2-1 Nature of Contracts

UNIT - 1 NATURE OF CONTRACTS

1.1 THE LAW OF CONTRACT : INTRODUCTION

„ It was formed on April 25, 1872 and came into force on September 01, 1872.

„ The Act mostly deals with the general principles and rules governing contracts. The Act
is divisible into two parts. The first part (Section 1-75) deals with the general
principles of the law of contract, and therefore applies to all contracts irrespective of
their nature. The second part (Sections 124-238) deals with certain special kinds of
contracts, e.g., Indemnity and guarantee, bailment, pledge, and agency.

„ ‘Contract’ is the most usual method of defining the rights and

duties in a business transaction. It basically defines the
circumstances in which promises made by the parties to a
contract shall be legally binding on them.
1.2 WHAT IS A CONTRACT ?

„ The term contract is defined under section 2(h) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 as-
“an agreement enforceable by law”.
„ The contract consists of two essential elements:
(i) an agreement, and
(ii) its enforceability by law.

(i) Agreement - The term ‘agreement’ given in Section 2(e) of the Act is defined as-
“every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other”.
Section 2 (b) defines promise as- “when the person to whom the proposal is made
signifies his assent there to, the proposal is said to be accepted. Proposal when
accepted, becomes a promise”.
„ The following points emerge from the above definition :
1. when the person to whom the proposal is made
2. signifies his assent on that proposal which is made to him

3. the proposal becomes accepted

4. accepted proposal becomes promise
„ Proposal made by one party to the other party and that other party gives his
acceptance thereto of course for mutual consideration.

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Agreement = Offer/Proposal + Acceptance + Consideration
(ii) Enforceability by law – An agreement to become a contract must give rise to a legal
obligation which means a duly enforceable by law.
Thus, from above definitions it can be concluded that –
Contract = Agreement + Enforceability by law
Example 1 :A agrees with B to sell car for `2 lacs to B. Here A is under an obligation
to give car to B and B has the right to receive the car on payment of `2 lacs and also B
is under an obligation to pay `2 lacs to A and A has a right to receive `2 lacs.
Example 2 : Father promises his son to pay him pocket allowance of Rs. 500 every
month. But he refuses to pay later. The son cannot recover the same in court of law as
this is a social agreement. This is not created with an intention to create legal
relationship and hence it is not a contract.

Difference between Agreement and Contract

Basis of Agreement Contract

differences

Meaning Every promise and every set of Agreement enforceable by law.

promises, forming the (Agreement + Legal
consideration for each other. enforceability)
(Promise + Consideration)

Scope It’s a wider term including both It is used in a narrow sense with
legal and social agreement. the specification that contract is
only legally enforceable
agreement.

Legal It may not create legal obligation. Necessarily creates a legal

obligation An agreement does not always obligation. A contract always
grant rights to the parties grants certain rights to every
party.

Nature All agreement are not contracts. All contracts are agreements.


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1.3 ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT
Essentials of a Valid Contract

As given by Section 10 of Indian Not given by Section 10 but are

Contract Act, 1872 also considered essential
1 Agreement 1 Two parties
2 Free consent 2 Intention to create legal relationship
3 Competency of the parties 3 Fulfilments of legal formalities
4 Lawful consideration 4 Certainty of meaning
5 Legal object 5 Possibility of performance
6 Not expressly declared to be void [as 6 -
per Section 24 to 30 and 56]



„ In terms of Section 10 of the Act, “all agreements are contracts if they are made by
the free consent of the parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and
with a lawful object and are not expressly declared to be void”.
„ Since section 10 is not complete and exhaustive, so there are certain other sections

which also contains requirements for an agreement to be enforceable. Thus, in order to

create a valid contract, the following elements should be present :

1. Two Parties : One cannot contract with himself. A contract involves at least two
parties one party making the offer and the other party accepting it. A contract may be
made by natural persons and by other persons having legal existence e.g. companies,
universities etc. It is necessary to remember that identity of the parties be
ascertainable.
Example 4 : To constitute a contract of sale, there must be two parties- seller and
buyer. The seller and buyer must be two different persons, because a person cannot buy
his own goods.

„ In State of Gujarat vs. Ramanlal S & Co. when on dissolution of a partnership, the
assets of the firm were divided among the partners, the sales tax officer wanted to
tax this transaction. It was held that it was not a sale. The partners being joint owner
of those assets cannot be both buyer and seller.

2. Parties must intend to create legal obligations :There must be an intention on the

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part of the parties to create legal relationship between them. Social or domestic type
of agreements are not enforceable in court of law and hence they do not result into
contracts.

Example 5 : A husband agreed to pay to his wife certain amount as maintenance every
month while he was abroad. Husband failed to pay the promised amount. Wife sued him for
the recovery of the amount. Here, in this case, wife could not recover as it was a social
agreement and the parties did not intend to create any legal relations. (Balfour v. Balfour)

Example 6 : Mr. Lekhpal promises to pay ` 5 lakhs to his son if the son passes the CA
exams. On passing the exams, the son claims the money. Here, the son could not recover
as it was a social agreement.

Example 7 : A sold goods to B on a condition that he must pay for the amount of goods
within 30 days. Here A intended to create legal relationship with B. Hence the same is
contract. On failure by B for making a payment on due date, A can sue him in the court of law.

3. Other Formalities to be complied with in certain cases : A contract may be written

or spoken. In case of certain contracts some other formalities have to be complied with
to make an agreement legally enforceable.

 For e.g. Contract of Insurance is not valid except as a written contract. Further, in
case of certain contracts, registration of contract under the laws which is in force at
the time, is essential for it to be valid, e.g. in the case of immovable property.

Thus, where there is any statutory requirement that any contract is to be made in
writing or in the presence of witness, or any law relating to the registration of
documents must be complied with.

4. Certainty of meaning : The agreement must be certain and not vague or indefinite.
Example 8 : A agrees to sell to B a hundred tons of oil. There is nothing certain in
order to show what kind of oil was intended for.

Example 9 : XYZ Ltd. agreed to lease the land to Mr. A for indefinite years. The
contract is not valid as the period of lease is not mentioned.

5. Possibility of performance of an agreement : The terms of agreement should be

capable of performance. An agreement to do an act impossible in itself cannot be
enforced.

