Sheet Metal Forming

Sheet forming:
Sheet metal forming is a manufacturing process that involves shaping thin metal sheets through
mechanical deformation. While the primary objective is to alter the sheet's geometry without
significant loss of material volume, certain processes like punching, blanking, and shearing involve
localized material removal to achieve the desired shape and features
Thickness Range: Typically between 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and 6 mm (1/4 in).
Sheets are in between 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and 6 mm (1/4 in), while plates are
thicker than 6 mm (1/4 in).
• Commonly uses low carbon steel (0.06% – 0.15% C). Offers low cost, good formability, and
sufficient strength.

V-bending Edge bending Shearing

Key Characteristics

Sheet Forming vs. Bulk Forming: Unlike bulk-forming processes, sheet forming
is primarily carried out in the plane of the sheet using tensile forces.
Avoiding Compressive Forces: Compressive forces in sheet forming can cause
defects like buckling, folding, and wrinkling.
Objective of Bulk Forming: Bulk-forming processes focus on changing the
thickness or lateral dimensions of the workpiece.
Thickness Considerations in Sheet Forming: A decrease in thickness should be
avoided to prevent necking and failure.
Surface Area to Thickness Ratio: Sheet metals inherently have a high ratio of
surface area to thickness, which differentiates them from bulk-forming materials.
Commercial Application:
• Automobile and truck bodies
• Airplanes and railway cars
• Construction equipment
• Appliances and office furniture

Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Parts:

• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Low cost

Production Techniques:
• Cold working (preferred for room temperature processing).
• Warm working (for thick, brittle, or highly deformed sheets).
 Types of forming processes

Based on Deformation Mechanism Based on Force Applied

Stretching Tensile Forming
Metal is stretched beyond its yield point Sheet is deformed primarily by tensile forces.
without bending. Example: Stretch forming.
Example: Stretch forming.
Bending Compressive Forming
Metal is plastically deformed around a Deformation occurs due to compressive forces.
neutral axis. Example: Deep drawing, embossing.
Example: Flanging, hemming. Bending
Deep Drawing Combination of tensile and compressive forces.
Sheet metal is drawn into a die cavity Example: V-bending, U-bending, edge
without significant thickness change. bending.
Example: Cup or can formation.
Shearing
Shearing and Cutting
Material is separated using shearing force. Cutting or separation of sheet metal due to
shear forces.
Example: Blanking, punching, trimming.
Example: Shearing, blanking, punching.
• Straight Flanging – A sheet metal forming process where a flange (bent edge) is
created along a straight line to reinforce or connect parts.
• Stretch Flanging – A sheet metal forming process where the edge of a sheet is
stretched and bent to form a flange, typically around a curved contour.
• Shrink Flanging – A sheet metal forming process where the edge of a sheet is Straight flanging
compressed and bent to form a flange, often resulting in slight wrinkling due to
material compression.
• Hemming – A sheet metal forming process where the edge of the sheet is folded over
onto itself or another part to create a smooth, rounded edge, often used for
reinforcement and safety.
• Seaming – A sheet metal forming process where two edges are folded and interlocked Stretch flanging
to create a joint, commonly used in containers, roofing, and automotive applications for
leak-proof connections.
• Curling – A sheet metal forming process where the edge of a metal sheet is rolled into
a smooth, rounded shape to eliminate sharp edges and improve strength and aesthetics.

Shrink flanging

Hemming Seaming Curling

Other bending operations

Cup deep drawing

 Stretching/Stretch forming

• Stretch forming is a sheet metal forming process in which

the sheet metal is intentionally stretched and
simultaneously bent to have the shape change.

• The sheet is held by jaws or drawbeads at both the ends

and then stretched by punch, such that the sheet is
stressed above yield strength.

• When the tension is released, the metal has been

plastically deformed. The combined effect of stretching
and bending results in relatively less springback in the
part.

Photo from public resource

Stretching/stretch forming
Working Principle of Stretch Forming
Stretch forming involves clamping the workpiece along its edges and then applying tensile force while
wrapping it around a form die. The combined effect of stretching and bending ensures uniform deformation
without significant thinning or wrinkling.

