BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Evolution of Microprocessors
The 4004
It is considered the first microprocessor and was developed by Ted Hoff,
Masatoshi Shima, and their Intel colleagues. It has 4 bits register, a 740-kilohertz
clock, and 2300 transistors at 10-micron spacing. Its processing speed is at
60000 operations per second. It has an addressable memory of 640 bytes and
has a 16 registers.
The 8008
Intel developed the 8008 microprocessor with 8 bits data bus and 8 bits
registers. It was used in microcomputer, dumb terminals, calculators, and
bottling machines. It runs in 200 kilohertz, 500 kilohertz and 800 kilohertz. It uses
an 8-bit architecture capable of accessing up to 16 kilobytes of Random Access
Memory (RAM). It can execute 50000 instructions per second and is made of
3500 transistors at 10-micron spacing. It was intended for data or character
processing.
1|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The 8080
It has a clock speed of 2 megahertz with 8 bits data bus and 8 bits
registers. It was made of 6000 transistors at 6 microns spacing. Its main memory
is at 64 kilobytes and is considered 10x of the 8008 in computing performance.
The 8085
It was developed by Intel as an 8 bit microprocessor. Additional feature
over 8080 is that is has two additional instructions added for its serial input and
output, interrupt features a +5 volts power supply through the use of depletion
mode transistors which makes it more energy efficient than 8080. It has less
circuitry which allowed building lower cost computer. Available clock speeds in
8085 includes: 3 megahertz, 5 megahertz and 6 megahertz.
2|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The 8086
It uses full 16-bit data bus and 16 bits registers. Its clock speed ranges
from 5 megahertz to 10 megahertz and made of 29000 transistors at 3 micron
spacing. It has a memory of 1 megabyte and is considered 10 times of the 8080
computing performance.
The 80286
It uses 134,000 transistors and has a rating of 2 MIPS. Fully compatible
with the 80XX. It executes much faster and much flexible than the 80XX. It
operates at 8 MHz maximum and 6 MHz minimum clock rate. It supports multi-
tasking, means the ability of a processor to perform several tasks at a time-
means quickly shifting task among control programs.
3|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The 80386
It has a clock rate of 16MHz to 33 MHz and implemented with 275,000
transistors. Its advantage over its predecessors:
1) It is a 32-bit microprocessor with 32-bit registers.
2) It performs computations and address memory 32 bits at a time.
3) Offers more flexible memory management that 80286.
It is a 32 – bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1985 design for the
execution of instructions to be highly pipelined and its processor is designed to
operate in a multiuser and multitasking. Previous microprocessor software will
also run on 80386. Comes in two versions:
1) 80386DX which has a 32-bit external data path and 32-bit address bus
with.
2) 80386SX which has a16-bit external data path and 24-bit address bus
width.
4|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The 80486
It has a built-in math coprocessor and supports 1,200,000 transistors and
4 MIPS. It uses cache, which means that consist of a small amount of special
high-speed RAM, fast enough to return data without wait states. The Cache
controller keeps a copy of the data and code that the CPU is working in the
cache.
The Pentium
It has 64-bit external data bus, additional memory capability addressing,
improve floating point numbers performance and a flexible cache. It consists of
3,000,000 transistors and can deliver 100+ MIPS (66 MHz).
5|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
What is computer architecture?
Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a
programmer, or put another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the
logical execution of a program.
Example
Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation, I/O mechanisms,
addressing techniques.
What is computer organization?
Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections
that realize the architectural specifications. Examples of architectural attributes
include the instruction set, the number of bits used to rep-resent various data
types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/ O mechanisms, and techniques for
addressing memory. Organizational attributes include those hardware details
transparent to the programmer, such as control signals, interfaces between the
computer and peripherals, and the memory technology used.
Examples
Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
All Intel x86 families share the same basic architecture. The IBM System/370
family share the same basic architecture. This allows code compatibility. The
organization differs between different versions.
6|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Computer Structure is the way in which components relate to each other.
Structure: Central Processing Unit (CPU)
7|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Structure: Control Unit
Computer Function is the operation of individual components as part of the
structure.