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Example 10 : A agrees with B to discover treasure by magic. The agreement cannot be
enforced as it is not possible to be performed

„ Now, according to Section 10 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, the following are the
essential elements of a Valid Contract:

I. Offer and Acceptance or an agreement :An agreement is the first essential element
of a valid contract. According to Section 2(e) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, “Every
promise and every set of promises, forming consideration for each other, is an
agreement” and according to Section 2(b) “A proposal when accepted, becomes a
promise”. An agreement is an outcome of offer and acceptance for consideration.

II. Free Consent : Two or more persons are said to consent when they agree upon the
same thing in the same sense. This can also be understood as identity of minds in
understanding the terms viz consensus ad idem. Further such consent must be free.
Consent would be considered as free consent if it is not caused by coercion, undue
influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake.

Example 11 : A, who owns two cars is selling red car to B. B thinks he is purchasing the
black car. There is no consensus ad idem and hence no contract.

„ To determine consensus ad idem the language of the contract should be clearly drafted.

„ Thus, if A says B “Will you buy my red car for ` 3,00,000?“. B says “yes” to it. There is
said to be consensus ad idem i.e. the meaning is taken in same sense by both the parties.
Example 12 : A threatened to shoot B if he (B) does not lend him ` 2,00,000 and B agreed
to it. Here the agreement is entered into under coercion and hence not a valid contract.

III. Capacity of the parties : Capacity to contract means

the legal ability of a person to enter into a valid
contract. Section 11 of the Indian Contract Act
specifies that every person is competent to contract
who has capacity to
(a) is of the age of majority according to the law to
which he is subject and
(b) is of sound mind and

(c) is not otherwise disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject.

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„ A person for being competent to contract must fulfil all the above three qualifications.
Qualification (a) refers to the age of the contracting person i.e. the person entering
into contract must be of 18 years of age. Persons below 18 years of age are considered
minor, therefore, incompetent to contract.

Qualification (b)requires a person to be of sound mind i.e. he should be in his senses so

that he understands the implications of the contract at the time of entering into a
contract. A lunatic, an idiot, a drunken person or under the influence of some intoxicant
is not supposed to be a person of sound mind.

Qualification (c) requires that a person entering into a contract should not be
disqualified by his status, in entering into such contracts. Such persons are an alien
enemy, foreign sovereigns, convicts etc. They are disqualified unless they fulfil certain
formalities required by law.
Contracts entered by persons not competent to contract are not valid.
IV. Consideration : It is referred to as ‘quid pro quo’ i.e. ‘something in return’. A valuable
consideration in the sense of law may consist either in some right, interest, profit or
benefit accruing to one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility
given, suffered or undertaken by the other.

Example 13 : A agrees to sell his books to B for ` 100.

B’s promise to pay ` 100 is the consideration for A’s promise to sell his books. A’s
promise to sell the books is the consideration for B’s promise to pay ` 100.

V. Lawful Consideration and Object : The consideration and object of the agreement
must be lawful.

Section 23states that consideration or object is not lawful if it is prohibited by law, or

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it is such as would defeat the provisions of law, if it is fraudulent or involves injury to the
person or property of another or court regards it as immoral or opposed to public policy.

Example 14 :‘A’ promises to drop prosecution instituted against ‘B’ for robbery and ‘B’
promises to restore the value of the things taken. The agreement is void, as its object

is unlawful.

Example 15 :A agrees to sell his house to B against 100 kgs of cocaine (drugs). Such
agreement is illegal as the consideration is unlawful.

VI. Not expressly declared to be void : The agreement entered into must not be which
the law declares to be either illegal or void. An illegal agreement is an agreement
expressly or impliedly prohibited by law. A void agreement is one without any legal effects.

Example 16 :Threat to commit murder or making/publishing defamatory statements or

entering into agreements which are opposed to public policy are illegal in nature.
Similarly, any agreement in restraint of trade, marriage, legal proceedings, etc. are
classic examples of void agreements.
1.4 TYPES OF CONTRACTS
Now let us discuss various types of contracts.

I. On the basis of the validity :

1. Valid Contract :An agreement which is binding and enforceable is a valid contract. It
contains all the essential elements of a valid contract.
Example 17 :A ask B if he wants to buy his bike for `50,000. B agrees to buy bike. It
is agreement which is enforceable by law. Hence, it is a valid contract.

2. Void Contract: Section 2 (j) states as follows : “A contract which ceases to be

enforceable by law becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable”. Thus, a void

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contract is one which cannot be enforced by a court of law.

Example 18 :Mr. X agrees to write a book with a publisher. Such contract is valid. But
after few days, X dies in an accident. Here the contract becomes void due to the
impossibility of performance of the contract. Thus, a valid contract when cannot be
performed because of some uncalled happening becomes void.

Example 19 : A contracts with B (owner of the factory) for the supply of 10 tons of
sugar, but before the supply is effected, the fire caught in the factory and everything
was destroyed. Here the contract becomes void.

„ It may be added by way of clarification here that when a contract is void, it is not a
contract at all but for the purpose of identifying it, it has to be called a [void] contract.

3. Voidable Contract : Section 2(i) defines that “an agreement which is enforceable by
law at the option of one or more parties thereto, but not at the option of the other or
others is a voidable contract”. This in fact means where one of the parties to the
agreement is in a position or is legally entitled or authorized to avoid performing his
part, then the agreement is treated and becomes voidable.
Following are the situations where a contract is voidable :
(i) When the consent of party is not free is caused by coercion, undue influence,
misrepresentation or fraud.
Example 20 :X promise to sell his scooter to Y for `1 Lac. However, the consent of X

has been procured by Y at a gun point. X is an aggrieved party, and the contract is
voidable at his option but not on the option of Y. It means if X accepts the contract, the

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contract becomes a valid contract then Y has no option of rescinding the contract.

(ii) When a person promises to do something for another person, but the other person
prevents him from performing his promise, the contract becomes voidable at the option
of first person.

Example 21 :There is a contact between A and B to sell car of A to B for `2,00,000.

On due date of performance, A asks B that he does not want to sell his car. Here
contract is voidable at the option of B.

(iii) When a party to a contract promise to perform a work within a specified time, could not
perform with in that time, the contract is voidable at the option of promisee.
Example 22 : A agrees to construct a house for B upto 31-3-2022 but A could not
complete the house on that date. Here contract is voidable at the option of B.
Sr. Basis Void Contract Voidable Contract
No.

