Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)

History Department, MSU-GSC

CHAPTER 1

PHYSICAL FEATURES, GEOLOGICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL

FOUNDATION AND PEOPLING OF THE PHILIPPINES

Objective: At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Familiarize the important geographical features of the Philippine
archipelago through a map quiz
2. Explain the different theories about the geological and geographical
foundation of the Philippines
3. Compare and contrast the historical and cultural implications of the
various theories of peopling in the Philippines.

Overview

To further understand the history of a country, it is essential to know its geography, for it plays
a vital role in molding its people and, consequently, their collective destiny. Along with the study of
geography, which includes the land and bodies of water, a country’s location, climate, and natural
resources, contribute to the unity and diversity of a people’s culture. It affects their outlook in life, their
habits, material culture, customs, and traditions. This is very true in the Philippines, which is an
archipelago of more than 7,000 islands (De Viana 2011, 1).

In this chapter, the students will have a brief review on the physical geographical features of
the Philipines. This chapter also includes the different geological theories of how the Philippines was
formed. Lastly, the students will be informed about the migration models on the peopling of the country
that began in the past.

Activity: See-Think-Wonder
Let the student watch a video related to the geographical features of the Philippines.

Watch a video: Choose Philippines| It’s More in the Philippines

[Link]

Analysis
After watching the video, give students time to reflect asking these questions:

1. What do you see? What details stand out?

2. What do you think the video conveys to us Filipinos? What makes you say that?
3. What does this make you wonder?

For this chapter, the following will be the assigned reading materials, namely:
a. Selected folktales from Cole, Mabel. Philippine Folktales, Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1916.
[Link]
 Jocano,
b. Points F. “Geological
to Remember: Foundation”
In analyzing thePhilippine
readings,Prehistory:
analyze theAn Anthropological
author’s Overview of the
background/biography and his main
Beginnings
arguments, identifyofbiases,
Filipinoand
Society andthe
examine Culture, Manila:
evidence Community
or materials Publishers,
used to presentInc., 1975, 21-39.
his work.
c. CIA. “Philippines”. [Link]
d. Maps from Historical Atlas of the Republic, 2016.
e. Bellwood, Peter. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” Asian Perspectives, xxvi (1), 1984 – 1985:
107-117. 1
f. Solheim, Wilhelm II, “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The Nusantao
Maritime Trading Network,” JEAA 2, vol. 1-2 (2000): 273-284.
Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Abstraction
Lesson 1.1. Geological-Geographical Foundation
Before discussing details about the geographical features of the Philippine, let us first pinpoint
the different geological foundations of how the Philippine was formed as an archipelago.

Geological Foundation of the Philippines

Prior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine archipelago, history has to depend on
the studies by geologists. As experts, they seek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is
today and forecast possible geological events. The following were the identified hypotheses about the
geological and geographical foundation of the Philippines:

 Part of Pacific Lost Continent

It was believed that the Philippines was a remnant of a vast continent
in the Pacific that had sunk during pre-historic times like the fabled Atlantis lost
somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean. This lost Pacific continent was called
“Lemuria” or “Mu.” Its remnants aside from the Philippines were Borneo,
Celebes, Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the Pacific.
Figure 1. Lost Pacific
Continent of Mu or Lemuria.
 Volcanic Origin
It was proposed by Dr. Bailey Willis, a geological engineer. According to his
theory, the Philippines was born due to the eruptions of sea volcanoes in
remote epochs. When the spewed magma piled up and cooled down, this
resulted in the formation of islands in the Philippines. This theory explains
that the cores of our mountain systems are similar to the rocks found
beneath the ocean. Moreover, others believed this theory because of the
presence of several active volcanoes. This is the fact that the Philippines is
within what is called the seismic belt -Pacific Ring of Fire- that it lies in the
path of earthquakes.

Figure 2. Pacific Ring of Fire

 Land Bridges
The theory suggests that the Philippines was once part of a landmass bridging China and the
Asian Mainland, to Borneo, Indonesia, New Guinea, and even Australia. During the post-glacial age,
about 250,000 years ago, the world’s ice sheets melted, causing the sea level to rise. Consequently,
the lower land regions, including the land bridge linking Asia and the Philippines, were submerged; thus,
the Philippines archipelago was formed.
During the glacial periods, ocean levels were much lower,
thereupon exposing the Sunda Shelf and Sahul Shelf. These are
extensions of continents, otherwise known as continental shelves. In
Asia, the Sunda Shelf, which is an extension of the coastal shelf of
Southeast Asia, included the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and
Borneo to Palawan. From Borneo, the Philippine was linked through a
narrow projection of island now occupied by Balabac, Palawan, and
Calamianes. The continental shelf known as Sahul Shelf is an
extension of the coastal shelf of Australia. It covered islands of New
Guinea and the Aru Islands of Indonesia.
Figure 3. The Continental Shelves of
This theory is supplied by the following plausible reasons: Sunda and Sahul.
1. The similarity of fauna and flora in Asia and the Philippines
2. The similarity of rock structure
3. Existence of the shallow China Sea between the Asia Mainland and the Philippines

