Prelims Sprint

Physics Factsheet
• Newton’s Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite
Part: 1 reaction
• Scalar quantities have magnitude only (e.g., Length, • In uniform circular motion, speed is constant but velocity
Volume, Speed, Mass, Density, Temperature, Pressure, changes
Energy, Work, Time). • Acceleration is present in circular motion
• Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction (e.g., • Centripetal force keeps a body in circular motion and
Displacement, Velocity, Electric Field, Magnetic Field, always acts towards center
Acceleration). • Centripetal force formula: Fc = mv² / R
• Torque is a vector quantity. • Kinetic energy remains constant in uniform circular motion
• Dot product of two vectors = scalar quantity. • Friction provides centripetal force for turning vehicles
• Cross product of two vectors = vector quantity. • Gravity provides centripetal force for planetary motion
• Fundamental quantities do not depend on other physical • Centripetal force can also be provided by string tension
quantities. • Satellite escape velocity ≈ 11.2 km/s on Earth
• There are 7 fundamental quantities in physics: Length → • Escape velocity formula: ve = √(2GM/R)
meter (m), Time → second (s), Mass → kilogram (kg), • Moon’s escape velocity ≈ 2.3 km/s
Electric current → ampere (A), Temperature → kelvin (K), • If velocity equals escape velocity, trajectory is parabolic, If
Amount of substance → mole (mol), Luminous intensity → velocity is greater, trajectory is hyperbolic
candela (cd) • In absence of air (e.g. Moon), all bodies fall at the same rate
• SI unit of electric charge = Coulomb regardless of mass
• SI unit of electric current = Ampere • On Earth, all objects experience same gravitational
• SI unit of electric resistance = Ohm acceleration (g = 9.8 m/s²)
• SI unit of force = Newton • Time period of a pendulum: T = 2π√(L/g)
• SI unit of pressure = Pascal = N/m² = kg·m⁻¹·s⁻² • Time period of a seconds pendulum = 2 seconds
• SI unit of work = Joule = Newton·meter • In a rocket, upward acceleration increases effective g →
• SI unit of energy = Joule decreases time period
• SI unit of power = Watt • Downward acceleration decreases effective g → increases
• Commercial unit of energy = kilowatt-hour (kWh) time period
• 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ Joules • Value of g decreases with height from Earth’s surface
• 1 Horsepower = 746 Watts • Value of g decreases with depth, becomes zero at Earth’s
• 1 Coulomb = charge of 6.25 × 10¹⁸ electrons center
• Charge on 1 electron = −1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C • Value of g is less at equator than at poles due to Earth’s
• Ohm’s Law: V = IR shape
• Ammeter is connected in series • Value of g decreases with Earth’s rotation
• Voltmeter is connected in parallel • Light-year is a unit of distance
• Work = Force × Displacement • 1 Light-year = distance light travels in one year ≈ 9.7 trillion
• Power = Work / Time km
• Energy = Capacity to do work • Speed of light = 3 × 10⁸ m/s
• Kinetic Energy = ½ mv² • Light takes 8 minutes 20 seconds to reach Earth from Sun
• Potential Energy = mgh • Light takes 1.28 seconds to reach Earth from Moon
• Work is a scalar quantity • 1 parsec = 3.26 light-years
• Power is a scalar quantity • Parsec is used for stellar distances
• Momentum = Mass × Velocity • Astronomical Unit (AU) = average distance Earth-Sun ≈ 150
• Inertia is the property of a body to resist change in motion million km
• Newton’s First Law: A body remains at rest or in uniform • Density = Mass / Volume
motion unless acted upon • For fixed mass: volume ↑ → density ↓
• Newton’s Second Law: F = ma (Force is directly proportional • Solids have highest density, liquids medium, gases lowest
to rate of change of momentum) • Osmium (Atomic No. 76) is the densest metal