1 Meaning A Contract ceases to be An agreement which is enforceable by

enforceable by law becomes law at the option of one or more of the
void when it ceases to be parties thereto, but not at the option of
enforceable. the other or others, is a voidable
contract.

2 Enforceability A void contract cannot be It is enforceable only at the option of

enforced at all. aggrieved party and not at the option of
other party.

3 Cause A contract becomes void due A contract becomes a voidable contract

to change in law or change in if the consent of a party was not free.
circumstances beyond the
Contemplation of parties.

4 Performance A void contract cannot be If the aggrieved party does not, within
of contract performed. reasonable time, exercise his right to
avoid the contract, any party can sue the
other for claiming the performance of
the contract.

5 Rights A void contract does not The party whose consent was not free
grant any legal remedy to has the right to rescind the contract
any party. within a reasonable time. If so rescinded,
it becomes a void contract. If it is not
rescinded it becomes a valid contract.


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4. Illegal Contract :It is a contract which the law forbids to be made. The court will not
enforce such a contract but also the connected contracts. All illegal agreements are void
but all void agreements are not necessarily illegal. Despite this, there is similarity
between them is that in both cases they are void ab initio and cannot be enforced by law.

Example 23 :Contract that is immoral or opposed to public policy are illegal in nature.
Similarly, if R agrees with S, to purchase brown sugar, it is an illegal agreement.

According to Section 2(g) of the Indian Contract Act, “an agreement not enforceable by
law is void”. The Act has specified various factors due to which an agreement may be
considered as void agreement. i.e. illegality of the contract which makes it void.
Basis of Void agreement Illegal agreement
difference
Scope A void agreement is not necessarily An illegal agreement is
illegal. always void.
Nature Not forbidden under law. Are forbidden under law.
Punishment Parties are not liable for any punishment Parties to illegal
under the law. agreements are liable for
punishment.
Collateral It’s not necessary that agreements Agreements collateral to
Agreement collateral to void agreements may also illegal agreements are
be void. It may be valid also. always void.




5. Unenforceable Contract: Where a contract is good in substance but because of some

technical defect i.e. absence in writing, barred by limitation etc. one or both the parties
cannot sue upon it, it is described as an unenforceable contract.

Example 24 : A bought goods from B in 2018. But no payment was made till 2022. B
cannot sue A for the payment in 2022 as it has crossed three years and barred by
Limitation Act. A good debt becomes unenforceable after the period of three years as
barred by Limitation Act. Similarly, an agreement for transfer of immovable property
should be written for being enforceable.
II. On the basis of the formation of contract :

1. Express Contracts : A contract would be an express contract if the terms are

expressed by words or in writing. Section 9 of the Act provides that if a proposal

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or acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to be express.

Example 25 :A tells B on telephone that he offers to sell his house for `20 lacs and B
in reply informs A that he accepts the offer, this is an express contract.

2. Implied Contracts : Implied contracts in contrast come into existence by implication.

Most often the implication is by action or conduct of parties or course of dealings
between them. Section 9 of the Act contemplates such implied contracts when it lays
down that in so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the
promise is said to be implied.

Example 26 :Where a coolie in uniform picks up the luggage of A to be carried out of

the railway station without being asked by A and A allows him to do so, it is an implied
contract and A must pay for the services of the coolie detailed by him.
Example 27 : A drinks a coffee in restaurant. There is an implied contract that he
should pay for the price of coffee.

Tacit Contracts : The word Tacit means silent. Tacit contracts are those that are
inferred through the conduct of parties without any words spoken or written. A classic
example of tacit contract would be when cash is withdrawn by a customer of a bank
from the automatic teller machine [ATM]. Another example of tacit contract is where a
contract is assumed to have been entered when a sale is given effect to at the fall of
hammer in an auction sale. It is not a separate form of contract but falls within the
scope of implied contracts.

3. Quasi-Contract : A quasi-contract is not an actual contract, but it resembles a

contract. It is created by law under certain circumstances. In other words, it is a
contract in which there is no intention on part of either party to make a contract but
law imposes a contract upon the parties.

Example 28 :Obligation of finder of lost goods to return them to the true owner or
liability of person to whom money is paid under mistake to repay it back cannot be said
to arise out of a contract even in its remotest sense, as there is neither offer and
acceptance nor consent. These are said to be quasi-contracts.

Example 29 :T, a tradesman, leaves goods at C’s house by mistake. C treats the goods
as his own. C is bound to pay for the goods.

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4. E-Contracts :When a contract is entered into by two or more parties using electronics
means, such as e-mails is known as e-commerce contracts. In electronic commerce,
different parties/persons create networks which are linked to other networks through
ED1 - Electronic Data Inter change. This helps in doing business transactions using
electronic mode. These are known as EDI contracts or Cyber contracts or mouse click
contracts.

III. On the basis of the performance of the contract :

1. Executed Contract : The consideration in a given contract could be an act or

forbearance. When the act is done or executed or the forbearance is brought on
record, then the contract is an executed contract.

Example 30 :When a grocer sells a sugar on cash payment it is an executed contract

ecause both the parties have done what they were to do under the contract.

2. Executory Contract : In an executory contract the consideration is reciprocal promise

or obligation. Such consideration is to be performed in future only and therefore these
contracts are described as executory contracts.
Example 31 :Where G agrees to take the tuition of H, a pre-engineering student, from
the next month and H in consideration promises to pay G ` 1,000 per month, the
contract is executory because it is yet to be carried out.
Unilateral or Bilateral are kinds of Executory Contracts and are not separate kinds.
(a) Unilateral Contract : Unilateral contract is a one sided contract in which one party has
performed his duty or obligation and the other party’s obligation is outstanding.

Example 32 : M advertises payment of award of ` 50,000 to any one who finds his
missing boy and brings him. As soon as B traces the boy, there comes into existence an
executed contract because B has performed his share of obligation and it remains for M
to pay the amount of reward to B. This type of Executory contract is also called
unilateral contract.

(b) Bilateral Contract : A Bilateral contract is one where the obligation or promise is
outstanding on the part of both the parties.

Example 33 :A promises to sell his plot to B for `10 lacs cash down, but B pays only `
2,50,000 as earnest money and promises to pay the balance on next Sunday. On the

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other hand, A gives the possession of plot to B and promises to execute a sale deed on
the receipt of the whole amount. The contract between the A and B is executory
because there remains something to be done on both sides. Such Executory contracts
are also known as Bilateral contracts.

