animals is destroyed
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Relation of the challenges faced by the fishing grounds
a) North West Pacific
i. Overfishing: this is due to high population.
ii. Fisheries conflicts: These arise from excessive fishing efforts due to increasing
population and economic motivations
b) North East Atlantic
i. Lack of enforcement of regulations, for example compliance with permitted quota.
ii. Catching fish during breeding season.
iii. Overfishing
c) North East Pacific
i. Water pollution
ii. Overfishing
iii. Lack of enforcement of regulations
d) North West Atlantic
i. Overfishing
ii. Lack of enforcement of regulations applying to foreign fleets.
Possible solutions to the challenges faced by the fishing industry
a. Monitoring and controlling fishing effort and destructive fishing practices. This can be achieved through
i. Laying down strict rules about size of the nets so that small immature fish is not caught and imposing
tough measures on those that catch small fish by fining them
ii. Limiting the fishing season or restricting fishing for specific species only during certain times of the
year to allow the fish to spawn and multiply
iii. Using quota system to limit the quantity of fish caught per season
b. Enacting and enforcing laws against water pollution
c. Removal of all poisonous and harmful chemicals from industrial wastes before it is discharged into rivers and
seas
d. Relocating the fish from highly populated areas to overfished waters or introduction of new species in the
overfished waters.
e. Promoting fish farming
f. Promoting research in world fisheries to help understand various fish species, their feeding habitat, life
expectancy and migratory behaviour.
Proposed measures to ensure that solutions are successfully implemented
a. Developing policy guidelines that will help people to know how such solutions should be implemented
b. Regulations should be laid down that describe the size of mesh to be used by fishermen in fishing grounds. In
Malawi, the Fisheries Act emphasises the mesh size to be used
c. Putting in place small committees in fishing areas to check the people who practise indiscriminate fishing. In
Malawi, Village Beach Committees have been set up by Malawi Government to allow fish to spawn and
build stocks
d. Civic education how fish farming should be done to be successful.
e. Fisheries’ authorities should periodically check wastes before it is discharged into rivers and seas
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UNIT 30: REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE BLOCS
Definition of terms
1. A bloc is a group of nations or persons united for common action
2. A trade bloc refers to an agreement between states or countries, to group together for the purpose of
increasing trade among themselves and to gain some economic benefits from the cooperation at some level
3. Regional trade refers to reciprocal exchange of capital, goods and services between two or more trade
partners within a certain region or territory
4. International trade refers to exchange of capital, goods and services across international borders or
territories
 Trade blocs are in different levels depending on the stages of economic integration. From simple to complex,
the trade blocs include the following: free trade area, customs union, common market, economic union and
political union

a. Free trade area

- This is the first level of formal economic integration in which countries create free trade area by
eliminating tariffs, quotas and preferences on most goods and services that flow between them
- Examples include Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Caribbean Free Trade Area
(CARIFTA). However, each member may impose its own tariffs on goods from the non-member
countries
b. Customs union
- A custom union builds on free trade area by setting up common tariffs on goods of the non-member
countries, while conducting free trade among them
- Examples include East African Community (EAC), Southern African Customs Union, Customs Union of
Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia
c. Common market
- In addition to containing the provisions of a customs union, a common market requires that factors of
production, such as labour and capital, are free to move within member countries, expanding scale
economies and comparative advantages
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- Thus, a worker in a member country is able to move and work in another member country. Examples
include Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and Central American Common
Market (CACM)
d. Economic union
- An economic union adds to a common market the need to harmonise a number of key policy areas,
including the use of a common currency.
- The participant countries have both common policies on product regulation, freedom of movement of
goods, services and factors of production (capital and labour) and a common external trade policy
- Examples include European Union (EU) and the Union State of Russia and Belarus
e. Political union
- A political union is when a group of nations or states share a joint government that is internationally
acknowledged. It is the most consolidated form of economic integration, United States is an example of
even closer political union
Examples of regional and international trade blocs
Trade Bloc Current members
Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania,
Zambia and Zimbabwe
Common Market for East and Southern Africa Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Republic of the Congo,
(COMESA) Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar,
Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, South
Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia and
Zimbabwe
Economic Community for West African States Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire,
(ECOWAS) Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia,
Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo
North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) Canada, Mexico and USA
European Union (EU) Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and UK
has just pulled out in 2016
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
Vietnam
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
(OPEC) Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates
and Venezuela
Southern Common Market Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela
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o Almost all the blocs mentioned above are regional blocs. The very good example of a world trade bloc is World
Trade Organisation (WTO)
The aims of regional and international trade blocs
a. To promote trade within the bloc and defend its members against global competition
b. To remove trade restrictions among member states
c. To improve social, political, economic and cultural relations among member states
d. To encourage free transfer of resources such as labour, capital, goods and services among member countries
e. To establish collective bargaining
f. To enhance economic growth through promotion of cross-border investment, promotion of research and
adaption of science and technology in development
g. To raise the living standards of its people
A. SADC (Southern Africa Development Community)
 It was first created as SADCC (Southern African Development Coordination Conference) in 1980 and changed
to SADC on 17th August 1992 in Windhoek, Namibia. The SADC treaty was also amended on 14 August