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• Angstrom (Å) = 10⁻¹⁰ meter = 0.1 nanometer • Pressure doesn’t affect speed of sound
• Ångström is used for wavelengths and subatomic distances • Tesla is the SI unit of magnetic field = N/(A·m)
• Femtometer = 10⁻¹⁵ meter • Magnetic field is area around magnet or current where
• 1 Fermi = 10⁻¹⁵ meter force acts
• Zepto = 10⁻²¹ • Magnetic field strength at Earth’s surface ≈ 3.6 × 10⁻⁵ T
• Yocto = 10⁻²⁴ • Gauss = 10⁻⁴ Tesla
• Yotta = 10²⁴, Zetta = 10²¹, Exa = 10¹⁸, Peta = 10¹⁵, Tera = 10¹² • Magnetic force is a non-contact force
• Giga = 10⁹, Mega = 10⁶, Kilo = 10³, Hecto = 10², Deca = 10¹ • Contact forces require physical contact: friction, tension, air
• Deci = 10⁻¹, Centi = 10⁻², Milli = 10⁻³, Micro = 10⁻⁶ resistance
• Nano = 10⁻⁹, Pico = 10⁻¹², Femto = 10⁻¹⁵, Atto = 10⁻¹⁸ • Non-contact forces: gravitational, magnetic, electrostatic
• Strain = change in length / original length (dimensionless) • Current density (J) = current per unit area = I/A
• Stress = force per unit area, unit = Pascal • Unit of current density = A/m²
• Strain has no unit • Current density is a vector quantity (has direction and
• Stress has unit N/m² magnitude)
• Sound is a vibration that travels through medium • Tesla is named after Nikola Tesla
• Loudness ∝ amplitude, Pitch ∝ frequency • SI system is called Système Internationale d’Unités
• Speed of sound in humid air > dry air • SI was globally revised in 2018 by CGPM and BIPM

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o Thickness measured in Dobson units

Part: 2 • Radiation Types:
• Infrared waves: o Ionizing radiation: high energy (e.g. UV, X-rays,
o Discovered by Herschel gamma) — can damage DNA and cause cancer
o Produces heating effect o Non-ionizing radiation: low energy (e.g.
o Used in thermal imaging, cookers, muscle pain microwaves, IR) — generally not harmful
treatment, etc. o Radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation to kill
• Ultraviolet (UV) rays: cancer cells
o Discovered by Ritter • Alpha particles:
o Used in preservation of foodstuff, forgery detection o Positively charged
o Can cause and cure cancer depending on intensity o Cannot penetrate skin; not used in radiotherapy
(as ionizing radiation) o In α-decay, helium nuclei are emitted
• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): • Q-value (Disintegration energy):
o Uses magnetic field and radio waves, but not X-rays o Difference between initial mass energy and final
o Non-ionizing technique used for 3D imaging of product mass energy in nuclear decay
organs and soft tissue • Lab-grown diamonds:
• X-rays: o Made via CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) or HPHT
o Discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen (1895) (High Pressure High Temp)
o Called ‘X’ for unknown rays o Seed material: Graphite
o X-rays used in CT scan and medical diagnosis o India is top LGD producer (~25% global share)
• Fermions / Bosons: • Electromagnetic spectrum:
o Electrons are fermions o UV rays cause skin cancer
• Photoelectric Effect: o UV rays responsible for ozone depletion
o Explained by Einstein • Newton’s Laws of Motion:
o Introduced the idea of photons (E = hν) o 1st Law: Law of inertia
o Used in devices like photoelectric cells, photovoltaic o 2nd Law: Force = mass × acceleration
cells, photodiodes o 3rd Law: Every action has equal and opposite
o Used in burglar alarms, automatic doors, solar reaction
panels • Momentum:
• Raman Effect: o Change in momentum = Force × Time
o Explained inelastic scattering of light o Cricketers move hands backward while catching to
o Basis for Raman Spectrometer reduce force
o Two types: Stokes and Anti-Stokes spectrum • Strong Nuclear Force:
o Used in cancer detection and chemical analysis o Binds protons and neutrons inside nucleus
• Rayleigh Effect: o Strongest of four fundamental forces
o Elastic scattering of light where frequency does not • Electromagnetic Force:
change o Between charged particles
• Audiometer measures sound intensity o Acts at long distances
• Barometer measures atmospheric pressure o Can be attractive or repulsive
o Rise in barometric height → good weather • Gravitational Force:
o Sudden drop → possible storm o Weakest, always attractive
• Hygrometer measures humidity o Acts between any two masses
• Ozone Layer: o Infinite range
o Good ozone in stratosphere; bad ozone in • Weak Nuclear Force:
troposphere o Responsible for radioactive decay
o Montreal Protocol (1987) banned ozone-depleting • Measuring Devices:
CFCs o Odometer → total distance
o 16 Sept → Ozone Day o Speedometer → speed
o Ozone hole discovered in 1985 by Joe Farman, Brian o Ammeter → electric current
Gardiner, Jonathan Shanklin o Chronometer → precise timekeeping

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• Adhesive Force: Attraction between different substances.