1.5 PROPOSAL / OFFER [SECTION 2(a) OF THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872]
Definition of Offer/Proposal :

According to Section 2(a) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, “when one person
signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything with a view to
obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a
proposal”.




Essentials of a proposal/offer are :

1. The person making the proposal or offer is called the ‘promisor’ or ‘offeror’ : The
person to whom the offer is made is called the ‘offeree’ and the person accepting the
offer is called the ‘promisee’ or ‘acceptor’.
2. For a valid offer, the party making it must express his willingness ‘to do’ or ‘not to
do’ something : There must be an expression of willingness to do or not to do some act
by the offeror.

Example 34 :A willing to sell his good at certain price to B.

Example 35 :A is willing to not to dance in a competition if B pays him certain sum of
money.

3. The willingness must be expressed with a view to obtain the assent of the other party
to whom the offer is made.
Example 36 :Where ‘A’ tells ‘B’ that he desires to marry by the end of 2022, it does

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not constitute an offer of marriage by ‘A’ to ‘B’. Therefore, to constitute a valid offer
expression of willingness must be made to obtain the assent (acceptance) of the other.
Thus, if in the above example‘A’ further adds, ‘Will you marry me’, it will constitute an
offer.

4. An offer can be positive as well as negative :Thus “doing” is a positive act and “not
doing”, or “abstinence” is a negative act; nonetheless both these acts have the same
effect in the eyes of law.

Example 37 : A offers to sell his car to B for `3 lacs is an act of doing. So in this case,
A is making an offer to B.
Example 38 :When A ask B after his car meets with an accident with B’s scooter not to
go to Court and he will pay the repair charges to B for the damage to B’s scooter; it is
an act of not doing or abstinence.

Classification of offer

„ An offer can be classified as general offer, special/specific offer, cross offer, counter
offer, standing/ open/ continuing offer.

Now let us examine each one of them.

(a) General offer : It is an offer made to public at large and hence anyone can accept and
do the desired act (Carlill Vs. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co.). In terms of Section 8 of the
Act, anyone performing the conditions of the offer can be considered to have accepted
the offer. Until the general offer is retracted or withdrawn, it can be accepted by
anyone at any time as it is a continuing offer.

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Case Law: Carlill Vs. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. (1893)

Facts : In this famous case, Carbolic smoke Ball Co. advertised in several newspapers
that a reward of £100 would be given to any person who contracted influenza after
using the smoke balls produced by the Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. according to printed
directions. One lady, Mrs. Carlill, used the smoke balls as per the directions of company
and even then, suffered from influenza. Held, she could recover the amount as by using
the smoke balls she had accepted the offer.

(b) Special/specific offer :When the offer is made to a specific or an ascertained person,
it is known as a specific offer. Specific offer can be accepted only by that specified
person to whom the offer has been made. [Boulton Vs. Jones]

Example 39 : ‘A’ offers to sell his car to ‘B’ at a certain cost. This is a specific offer.

(c) Cross offer :When two parties exchange identical offers in ignorance at the time of
each other’s offer, the offers are called cross offers. There is no binding contract in
such a case because offer made by a person cannot be construed as acceptance of the
another’s offer.

Example 40 : If A makes a proposal to B to sell his car for ` 2 lacs and B, without
knowing the proposal of A, makes an offer to purchase the same car at `2 lacs from A,
it is not an acceptance, as B was not aware of proposal made by A. It is only cross
proposal (cross offer). And when two persons make offer to each other, it cannot be
treated as mutual acceptance. There is no binding contract in such a case.

(d) Counter offer :When the offeree offers to qualified acceptance of the offer subject
to modifications and variations in the terms of original offer, he is said to have made a

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counter offer. Counter-offer amounts to rejection of the original offer. It is also called
as Conditional Acceptance.

Example 41 :‘A’ offers to sell his plot to ‘B’ for `10 lakhs. ’B’ agrees to buy it for `8
lakhs. It amounts to counter offer. It will result in the termination of the offer of ’A’.
If later on ‘B’ agrees to buy the plot for `10 lakhs, ’A’ may refuse.

(e) Standing or continuing or open offer : An offer which is allowed to remain open for
acceptance over a period of time is known as standing or continuing or open offer.
Tenders that are invited for supply of goods is a kind of standing offer.
Essential of a valid offer :

1. It must be capable of creating legal relations : Offer must be such as in law is

capable of being accepted and giving rise to legal relationship. If the offer does not
intend to give rise to legal consequences and creating legal relations, it is not
considered as a valid offer in the eye of law. A social invitation, even if it is accepted,
does not create legal relations because it is not so intended.

Example 42 : A invited B on his birthday party. B accepted the proposal but when B
reached the venue, he (B) found that A was not there. He filed the suit against A for
recovery of travelling expenses incurred by him to join the birthday party. Held, such an
invitation did not create a legal relationship. It is a social activity. Hence, B could not
succeed.

2. It must be certain, definite and not vague : If the terms of an offer are vague or
indefinite, its acceptance cannot create any contractual relationship.

Example 43 : A offers to sell B 100 quintals of oil, there is nothing whatever to show

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what kind of oil was intended. The offer is not capable of being accepted for want of
certainty.

If in the above example, A is a dealer in mustard oil only, it shall constitute a valid
offer.

3. It must be communicated to the offeree : Unless an offer is communicated, there

can be no acceptance by it. An acceptance of an offer, in ignorance of the offer, is not
acceptance and does not confer any right on the acceptor. This can be illustrated by
the landmark case of Lalman Shukla v. GauriDutt

Facts : G (Gauridutt) sent his servant L (Lalman) to trace his missing nephew. He then
announced that anybody who traced his nephew would be entitled to a certain reward. L
traced the boy in ignorance of this announcement. Subsequently when he came to know
of the reward, he claimed it. Held, he was not entitled to the reward, as he did not know
the offer.
4. It must be made with a view to obtaining the assent of the other party : Offer
must be made with a view to obtaining the assent of the other party addressed and not
merely with a view to disclosing the intention of making an offer.
5. It may be conditional : An offer can be made subject to any terms and conditions by
the offeror.

Example 44 :Offeror may ask for payment by RTGS, NEFT etc. The offeree will have
to accept all the terms of the offer otherwise the contract will be treated as invalid.