2001. Headquarters is in Gaborone in Botswana.
 In 2008, SADC established a free trade zone with East African Community (EAC), the Common Market for
Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). It was during this time that Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania and
Mozambique became members of SADC Free Trade Area
Aims of SADC
a. To achieve development and economic growth
b. To reduce poverty
c. To promote peace and security
d. To coordinate foreign policy
e. To improve the standard and quality of life of the people of southern Africa
f. To establish a common market and common regulations
g. To promote self-sustaining projects which will still enhance self-reliance
B. COMESA (Common Market for East and Southern Africa)
 It was established in December 1994 to replace the Preferential Trade Area (PTA).
 Its headquarters are in Lusaka, Zambia.
Aims of COMESA
a. To achieve free trade area by removing internal tariffs and barriers
b. To promote trade through trade liberalisation, improvement of transport and communication
c. Promote peace and security in the region
d. Promote joint development in all economic fields
e. To raise the living standards of people living in member states
f. To create a conducive environment for both domestic and foreign investment
C. WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)
 World Trade Organisation (WTO) was established on 1st January 1995 and the current set of governing
rules stem from the Uruguay Round negotiations
 Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. This is the only global international organisation dealing with
rules of trade between nations
Member countries
 The World Trade Organisation currently has 164 member states
Aims of WTO
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a. To reduce tariffs so as to facilitate global trade on goods
b. To ensure that global trade is carried out smoothly, free and predictably
c. To create and embody the ground rules for global trade among member nations, so as to offer a system
that facilitates international trade
Roles/functions of WTO
a. It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements
b. It provides a forum for negotiations and settling trade disputes
c. It provides technical assistance and training for developing countries
d. It facilitates forums for trade negotiations
e. It promotes cooperation with other international organisation
f. It helps to improve the welfare of the people living in member states
g. It helps to create a conducive environment so that the producers of goods and services, exporters and
importers can conduct their business
Should Malawi belong to SADC as well as COMESA? Yes. Why?
Joining SADC and COMESA may give Malawi several advantages. These may include the following
a. Increased volumes of trade as there will be ease of movement within the trading blocs as a result of
abolition of trade restrictions
b. It will give Malawi a greater economic strength especially when trading blocs bargain in world markets
c. It will expand markets for its goods through elimination of trading restriction
d. Industrial and agricultural specialisation within SADC and COMESA would benefit Malawi with
cheaper and more efficient production of goods
THE BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF TRADE AGREEMENTS
A. Benefits of trade agreements
a. Competition
- Trade blocs bring manufacturers in numerous countries closer together, resulting in greater
competition.
- Accordingly, increased competition promotes greater efficiency within firms
b. Economic development
- Trade agreements enable larger countries to take advantage of increased market size, and have their
economies grow. This growth overflows into smaller countries that are economically unstable or
mired in poverty but are open to trade
c. International cooperation
- Since international trade relies on traders keeping their agreements, countries and companies are
more accountable to each other and therefore more peaceful and stable
d. Resource allocation
- Trade agreements improve the allocation of global resources. If countries or people can trade for the
items they need, they can focus on making the ones they do best to export to other countries. This
encourages increased productivity
e. Business incentives
- Trade agreements open markets and offer business incentives and protections. They include
commitments to protect intellectual property rights and labour rights and open regions to competition
f. Trade effects
- Trade blocs eliminate trade barriers like tariffs which in turn increases opportunities for trade
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B. Challenges of trade agreements
a. Political instability
- Serious wars and conflicts have resulted in insufficient diversification of national economies in many
African countries.
- This posed a great challenge for trade blocs in the process of regionally integrating some African
countries
- Civil wars taking place in some countries cause insecurity which affect trade negatively
b. Disparity in economic size of member states
- Other countries within the bloc have larger economies than others, as a result, member countries with
poor quality products find it difficult to compete effectively with those that have a wider and better
economic base
- It also makes it difficult to harmonise common external tariff
c. Regionalism versus multi-nationalism
- Trading blocs bear an inherent bias in favour of their countries. Rather than pursuing a global trading
regime within the World Trade Organisation, which includes the majority of the world’s countries,
regional bloc countries contribute to regionalism rather than global integration
d. Loss of sovereignty
- A trading bloc, particularly when it is coupled with a political union, is likely to lead to at least partial
loss of sovereignty for its participants.