Part: 3 o Water spreads on glass due to adhesive force.
1. Thermodynamics in Household Applications o Water doesn’t stick to oily surface due to weak
• Room Temperature and Refrigerators: If the refrigerator adhesion.
door is left open, the average room temperature increases • Cohesive Force: Attraction between like molecules.
because the thermostat keeps trying to cool the fridge, o Mercury forms spherical droplets due to strong
adding heat to the room. cohesive force.
• Cooking in Hills: At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure is o Water forms spherical shape when adhesive force is
lower; hence water boils at <100°C, increasing cooking time. less than cohesive force.
• Pressure Cooker: Increases pressure → increases boiling • Blotting Paper & Ink Absorption: Based on capillary action.
point → cooks faster. o Capillarity: Liquid rises or falls in narrow tubes due
o Temperature inside depends on: to surface tension.
1. Area of hole in the lid (↓ area → ↑ ▪ Mercury shows depression in capillary
pressure) tube.
2. Weight of the lid (↑ weight → ↑ pressure) ▪ Water shows capillary rise.
o Boiling is a bulk phenomenon; evaporation is a ▪ Examples: Plant roots, fountain pen.
surface phenomenon. 4. Everyday Thermal Phenomena
2. Heat Conduction & Temperature Scales • Why food cooks slower in hills: Lower pressure → lower
• Lead: Poorest conductor of heat. boiling point → longer cooking time.
• Graphite: Good conductor of electricity; Diamond: Good • Why white clothes are cooler in summer: Reflect more
heat conductor but poor electrical conductor. sunlight; black absorbs more.
• Celsius-Fahrenheit Relation: o Best umbrella: Outer black, inner silver (absorbs
o Coincide at −40° heat but reflects it away from the body).
3. Surface Tension, Adhesion & Capillarity • Why ice melting in water doesn’t change level: Ice displaces
• Surface Tension: Force per unit length acting along the its own weight in water → after melting, volume remains
surface. SI unit: N/m. same.
o Hot soup has lower surface tension → spreads o In alcohol, level falls (density difference).
more. 5. Engineering Applications
o Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature. • Railway Tracks: Expansion gaps are left to avoid buckling in
o If negligible, liquids become perfectly spherical. summer due to thermal expansion.

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o Uses of concave mirror: torch, headlights, dentist

Part: 4 mirror.
1. Waves o Convex lens = converging lens, positive power.
o Wavelength of visible spectrum = 3900 Å to 7600 o Concave lens = diverging lens, negative power.
Å. o Convex lens corrects hypermetropia (long-
o Violet has shortest wavelength, Red has longest. sightedness).
o Hearing range of Cat: 45kHz to 64kHz. o Concave lens corrects myopia (short-sightedness).
o Human hearing range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. o Image in myopic eye forms in front of retina.
o A noise level of 100 dB = Noise from a machine o Image in hypermetropic eye forms behind retina.
shop. o Power of lens is measured in dioptre (D = 1/f).
o Pitch is measured in Hz, loudness in dB. o Least distance of distinct vision = 25 cm.
o Loud noise above 120 dB can cause immediate o Vigilance mirror in stores: Convex mirror.
harm to ears. o In barbershop, two plane mirrors are placed
2. Light and Eye parallel.
o C.V. Raman got Nobel Prize in 1930 for scattering o In convex lens painted with black strips: image
of light. formed is of reduced brightness.
o National Science Day is celebrated on 28 Feb. 4. Optical Phenomena
o C.V. Raman was one of the first Bharat Ratna o Rainbow formed due to refraction and reflection.
awardee (1954). o Phenomena involved in rainbow: Dispersion,
o We see erect images due to perception, though Refraction, Internal Reflection.
image on retina is real, inverted, and smaller. o Soap bubble appears coloured due to interference.
o Violet has highest energy in VIBGYOR. o Shadow is due to rectilinear propagation of light.
o The Sun appears elliptical near horizon due to o Twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction.
refraction. o Dispersion of light is possible by prism.
o Sky appears blue due to more scattering of shorter o Diffraction = bending of light near obstacle edges.
wavelengths. o Speed of electromagnetic wave = 3 × 10⁸ m/s.
o Sea appears blue due to reflection of sky and light 5. Heat and Thermodynamics
scattering. o Convection transfers heat in gases and liquids.
o Sky appears black to astronauts due to lack of o Thermos flask prevents heat loss via vacuum
atmosphere. between walls.
o In space, no scattering or reflection occurs due to o Walls of thermos flask are silver coated.
absence of atmosphere. o Steam burn is more severe than hot water due to
o Plane mirror forms virtual, laterally inverted image latent heat.
of same size. o Boiling point of water = 100°C; alcohol = 78°C;
3. Mirrors and Lenses mercury = 357°C; acetic acid = 118°C.
o Convex mirror = Diverging mirror; focus behind; o Melting point of ice = 0°C; iron = 1535°C; gold =
virtual, erect, diminished image. 1064.18°C; aluminium = 660.32°C; copper =
o Concave mirror = Converging mirror; focus in front; 1084.62°C.
image depends on object position.
o Uses of convex mirror: rear-view mirror,
sunglasses.