6. Offer should not contain a term the non-compliance of which would amount to
acceptance : Thus, one cannot say that if acceptance is not communicated by a certain
time the offer would be considered as accepted.
Example 45 :A proposes B to purchase his android mobile for ` 5000 and if no reply by
him in a week, it would be assumed that B had accepted the proposal. This would not

result into contract.

7. The offer may be either specific or general : Any offer can be made to either public
at large or to the any specific person. (Already explained in the heading-types of the
offer)
8. The offer may be express or implied :An offer may be made either by words or by

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conduct.

Example 46 : A boy starts cleaning the car as it stops on the traffic signal without
being asked to do so, in such circumstances any reasonable man could guess that he
expects to be paid for this, here boy makes an implied offer.

9. Offer is Different from a mere statement of intention, an invitation to offer, a mere
communication of information, A prospectus and Advertisement.
(i) A statement of intention and announcement.

Example 47 :A father wrote his son about his wish of making him the owner of all his
property is mere a statement of intention.

Example 48 :An announcement to give scholarships to children scoring more than 95%
in 12th board is not an offer.
(ii) Offer must be distinguished from an answer to a question.
Case Law: Harvey vs. Facie

„ In this case, Privy Council succinctly explained the distinction between an offer and an
invitation to offer. In the given case, the plaintiffs through a telegram asked the
defendants two questions namely,

(i) Will you sell us Bumper Hall Pen? and

(ii) Telegraph lowest cash price.

„ The defendants replied through telegram that the “lowest price for Bumper Hall Pen is
͉900”. The plaintiffs sent another telegram stating “we agree to buy Bumper Hall Pen
at ͉900”. However, the defendants refused to sell the property at the price.
„ The plaintiffs sued the defendants contending that they had made an offer to sell the
property at ͉900 and therefore they are bound by the offer.

„ However, the Privy Council did not agree with the plaintiffs on the ground that while
plaintiffs had asked two questions, the defendant replied only to the second question
by quoting the price but reserved their answer with regard to their willingness to sell.
Thus, they made no offer at all. Their Lordships held that the mere statement of the
lowest price at which the vendor would sell contained no implied contract to sell to the
person who had enquired about the price.

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„ The above decision was followed in Mac Pherson vs Appanna [1951] A.S.C. 184
where the owner of the property had said that he would not accept less than ͉6000/-
for it. This statement did not indicate any offer but indicated only an invitation to offer.

(iii) A statement of price is not an offer : Quoting the price of a product does not
constitute it as offer. (refer case ofHarvey Vs. Facie as discussed above)

Example 49 : The price list of goods does not constitute an offer for sale of certain
goods on the listed prices. It is an invitation to offer.

(iv) An invitation to make an offer or do business. In case of “an invitation to make an

offer”, the person making the invitation does not make an offer rather invites the other
party to make an offer. His objective is to send out the invitation that he is willing to
deal with any person who, on the basis of such invitation, is ready to enter into contract
with him subject to final terms and conditions.

Example 50 : An advertisement for sale of goods by auction is an invitation to the

offer. It merely invites offers/bids made at the auction.

„ When goods are sold through auction,the auctioneer does not contract with anyone who
attends the sale. The auction is only an advertisement to sell but the items are not put
for sale though persons who have come to the auction may have the intention to
purchase. Similar decision was given in the case of Harris vs. Nickerson (1873).

„ Similarly, Prospectus issued by a company, is only an invitation to the public to make an

offer to subscribe to the securities of the company.
10. A statement of price is not an offer What is invitation to offer ?

An offer should be distinguished from an invitation to offer. An offer is definite

and capable of converting an intention into a contract. Whereas an invitation to an offer
is only a circulation of an offer, it is an attempt to induce offers and precedes a
definite offer. An invitation to offer is an act precedent to making an offer.
Acceptance of an invitation to an offer does not result in the contract and only an offer
emerges in the process of negotiation.

„ When a person advertises that he has stock of books to sell or houses to let, there is
no offer to be bound by any contract. Such advertisements are offers to negotiate
offers to receive offers. In order to ascertain whether a particular statement amounts

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to an ‘offer’ or an ‘invitation to offer’, the test would be intention with which such
statement is made. Does the person who made the statement intend to be bound by it
as soon as it is accepted by the other or he intends to do some further act, before he
becomes bound by it. In the former case, it amounts to an offer and in the latter case,
it is an invitation to offer.


Difference between offer and invitation to make an offer :

„ Where a party without expressing his final willingness proposes certain terms on which
he is willing to negotiate he does not make an offer, but only invites the other party to
make an offer on those terms. Hence the only thing that is required is the willingness
of the offeree to abide by the terms of offer.

„ If a person who makes the statement has the intention to be bound by it as soon as the
other accepts, he is making an offer. Thus, the intention to be bound is important
factor to be considered in deciding whether a statement is an ‘offer’ or ‘invitation to
offer.’

„ Following are instances of invitation to offer to buy or sell :

(i) A Prospectus by a company to the public to subscribe for its shares.

(ii) Display of goods for sale in shop windows.

(iii) Advertising auction sales and

(iv) Quotation of prices sent in reply to a query regarding price.

Basis Offer Invitation to offer
Meaning Section 2(a) of the Act, an offer Where a party without expressing his
is the final expression of final willingness proposes certain terms
willingness by the offeror to be on which he is willing to negotiate he
bound by the offer should the does not make an offer, but only invites
other party chooses to accept it. the other party to make an offer on
those terms.
Intention If a person who makes the If a person has the intention of
of the statement has the intention to negotiating on terms it is called invitation
parties be bound by it as soon as the to offer.
other accepts, he is making an
offer.
Sequence An offer cannot be an act An invitation to offer is always an act
precedent to invitation to offer. precedent to offer.


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1.6 ACCEPTANCE

Definition of Acceptance :In terms of Section 2(b) of the Act, ‘the term acceptance’
is defined as follows :
“When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, proposal is
said to be accepted. The proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise”.

Analysis of the above definition :

1. When the person to whom proposal is made - for example if A offers to sell his car
to B for `2,00,000. Here, proposal is made to B.

2. The person to whom proposal is made i.e. B in the above example and if B signifies
his consent on that proposal, then we can say that B has signified his consent on the
proposal made by A.
3. When B has signified his consent on that proposal, we can say that the proposal has
been accepted.
4. Accepted proposal becomes promise.