The computer, of course, must be able to process data. The data may take a
wide variety of forms, and the range of processing requirements is broad.
However, we shall see that there are only a few fundamental methods or types of
data processing.
All computer functions are:
1) Data processing
2) Data storage
3) Data movement
4) Control
The Central Processing Unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the
computer and performs its data processing functions. Often simply
referred to as processor.
The Main Memory: Stores data.
The I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
8|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The System Interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main memory, and I / O.
The Control Unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the
computer.
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data
processing functions.
The Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU.
The CPU Interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.
Functional View of a Computer in terms of Operating Environment
9|Page
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Computer Operations: Data Movement
Computer Operations: Storage
10 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Computer Operations: Processing from/to storage
Computer Operations: Processing from storage to I/O
11 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Computer Instruction Cycle: Basic
The Fetch Cycle
In this stage the program counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to fetch.
The processor fetches instruction from memory location pointed to by PC and
Increment PC. The instruction is loaded into Instruction Register (IR) and then the
processor interprets instruction and performs required actions
The Execution Cycle
During the execution cycle the following processes are done:
1) Processor to memory means a data transfer between CPU and main memory,
2) Processor I/O means a data transfer between CPU and I/O module,
3) Data processing means a some arithmetic or logical operation on data,
4) Control means an alteration of sequence of operations, and
5) Combination of above.
12 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
What are the common CPU package types?
1) The Dual in-line Package (DIP) refers to an electronic component
package with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical
connecting pins. The package may be through-hole mounted to a printed
circuit board or inserted in a socket.
2) The Pin Grid Array (PGA) refers to a pin arrangement on the integrated
circuit packaging arranged in a square that may or may not cover the
bottom of the package. The pins are commonly spaced 2.24 millimeters or
0.1 inches apart. PGA is often mounted on printed circuit boards via two
methods, through-hole or by using a socket. PGAs are primarily used in
applications that require more pins than what older packages such as the
dual in-line package (DIP) provide.
13 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
What are the types of Pin Grid Array?
The Ceramic Pin Grid Array (CPGA) refers to a microprocessor
packages in which the semiconductor chip is fixed on a heat-conducting
ceramic carrier. It is used in the first generation Intel Pentium socket A
variants of the AMD Athlon and the Duron family.
The Plastic Pin Grid Array (PPGA) refers to a microprocessor package
wherein the carrier for the semiconductor chip is made of plastic. This
variant is a little cheaper, has better thermal properties and also an
improved electrical performance than ceramics. PPGA is mainly used for
the Pentium MMX processors and Celeron.
14 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The Staggered Pin Grid Array (SPGA) refers to microprocessor package
characterized by staggered connection rows which means that the pins
are staggered closely packed to keep the overall size of the package
small. This variant is required for CPUs that have more than 200
connections because the offset layout offers more space. It is used on the
Pentium and later central processing units such as Pentium Pro, K5 and
K6.
The Flip-chip Pin Grid Array (FCPGA) refers to a form of PGA processor
architecture package in which the die faces downwards on the top of the
CPU with the back of the die exposed. The integrated circuit is attached to
the top of the carrier. This allows the die to have a more direct contact with
the heat sink or other cooling mechanism. Application of this processor
package is on Intel Celeron Pentium III and Pentium 4 family series.
FCPGA fit also on Socket 370 and Socket 478 motherboards which are
known for zero insertion force (ZIF) sockets.
15 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The Organic Pin Grid Array (OPGA) is a type of connection for integrated
circuits, and especially CPUs, where the silicon die is attached to a plate out
of an organic plastic which is pierced by an array of pins which make the
requisite connections to the socket. A popular type of CPU to employ the
OPGA is the AMD Athlon XP.
Since the pins for PGA are on the CPU, the corresponding holes are on the
mainboard so that the CPU can be installed without much pressure.