Key Steps in the Process

1. Material Selection: The metal sheet or extrusion is chosen based on ductility, thickness, and final
application requirements.
2. Clamping: The sheet is securely clamped at its edges to prevent movement.
3. Stretching: A controlled tensile force is applied to the sheet, increasing its length slightly before forming.
4. Die Contact & Forming: The stretched metal is wrapped over a forming die to achieve the desired
curvature.
5. Springback Compensation: The metal is slightly over-stretched to compensate for elastic recovery after
releasing the force.
6. Final Release: The formed part is removed from the machine, ready for further processing (trimming,
heat treatment, finishing).
 Types of Stretch Forming
[Link] Stretch Forming – Used for forming circular or cylindrical parts.
[Link] Stretch Forming – Used for forming large, smooth curves.
[Link] Stretch Forming – Commonly used for aircraft fuselage skins and architectural panels.
[Link] Stretch Forming – Applied to aluminum extrusions in aerospace and automotive industries.

Applications of Stretch Forming

Aerospace Industry
•Aircraft fuselage panels
•Wing skins and frames
•Engine nacelles

Automotive Industry
•Car body panels
Wing skins and frames
•Window frame structures Engine
Carnacelles
body panels
•Decorative trim parts Canopies and decorative features
Aircraft fuselage panels
Architectural Industry
•Curved facades Curved facades
Decorative trim parts
•Structural elements in bridges and domes
•Canopies and decorative features
Advantages of Stretch Forming
• High Precision – Produces large, curved components with minimal material
thinning
• No Wrinkling or Buckling – The tensile force prevents defects common in
conventional bending.
• Smooth Surface Finish – Results in aesthetically pleasing surfaces, reducing post-
processing needs.
• Cost-Effective for Large Parts – Reduces the need for multiple forming steps,
improving production efficiency.

Limitations of Stretch Forming

• Material Limitations – Works best with ductile metals like aluminum and
steel; brittle materials may crack.
• High Initial Setup Cost – Requires specialized machinery and tooling.
• Limited Geometries – Only suitable for large, curved shapes; not ideal for
complex, deep-drawn forms.
 Bending

Bending is the process by which a straight length is transformed

into a curved length. It is a very common forming process for Elastic vs. Plastic Bending:
changing sheet and plate into channel, drums, tanks, etc.
Elastic Bending: Strain is zero at the
neutral axis.

Plastic Bending: The neutral axis shifts

toward the inner bend, causing thickness
reduction.

Zone deformed aplastically

Elastic Zone because of tension
Terms used in bending

Neutral axis
Key Factors:
 Smaller Bend Radius → Greater Thickness Reduction. Zone deformed
 Outer Fibers Stretched, Inner Fibers Compressed. plastically because
 Volume Consistency Maintained During Bending. of compression
Elastic and plastic deformation zones during bending
Strain and Minimum Bend Radius
•Bending Strain:
• Strain increases as bend radius decreases.
• Strain at outer fibers:

Where, stretch on the top surface is ea and the shrink on the bottom surface is eb, h is sheet
thickness

Minimum Bend Radius (MBR): Rmin

 Prevents cracking on the outer tensile surface.
 Expressed as a multiple of sheet thickness (e.g., 3T bend radius).
 Increases with cold-working and varies for different metals.
 For High-Strength Alloys: MBR ≥ 5T.
• Empirical formulas:
q represents the reduction of area in a tension test.
• For q < 0.2:

A higher q value indicates greater ductility, while a

lower q value suggests that the material is more
• For q > 0.2:
brittle.
 Deep Drawing Process
 A metal working process used to shape flat sheets into cup-shaped articles (e.g., bathtubs, shell cases,
automobile panels).
 Involves placing a blank over a shaped die and pressing it into the die using a punch.
 A blank holder or hold-down ring is used in a double-action press to prevent wrinkling.
 Reducing a cup or a drawn part to a smaller diameter and a increased height is known as redrawing.
Types of Stresses in Deep Drawing
Radial Drawing Stress:
Metal in the flange is drawn radially into the die cavity.
Creates tensile stress in the material.
Compressive Hoop Stress:
Metal experiences compressive stress in the circumferential direction.
May lead to wrinkling in the flange.
Bending Stress:
The metal is bent over the die radius and then straightened as it enters the die.

Limiting Draw Ratio (LDR)

Maximum ratio of blank diameter to punch diameter that can be
successfully drawn without failure.

Typical Range:
For most ductile materials, LDR = 2.0 to 2.5.
If LDR exceeds 2.5, material may tear.
 Quantification of cup drawability
Drawing ratio: ratio of blank diameter, Db, to punch diameter, Dp. The greater the
ratio, the more severe the drawing operation.

Db
DR 
DP
The limiting value for a given operation depends on punch and die corner radii,
friction conditions, draw depth, and quality of the sheet metal like ductility,
degree of directionality of strength properties in the metal.