Relationship between offer and acceptance: According to Sir William Anson “Acceptance
is to offer what a lighted match is to a train of gun powder”. The effect of this
observation is that what acceptance triggers cannot be recalled or undone. But

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there is a choice to the person who had the train to remove it before the match is
applied. It in effect means that the offer can be withdrawn just before it is accepted.
Acceptance converts the offer into a promise and then it is too late to revoke it. This
means as soon as the train of gun powder is lighted it would explode. Train of Gun
powder [offer] in itself is inert, but it is the lighted match [the acceptance] which
causes the gun powder to explode. The significance of this is an offer in itself cannot
create any legal relationship but it is the acceptance by the offeree which creates a
legal relationship. Once an offer is accepted it becomes a promise and cannot be
withdrawn or revoked. An offer remains an offer so long as it is not accepted but
becomes a contract as soon as it is accepted.

Legal Rules regarding a valid acceptance :

(1) Acceptance can be given only by the person to whom offer is made: In case of a specific
offer, it can be accepted only by the person to whom it is made. [Boulton vs.

Jones (1857)]
Case Law: Boulton vs. Jones

Facts : Boulton bought a business from Brocklehurst. Jones, who was Broklehurst’s
creditor, placed an order with Brocklehurst for the supply of certain goods. Boulton
supplied the goods even though the order was not in his name. Jones refused to pay
Boultan for the goods because by entering into the contract with Blocklehurst, he
intended to set off his debt against Brocklehurst. Held,as the offer was not made to
Boulton, therefore, there was no contract between Boulton and Jones. In case of a
general offer, it can be accepted by any person who has the knowledge of the offer.

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[Carlill vs. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. (1893)]

(2) Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified : As per section 7 of the Act,
acceptance is valid only when it is absolute and unqualified and is also expressed in some
usual and reasonable manner unless the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must
be accepted. If the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must be accepted, then
it must be accepted accordingly.

M offered to sell his land to N for £280. N replied purporting to accept the offer but
enclosed a cheque for £ 80 only. He promised to pay the balance of ` 200 by monthly
instalments of `£ 50 each. It was held that N could not enforce his acceptance because
it was not an unqualified one. [Neale vs. Merret].

„ A offers to sell his house to B for `30,00,000/-. B replied that, “I can pay `24,00,000
for it. The offer of ‘A’ is rejected by ‘B’ as the acceptance is not unqualified. B however
changes his mind and is prepared to pay `30,00,000/-. This is also treated as counter
offer and it is upto A whether to accept it or not. [Union of India v. Bahulal].

Example 51 :‘A’ enquires from ‘B’, “Will you purchase my car for `2 lakhs?” If ‘B’

replies “I shall purchase your car for `2 lakhs, if you buy my motorcycle for `50,000/-,
here ‘B’ cannot be considered to have accepted the proposal. If on the other hand ‘B’
agrees to purchase the car from ‘A’ as per his proposal subject to availability of valid
Registration Certificate / book for the car, then the acceptance is in place though the
offer contained no mention of R.C. book. This is because expecting a valid title for the

car is not a condition. Therefore, the acceptance in this case is unconditional.

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(3) The acceptance must be communicated : To conclude a contract between the parties,
the acceptance must be communicated in some perceptible form. Any conditional
acceptance or acceptance with varying or too deviant conditions is no acceptance. Such
conditional acceptance is a counter proposal and has to be accepted by the proposer, if
the original proposal has to materialize into a contract. Further when a proposal is
accepted, the offeree must have the knowledge of the offer made to him. If he does
not have the knowledge, there can be no acceptance. The acceptance must relate
specifically to the offer made. Then only it can materialize into a contract. The above
points will be clearer from the following examples :

Brogden vs. Metropolitan Railway Co.

 Facts :B a supplier, sent a draft agreement relating to the supply of coal to the manager
of railway Co. viz, Metropolitian railway for his acceptance. The manager wrote the word
“Approved” on the same and put the draft agreement in the drawer of the table intending
to send it to the company’s solicitors for a formal contract to be drawn up. By an over
sight the draft agreement remained in drawer. Held, that there was no contract as the
manager had not communicated his acceptance to the supplier, B.
Where an offer made by the intended offeree without the knowledge that an offer has
been made to him cannot be deemed as an acceptance thereto. (Bhagwandas v.
Girdharilal)

A mere variation in the language not involving any difference in substance would not
make the acceptance ineffective. [Heyworth vs. Knight].

Example 52 : A proposed B to marry him. B informed A’s sister that she is ready to
marry him. But his sister didn’t inform A about the acceptance of proposal. There is no
contract as acceptance was not communicated to A.

(4) Acceptance must be in the prescribed mode : Where the mode of acceptance is
prescribed in the proposal, it must be accepted in that manner. But if the proposer does
not insist on the proposal being accepted in the manner prescribed after it has been
accepted otherwise, i.e., not in the prescribed manner, the proposer is presumed to
have consented to the acceptance.

Example 53 :If the offeror prescribes acceptance through messenger and offeree

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2-1 Nature of Contracts
sends acceptance by email, there is no acceptance of the offer if the offeror informs
the offeree that the acceptance is not according to the mode prescribed. But if the
offeror fails to do so, it will be presumed that he has accepted the acceptance and a
valid contract will arise.

(5) Time : Acceptance must be given within the specified time limit, if any, and if no time
is stipulated, acceptance must be given within the reasonable time and before the offer
lapses. What is reasonable time is nowhere defined in the law and thus would depend on
facts and circumstances of the particular case.
Example 54 : A offered to sell B 50 kgs of bananas at Rs. 500. B communicated the
acceptance after four days. Such is not a valid contract as bananas being perishable items
could not stay for a period of week. Four days is not a reasonable time in this case.
Example 55 :A offers B to sell his house at Rs. 20,00,000. B accepted the offer and
communicated to A after 4 days. Held the contract is valid as four days can be
considered as reasonable time in case of sell of house.

(6) Mere silence is not acceptance : The acceptance of an offer cannot be implied from
the silence of the offeree or his failure to answer, unless the offeree has in any
previous conduct indicated that his silence is the evidence of acceptance.