16 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
3) The Land Grid Array (LGA) refers to the type of surface-mount
packaging for integrated circuits that is notable for having the pins on the
socket rather than the integrated circuit. An LGA can be electrically
connected to a printed circuit board either by the use of a socket or by
soldering directly to the board. A land grid array (LGA) is an integrated
circuit design involving a square grid of contacts that are connected to
other components of a printed circuit board. The term refers to a "socket
design" where certain components are disconnected from the actual circuit
board and integrated into the board’s structure in particularly new ways. In
contrast to most other designs, LGA configurations have pins in the socket
rather than on the chip. Land grid array structures are used for various
microprocessors, including some Pentium and other Intel models, as well
as AMD chips. This is in contrast to the pin grid array design that is used in
the majority of AMD models and some older Intel microprocessors, as well
as to the ball grid array design that has also been used for integrated
circuits. Industry experts attribute the emergence of LGA to Intel's LGA
platform for Pentium chips during the early millennial years. They also
point out that the LGA design can reduce the amount of lead in systems,
allowing it to conform to Restrictions of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)
directives, while also helping with thermal dissipation.
17 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
4) The Ball Grid Array (BGA) refers to the type of surface-mount packaging
(a chip carrier) used for integrated circuits. The pins are placed in a grid
pattern (hence the name Ball Grid Array) on the under-surface of the chip
carrier. The small solder balls form the connections, which are arranged in
a square grid made up of columns and rows on the bottom surface of the
chip. This design enables considerably more connections to be
accommodated, roughly twice as many as with PGA. The solder balls
provide short connections and therefore an enormous performance. A
BGA can provide more interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in-
line or flat package. BGA have solder balls as their contacts in between
the IC and the PCBs. Also rather than having pins to provide the
connectivity, pads with balls of solder are used as the method of
connection. On the printed circuit board (PCB) into which the BGA device
is to be fitted there is a matching set of copper pads to provide the
required connectivity.
18 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
What are the different types of processors: Application and
Characteristics?
1) The Microcontroller refers to a basically a computer that comes in
various packages and sizes. The reading input and responding to output is
the basic function of the microcontroller. Generally, it is known as General
Purpose Input Output (GPIO).
2) The Embedded Processor refers to a type of processor which is
designed to control mechanical functions and electrical functions. It
consists of several blocks they are the processor, timer, an interrupt
controller, program memory and data memory, power supply, reset and
clock oscillator circuits, system application-specific circuits, ports and
interfacing circuits.
3) The Digital Signal Processor (DSP) refers to a type of processor used
for measuring, filtering and/or compress digital or analog signals. The
signal processing means analysis and manipulation of signal. This
processing can be done via computer or Application Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASIC), Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) or Digital Signal
Processor (DSP) to obtain the clear signal. The DSP processors are used
in an oscilloscope, barcode scanners, mobile phones, printers, etc. These
processors are fast and use for real-time applications. The typical DSP
system is shown in the below figure.
19 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
Application of DSP includes:
a) Speech processing
b) Image processing
c) Medical processing
d) Biometric Processing
e) Seismology
f) Radar
4) The Media Processor refers to processors intended for image/video
processor is the media processing. It is designed or created to deal with
the data in real-time. The voice user interface and professional audio are
the applications of the audio processor. Some of the media processors are
TN2302AP IP, IN2602 AP IP, DM3730, DM3725, DM37385, DM388,
TMS320DM6467, TMS320DM6431, etc.
5) The Multiprocessor refers to a computer with more than one CPU, each
shares main memory, a computer bus, and peripherals to simultaneously
process the programs and these systems are also known as tightly
coupled systems. The advantages of multiprocessors are increased
throughput, increased reliability and economy of scale. These processors
are used when very high speed is required to process a large volume of
data. The symmetric multiprocessor is shown in the below figure.
20 | P a g e
BTC 319 – Microprocessors and Peripherals
The Characteristics of Multiprocessor are:
a) The multiprocessors consist of more than two processors or two
processors which are similar
b) Memory and input/output facilities shared by the processors
c) The access time of the memory is the same for each processor
because the processors are connected by bus
d) Access to the input/output devices are shared by the processors
e) The same function performed by all the processors
21 | P a g e