- For example, the European union, started as a trading bloc in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome, has
transformed itself into a far reaching political organisation that deals not only with trade matters, but
also with human rights, consumer protection, greenhouse gas emissions and other issues that are
only marginally related to trade
e. Excessive harassment to women
- Women traders have complained of excessive harassment especially at ports of entry to the member
countries
f. Decline of local industries
- Free trade negatively affects local industries as imported goods which are not good are sold at
cheaper price than locally produced goods
g. Visa restrictions
- International Cross Border Traders (ICBTs) often complain about visa restrictions, which stifle their
business. E.g. Botswana and South Africa restricts visits to a maximum of 90 days only
THE ROLE OF CUSTOMS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Terminologies
1. Tariff refer to a duty levied by a government on imported and exported goods
2. Customs duty refers to the duties levied by government on imported goods.
3. Exercise duty is charged on goods produced within the country
 Customs duty is based generally on the value of goods, weight and other criteria of the item such as the
size of the engine and year of made (in case of automobiles)
The main advantages of customs on international trade include:
a. Helps in revenue generation and thus promoting the development of the country
b. Protecting domestic industries from more efficient or predatory competitors from abroad
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c. Countries may also set tariffs as a retaliation technique if they think that a trading partner has not played by the
rules or has gone against the foreign policy objectives of the government
d. Helps in protecting consumers. This is when the government feels that a certain product could endanger its
population, and tariff may be levied. For example, Malawi may place a tariff on imported Frozy drink if it thinks
that the Frozy from Mozambique contains too much acids which is bad for people’s health
e. Customs help in balancing economic international relations. It facilitates international trade and competiveness
of nations
Disadvantages of customs
a. Poor quality products: if an industry develops without competition, it could end up producing lower
quality goods, and the subsidies required to keep the state-backed industry active could lower economic
growth
b. Reduced trade: trade restrictions limit world trade. As a result, global resources are less efficiently
allocated and the level of world production and income is reduced, causing widespread unemployment
c. Trade war: increasing prices of imported products encourages retaliation, which may result in trade war
d. Cheating: The buyers’ habits of cheating the real value or quantity of goods
e. Cumbersome customs and administrative procedures: this has been found to be a challenge for
developing countries when exporting to developed and other developing countries
f. lengthy delays and cost escalation in customs clearance: This comes because of the following
reasons
i. Excessive documentation, physical inspection, and sometimes multiple inspections in the presence of
more than one agency
ii. Excessive control and inefficiencies in custom procedures at key entry points in importing countries,
Elements of international trade
Balance of payment
 This is a record of all monetary transactions between a country and the rest of the world for a specific
period, usually a year
 Funds for a nation obtained from exports, tourism, loans and investments by foreigners are recorded as
positive or surplus items, while uses of such funds by nation for imports or investment in foreign
countries are recorded as negative or deficit items.
 When positive and negative items balance there can be no overall surplus or deficit; hence balance of
payment
 In economic terms, a positive or surplus balance of payments means a nation has more funds from trade
and investments coming in that it pays out to other countries, resulting in the appreciation in the value of
its national currency against currencies of other nations
Balance of trade
 It is the difference between the values of a country’ exports and imports over a certain period of time,
normally a year.
 When the value of a country’s exports exceeds its imports, it has a favourable balance of trade (trade
surplus). However, when the value of imports exceeds the exports, the country registers a trade deficit
Causes of trade deficits
a. Population growth. As population increases, imports become essential and the quantity of imports may
increase to meet the needs of the people. This may result in a trade deficit
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b. Development programmes. In developing countries, development programmes require import of capital
goods, technology, some raw materials, which are not available at home. If imports of these items continues
for a long time, countries may land in a balance of trade deficit
c. Demonstration effect. When people like to flaunt imported goods, and imitate the consumption pattern of
the developed countries, their import will increase. This may cause disequilibrium in the balance of trade
d. Natural disasters: natural calamities such as droughts and floods may adversely affect agriculture and
industrial production in a country. The exports may therefore decline while the imports may go up causing a
discrepancy in the country/s balance of payments
e. Dependence on primary products. Developing countries export low value primary products like
minerals and crops to developed countries while the developed countries refine the primary goods into high
value usable products, which they export at very high prices to poor countries. This causes trade deficit
f. Political instability. Conflicts in a country cause low production
g. Imports of non-essential goods
Implication of a trade deficit
 The long term trade deficit in a country may result in unstable economy where the following problems are
serious
a. Foreign debts: when a country buys more goods and services than it sells, it must finance the difference by
borrowing money from other countries
b. Shortage of foreign currency: trade deficits are paid for out of foreign exchange reserves, and may
continue until such reserves are depleted
c. Dependence on foreign aid: poor countries resort to foreign aid to finance their national budget. This
forces such countries to adopt undesirable policies dictated by the donor countries as terms and conditions
for their financial aid
d. Unemployment: increased imports deprive the domestic industries of markets; as a result, they lower their
production which in turn leads to widespread unemployment
The difference between balance of payment and balance of trade
 Balance of trade is only a part of the balance payments. Deficit balance of trade does not necessarily mean
that the balance of payment is also deficit. Conversely, surplus balance of trade also does not mean that
balance of payment is surplus, because trade balance may be covered by other surplus investments

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