Case Law: Felthouse vs. Bindley

 Facts :F (Uncle) offered to buy his nephew’s horse for £30 saying “If I hear no more
about it I shall consider the horse mine at £30.” The nephew did not reply to F at all.
He told his auctioneer, B to keep the particular horse out of sale of his farm stock as
he intended to reserve it for his uncle. By mistake the auctioneer sold the horse. F sued
him for conversion of his property. Held, F could not succeed as his nephew had not
communicated the acceptance to him.

Example 56 :’A’ subscribed for the weekly magazine for one year. Even after expiry of his
subscription, the magazine company continued to send him magazine for five years. And also
‘A’ continued to use the magazine but denied to pay the bills sent to him. ’A’ would be liable
to pay as his continued use of the magazine was his acceptance of the offer.

(7) Acceptance by conduct/Implied Acceptance : Section 8 of the Act lays down that
“the performance of the conditions of a proposal, or the acceptance of any

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consideration for a reciprocal promise which may be offered with a proposal, constitutes
an acceptance of the proposal. This section provides the acceptance of the proposal by
conduct as against other modes of acceptance i.e. verbal or written communication.
Therefore, when a person performs the act intended by the proposer as the
consideration for the promise offered by him, the performance of the act constitutes
acceptance.

Example 57 : when a tradesman receives an order from a customer and executes the
order by sending the goods, the customer’s order for goods constitutes the offer, which
has been accepted by the trades man subsequently by sending the goods. It is a case of
acceptance by conduct.
1.7 COMMUNICATION OF OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE
„ Communication of offer: In terms of Section 4 of the Act, “the communication of
offer is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made”.

Example 58 :Where ‘A’ makes a proposal to ‘B’ by post to sell his house for `5 lakhs
and if the letter containing the offer is posted on 10th March and if that letter reaches
‘B’ on 12th March the offer is said to have been communicated on 12th March when B
received the letter.

„ Thus, it can be summed up that when a proposal is made by post, its communication will
be complete when the letter containing the proposal reaches the person to whom it is
made. Mere receiving of the letter is not sufficient, he must receive or read the
message contained in the letter.

„ He receives the letter on 12th March, but he reads it on 15th of March. In this case
offer is communicated on 15th of March, and not 12th of March.
„ Communication of acceptance :There are two issues for discussion and understanding.
They are: The modes of acceptance and when is acceptance complete?

„ Let us, first consider the modes of acceptance. Section 3 of the Act prescribes in
general terms two modes of communication namely, (a) by any act and (b) by omission,
intending thereby, to communicate to the other or which has the effect of
communicating it to the other.

„ Communication by actwould include any expression of words whether written or oral.

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Written words will include letters, telegrams, faxes, emails and even advertisements.
Oral words will include telephone messages.

„ Communication of acceptance by ‘omission’ to do somethingSuch omission is conveyed

by a conduct or by forbearance on the part of one person to convey his willingness or
assent. However, silence would not be treated as communication by ‘omission’.

Example 59 :A offers `50,000 to B if he does not arrive before the court of law as
an evidence to the case. B does not arrive on the date of hearing to the court. Here
omission of doing an act amounts to acceptance.

Communication of acceptance by conduct. Similarly, one need not explain why one
boards a public bus or drop a coin in a weighing machine. The first act is a conduct of
acceptance against its communication to the offer by the public transport authority to
carry any passenger. The second act is again a conduct conveying acceptance to use the
weighing machine kept by the vending company as an offer to render that service for a
consideration.

„ The other issue in communication of acceptance is about the effect of act or omission
or conduct. These indirect efforts must result in effectively communicating its
acceptance or non acceptance. If it has no such effect, there is no communication
regardless of which the acceptor thinks about the offer within himself. Thus, a mere
mental unilateral assent in one’s own mind would not amount to communication. Where a
resolution passed by a bank to sell land to ‘A’ remained uncommunicated to ‘A’, it was
held that there was no communication and hence no contract.

[Central Bank Yeotmal vs Vyankatesh].

„ Let us now come to the issue of when communication of acceptance is complete. In
terms of Section 4 of the Act, it is complete,
(i) As against the proposer,when it is put in the course of transmission to him so as
to be out of the power of the acceptor to withdraw the same;
(ii) As against the acceptor,when it comes to the knowledge of the proposer.

„ For instanceinthe above example, if ‘B’ accepts, A’s proposal and sends his acceptance
by post on 14th, the communication of acceptance as against ‘A’ is complete on 14th, i.e.
when the letter is posted. As against ‘B’ acceptance will be complete, when the letter

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reaches ‘A’.

„ Here ‘A’ the proposer will be bound by B’s acceptance, even if the letter of acceptance
is delayed in post or lost in transit. The golden rule is proposer becomes bound by the
contract, the moment acceptor has posted the letter of acceptance. But it is necessary
that the letter is correctly addressed, adequately stamped and duly posted. In such an
event the loss of letter in transit, wrong delivery, non delivery etc., will not affect the
validity of the contract.

„ However, from the view point of acceptor, he will be bound by his acceptance only when
the letter of acceptance has reached the proposer. So, it is crucial in this case that the
letter reaches the proposer. If there is no delivery of the letter, the acceptance could
be treated as having been completed from the viewpoint of proposer but not from the
viewpoint of acceptor. Of course this will give rise to an awkward situation of only one
party to the contract, being treated as bound by the contract though no one would be
sure as to where the letter of acceptance had gone.

„ Communication of special conditions :Sometimes there are situations where there are
contracts with special conditions. These special conditions are conveyed tacitly and the
acceptance of these conditions are also conveyed by the offeree again tacitly or
without him even realizing it.

Example 60 : Where a passenger undertakes a travel, the conditions of travel are

printed at the back of the tickets, sometimes these special conditions are brought to
the notice of the passenger, sometimes not. In any event, the passenger is treated as
having accepted the special condition the moment he bought his ticket.

„ When someone travels from one place to another by air, it could be seen that special
conditions are printed at the back of the air ticket in small letters [in a non-
computerized train ticket even these are not printed] Sometimes these conditions are
found to have been displayed at the notice board of the Airlines office, which
passengers may not have cared to read. The question here is whether these conditions
can be considered to have been communicated to the passengers of the Airlines and can
the passengers be treated as having accepted the conditions. The answer to the
question is in the affirmative and was so held in Mukul Datta vs. Indian Airlines

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AIR cal. 314 where the plaintiff had travelled from Delhi to Kolkata by air and the
ticket bore conditions in fine print. But such terms and condition should be reasonable.