Reduction, R, is defined as, R  Db

 DP
Db

Limiting values: DR ≤ 2; R ≤ 0.5

Thickness to diameter ratio, t/Db > 1%;

As the ratio decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.

 Common Defects in Deep Drawing

Wrinkling: Excessive compressive hoop stress in the flange.

Tearing: Excessive tensile stress in the cup wall.

Earing: Anisotropy in material leads to uneven height at the top of the drawn cup.

Surface Scratches: Poor lubrication between die and sheet metal.

Methods to Prevent Defects:

Proper lubrication to reduce friction.
Controlled blank holder pressure to prevent wrinkling.
Optimal punch-die clearance to avoid excessive stress.
Isotropic in material help in uniform deformation.
 Shearing Process
The separation of metal by two blades moving past each other.

Mechanism:
 A narrow strip of metal is severely plastically deformed.
 Fracture starts at the surfaces in contact with the blades.
 The fracture propagates inward to complete separation.

Shearing of metal (a) Proper clearance

Clearance in Shearing
Importance: Proper clearance ensures a clean fracture and reduces energy consumption.
 Effects of Clearance:
 Proper clearance: Cracks propagate and meet near the center for a clean edge.
 Insufficient clearance: Produces a ragged fracture, increases energy consumption.
 Excessive clearance: Leads to edge distortion, burr formation, and higher energy
requirements.

(b) insufficient clearance; (c) excessive clearance

 Shearing Force Calculation

Formula for Maximum Shearing Force:

σu​ = Ultimate tensile strength of the metal

h = Sheet thickness
L = Total length of the sheared edge

Reducing Shearing Force:

 Cutting tool edges can be inclined (beveled) to reduce

force.
 This inclination is referred to as shear.
 Press Operations Based on Shearing

 Blanking: Shearing of closed contours where the material inside the contour is the desired part.
 Punching/Piercing: Shearing of closed contours where the material inside is discarded.
 Notching: Creating indentations along the sheet's edge.
 Parting: Simultaneous cutting along at least two lines to balance side thrust.
 Slitting: Shearing cut that does not remove material.
 Trimming: Secondary operation to shear excess material from formed parts (e.g., removing forging flash).
Fine Blanking
 Produces very smooth and square edges.
 Used for small precision parts like gears, cams, and levers.
Method:
o The sheet metal is tightly locked to prevent distortion.
o Shearing occurs with very small clearances (~1%) at slow speeds.
o Usually performed in a triple-action press, allowing independent control of punches, hold-
down rings, and dies.
 Forming Limits Criteria

Sheet Forming Operations are Complex process, so Various laboratory tests have been developed to
evaluate sheet material formability.

Swift Flat-Bottom Cup Test

A standardized test for deep drawing Process. Evaluates drawability using the limiting draw ratio (LDR).

Olsen and Erichsen Tests

The sheet is clamped between two ring dies. A punch (usually a ball) is forced against the sheet until it
fractures. Measures the depth of the bulge before fracture.

Fukui Test
Produces a conical cup using a hemispherical punch.
Provides a combination of stretching and deep drawing.

 Olsen and Erichsen tests mainly evaluate stretching ability.

 Swift test evaluates deep drawing ability.
 The Fukui test evaluates a combination of both stretching and deep drawing. It produces a conical cup
using a hemispherical punch, allowing the assessment of material behavior under biaxial stretching and
drawing conditions.
Forming Limit Diagram (FLD)

 Used to control failure in sheet-metal forming.

 The sheet's surface is covered with a grid of circles (produced via
electrochemical marking).
 During deformation, the circles distort into ellipses, representing the
major and minor strain directions.
 The percentage change in these axes is measured to determine strain.
 Strains are compared with the Keeler-Goodwin diagram to identify
failure zones.
 Strain states above the curve indicate failure, while those below do
not.

Keeler-Goodwin Failure Curve

•The failure curve in the tension-tension region was determined by

Keeler for low-carbon steels.
•The tension-compression region was first determined by Goodwin.
Example A grid of 2.5 mm circles is electroetched on a blank of sheet steel. After forming into a complex shape
the circle in the region of critical strain is distorted into an ellipse with major diameter 4.5 mm and minor
diameter 2.0 mm. How close is the part to failing in this critical region?
Example A grid of 2.5 mm circles is electro etched on a blank of sheet steel. After forming into a complex shape
the circle in the region of critical strain is distorted into an ellipse with major diameter 4.5 mm and minor
diameter 2.0 mm. How close is the part to failing in this critical region?

Major strain

Minor Strain

When those coordinates are placed on the forming limit diagram for steel we see that the part is in imminent
danger of failure