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Part: 5 Types of Current

AC (Alternating DC (Direct Current)
Units and Definitions Current)
• Unit of potential difference = Volt Changes direction Flows in one direction
• Unit of electric charge = Coulomb periodically
• Unit of electric current = Ampere Used in homes and Used in batteries and
• Unit of electric power = Watt industries electronics
• Unit of electrical energy = kilowatt-hour (kWh) Can be transmitted Not suitable for long-
• SI unit of resistance = Ohm (Ω) over long distances distance transmission
• SI unit of capacitance = Farad Frequency ~50 Hz Frequency = 0 Hz
• 1 horsepower = 746 watts
• Power = Work/Time = Energy transferred per unit time Magnetism
• 1 kWh = 1000 watt-hours • Paramagnetic substances: Aluminium, Platinum
• Ohm’s Law: V = IR • Ferromagnetic substances: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
• Faraday constant = 96485.33289 C/mol • Diamagnetic substances: Zinc, Copper, Silver
• Earth’s magnetic field protects Earth from charged particles

Instruments and Devices Semiconductors

• Voltmeter → Measures potential difference • Semiconductors: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
• Ammeter → Measures electric current • Resistivity decreases on heating
• Galvanometer → Measures current strength & direction • Intermediate conductivity (between metals and insulators)
• Potentiometer → Measures EMF (electromotive force)
• Dynamo → Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy Pulsars & Neutron Stars
• Motor → Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy • Pulsars = Rotating neutron stars
• Battery → Converts chemical energy to electrical energy • Neutron stars form after supernova if remnant mass > 1.44
• Solar Cell → Converts solar energy to electrical energy times solar mass (Chandrasekhar Limit)
• Loudspeaker → Converts electrical energy to sound energy • Jocelyn Bell discovered the first pulsar (1967)
• Microphone → Converts sound energy to electrical energy
Miscellaneous
• Induction: Charging without contact
• Conduction: Charging by contact
• Radiation: Heat transfer without medium
• A fuel cell converts chemical energy to electrical energy

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o Live wire: Also called phase wire, carries current

Part: 6 from source.
Nuclear Physics o Neutral wire: Returns current, has 0V.
• Hydrogen bomb works on the principle of uncontrolled o Earth wire: Safety wire with no current.
fusion reaction. • A fuse is used to save an electric circuit from overcurrent.
• Nuclear fusion is a process where two light nuclei combine • Fuse wires are made of alloy of tin and lead.
to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy. Example: Energy • A fuse melts due to heating effect of electric current,
of the sun. breaking the circuit.
• Nuclear fission involves splitting of a heavy nucleus into
smaller nuclei, releasing tremendous energy. It can occur
naturally or artificially. Example: Atom bomb.
• In nuclear reactors, electricity is produced by the process of
nuclear fission.
• Uranium and plutonium are most commonly used for fission
reactions in nuclear power reactors.

Superconductivity
• Superconductivity is a phenomenon of zero electrical
resistance and expulsion of magnetic flux fields below a
certain temperature. This specific temperature is called
transition temperature.
• Superconducting materials: Mercury (4.2 K), Tungsten (0.01
K), Cadmium (0.56 K), Aluminium (1.19 K), Lead (7.2 K).
• Lanthanum hydride (LaH₁₀) is a superconductor at around
250–260 K.
• Applications:
o Maglev trains
o MRI and NMR machines
o Magnetic confinement fusion reactors
o Beam steering in particle accelerators
o Power cable loss minimization

Thermal & Heat Physics

• A fan increases evaporation rate of sweat, making us feel
cooler.
• Sweat consists of water, urea, lactic acid, and salt (NaCl).

Branches & Scope of Physics

• Plasma Physics studies properties of ionic state of matter.
• Atomic Physics studies structure of atoms and subatomic
interactions.
• Nuclear Physics studies atomic nuclei and their interactions.
• Quantum Mechanics deals with motion of very small
particles.
• Field Theory deals with spatial physical properties like
gravitation.
• Particle Physics studies fundamental particles (electrons,
photons).

Electricity & Circuits

• When switch of an appliance is off, it disconnects the live
wire.
• In domestic electric circuits, there are three wires:

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