Example 61 :Where a launderer gives his customer a receipt for clothes received for
washing. The receipt carries special conditions and are to be treated as having been duly
communicated to the customer and therein a tacit acceptance of these conditions is
implied by the customer’s acceptance of the receipt [Lily White vs. R. Mannuswamy].
CASE LAW: Lilly White vs. Mannuswamy

„ Facts :P delivered some clothes to drycleaner for which she received a laundry receipt
containing a condition that in case of loss, customer would be entitled to claim 15% of
the market price of value of the article, P lost her new saree. Held, the terms were
unreasonable and P was entitled to recover full value of the saree from the drycleaner.
In the cases referred above, the respective documents have been accepted without a
protest and hence amounted to tacit acceptance.

Standard forms of contracts : It is well established that a standard form of contract

may be enforced on another who is subjectively unaware of the contents of the
document, provided the party wanting to enforce the contract has given notice which,
in the circumstances of a case, is sufficiently reasonable. But the acceptor will not
incur any contractual obligation, if the document is so printed and delivered to him in
such a state that it does not give reasonable notice on its face that it contains certain
special conditions. In this connection, let us consider a converse situation. A transport
carrier accepted the goods for transport without any conditions. Subsequently, he
issued a circular to the owners of goods limiting his liability for the goods. In such a
case, since the special conditions were not communicated prior to the date of contract
for transport, these were not binding on the owners of goods [Raipur transport Co. vs.
Ghanshyam].
1.8 REVOCATION OF OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE

„ In term of Section 4,communication of revocation (of the proposal or its acceptance) is

complete.
(i) as against the person who makes it when it is put into a course of transmission to the
person to whom it is made so as to be out of the power of the person who makes it, and

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(ii) as against the person to whom it is made, when it comes to his knowledge.

„ The above law can be illustrated as follows : If you revoke your proposal made to me by
a telegram, the revocation will be complete, as far as you are concerned when you have
dispatched the telegram. But as far as I am concerned, it will be complete only when I
receive the telegram.

„ As regards revocation of acceptance, if you go by the above example, I can revoke my

acceptance (of your offer) by a telegram. This revocation of acceptance by me will be
complete when I dispatch the telegram and against you, it will be complete when it
reaches you.
„ But the important question for consideration is when a proposal can be revoked? And
when can an acceptance be revoked? These questions are more important than the
question when the revocation (of proposal and acceptance) is complete.

„ Ordinarily, the offer or can revoke his offer before it is accepted. If he does so, the
offeree cannot create a contract by accepting the revoked offer.

Example 62 :the bidder at an auction sale may withdraw (revoke) his bid (offer) before
it is accepted by the auctioneer by fall of hammer.

Example 63 : X offered to sell 50 bales of cotton at a certain price and promised to

keep it open for acceptance by Y till 6 pm of that day. Before that time X sold them to
Z. Y accepted before 6 p.m., but after the revocation by X. In this case it was held

that the offer was already revoked.

„ In terms of Section 5 of the Act a proposal can be revoked at any time before the
communication of its acceptance is complete as against the proposer. An acceptance
may be revoked at any time before the communication of acceptance is complete as

against the acceptor.

Example 64 :A proposes, by a letter sent by post, to sell his house to B. B accepts the
proposal by a letter sent by post. A may revoke his proposal at any time before or at
the moment when B posts his letter of acceptance, but not afterwards. Whereas B may
revoke his acceptance at any time before or at the moment when the letter
communicating it reaches A, but not afterwards.
„ An acceptance to an offer must be made before that offer lapses or is revoked.

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„ The law relating to the revocation of offer is the same in India as in England, but the
law relating to the revocation of acceptance is different.
„ Contract through post-The acceptor or can revoke his acceptance any time before the
letter of acceptance reaches the offeror, if the revocation telegram arrives before or
at the same time with the letter of acceptance, the revocation is absolute.

„ Contract over Telephone-A contract can be made over telephone. The rules regarding
offer and acceptance as well as their communication by telephone or telex are the same
as for the contract made by the mutual meeting of the parties. The contract is formed
as soon as the offer is accepted but the offeree must make it sure that his acceptance
is received by the offeror, otherwise there will be no contract, as communication of
acceptance is not complete.
„ If telephone unexpectedly goes dead during conversation, the acceptor must confirm
again that the words of acceptance were duly heard by the offeror.

„ Revocation of proposal otherwise than by communication :When a proposal is made,

the proposer may not wait indefinitely for its acceptance. The offer can be revoked
otherwise than by communication or sometimes by lapse.
Modes of revocation of offer
(i) By notice of revocation :

Example 65 :A offered B to sell goods at Rs. 5,000 through a post but before B could
accept the offer A received highest bid for the goods from C. So, A revoked the offer
to B by informing B over the telephone and sold goods to C.

(ii) By lapse of time : The time for acceptance can lapse if the acceptance is not given
within the specified time and where no time is specified, then within a reasonable time.
This is for the reason that proposer should not be made to wait indefinitely. It was held in

Ramsgate Victoria Hotel Co. Vs Montefiore, that a person who applied for shares in
June was not bound by an allotment made in November. This decision was also followed
in India Cooperative Navigation and Trading Co. Ltd. Vs Padamsey Prem Ji.
However, these decisions now will have no relevance in the context of allotment of
shares since the Companies Act, 2013 has several provisions specifically covering these
issues.

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(iii) By non-fulfilment of condition precedent : Where the acceptor fails to fulfill a
condition precedent to acceptance the proposal gets revoked. This principle is laid down
in Section 6 of the Act. The offeror for instance may impose certain conditions such as
executing a certain document or depositing certain amount as earnest money.

Failure to satisfy any condition will result in lapse of the proposal. As stated earlier
‘condition precedent’ to acceptance prevents an obligation from coming into existence
until the condition is satisfied. Suppose where ‘A’ proposes to sell his house to be ‘B’ for
`5 lakhs provided ‘B’ leases his land to ‘A’. If ‘B’ refuses to lease the land, the offer of
‘A’ is revoked automatically.
(iv) By death or insanity : Death or insanity of the proposer would result in automatic
revocation of the proposal but only if the fact of death or insanity comes to the
knowledge of the acceptor.
(v) By counter offer
(vi) By the non-acceptance of the offer according to the prescribed or usual mode
(vii) By subsequent illegality.

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