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

4. The presence of a foredeep at the eastern margin of the Philippines indicating the archipelago
was once the edge of the Asia continental Platform

Jocano, F. “Geological Foundation” in Philippine Prehistory: An Anthropological Overview of the Beginnings of

Filipino Society and Culture (1975) (Refer to Compilation of Readings for his biography and full text of the article)
In the article “Geological Foundation,” Jocano explained about the geological and
biogeographical formation of the Philippines during the Pleistocene Epoch. This epoch was
characterized by climatic changes, in which the earth underwent a series of alternating warm and cold
climates. During this period, both Sunda and Sahul shelves' exterior were rough and uneven and
remained above sea level. In the later years, the areas were covered with tropical vegetation, which
varied from dense forest to vast grasslands.

He related that in between these two shelves was the presence of an unstable area composed
of small islands, a group in archipelagos, and volcanic structure. At present, this area covers the
geographical location of Sumba, Lumbok, Timor, and Celebes in Indonesia, Halmehiera in New Guinea,
and the entire Philippine archipelago. The seafloors that link these two shelves were a series of
isthmuses.

Several changes happened in the land formation of the Philippine archipelago even up to the
last phase of Pleistocene Epoch. These changes were due to the occurrence of volcanic eruptions,
faulting, and folding of the geological base of the islands, erosion, and others.

Furthermore, Jocano described the biogeographical effects during this epoch. Following the
two boundaries set by the early scientists, the Weber Line and Wallace Line, he gave details on the
biogeographical distribution and relationship of flora and fauna in Australia, Mainland Asia, and Island
Southeast Asia.

Lesson 1.2. Physical Geography

Archipelago’s Name

 Prior Spanish colonial period, Chinese traders and geographers already knew about the Philippines.
From the Sung Dynasty sources in 1982, Chau Ju-Kua, a trade official, gave details about Ma-I. Ma-I
is generally accepted to refer to the island of Mindoro because of its gold and proximity in the Chinese
mainland. Other names were given to other islands such as Mintolang (Mindanao), Malilu (Manila),
and Pishoye (Visayas).
 In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan named the Philippines as Islas de San Lazaro (Archipelago of St.
Lazarus).
 The name Philippines was derived from Felipenas/ Filipinas. This was given by the Spanish
navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in honor of Prince Felipe of Asturias, who later became King Philip
II of Spain. At first, the name refers to Leyte and Samar. Later, it was given to the whole archipelago.
 During the American colonial regime, the Spanish name was later changed to Philippine Islands
(P.I.). It was renamed the Republic of the Philippines (R.P.) after the recognition of its independence
in 1946.
 Some Filipinos also proposed new names for the Philippines since the name of the country was
given by the colonizers. A Katipunan General, Artemio Ricarte, proposed to name the archipelago as
the Rizaline Republic in honor of Dr. Jose Rizal. More so, President Ferdinand Marcos attempted to
change the name to Maharlika after he dreamed of making the Philippines be a great nation again.

Geography and Resources

 CIA’s Factbook about Philippines (Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text).
Location. The Philippine archipelago sprawls a little above the equator in Southeast Asia between 4º23’-
21º21 N Latitude and 116º-127º E Longitude. Taiwan bounds the country on the north, on the
west by the Philippine Sea and Vietnam, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the
Celebes Sea and Indonesia. The northernmost point of the country is Y’Ami Isle, which is 78 miles
from Taiwan, and Saluag Isle is the southernmost point, only 34 miles from Borneo.

The Philippines has a very strategic location due to the following:

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

1. It serves as a bridge between the cultures of the East and the West.
2. It lies at the crossroad of international air and sea routes, hence dubbed as the “Crossroads
of the Pacific.”
3. It looms as the bastion of democracy in the area where dictators and communism hold sway
over Asian Nations.
4. It is the Citadel of Christianity.

Size and Shape. The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,641 islands. It has a total land area of 115,707
sq. miles (22,681 sq. km.). The Philippines is an inverted Y-shaped archipelago of numerous islands
and islets. Some Christian scholars commented that Luzon is like a helmet, Visayas and Mindanao are
the arms and legs, and Palawan is a spirit sword.

Climate. The Philippine climate is tropical and monsoonal. The two distinct seasons are dry season,
which extends from December to May and wet season, which extends from June to November. The
temperature varies from 21º C to 32º C. The coldest month is January, and the hottest month is May.

Coastline. The coastline of the archipelago is irregular and stretches for about 36, 289 km, about twice
as long as the coastline of the United States, excluding that of Alaska and Hawaii. Because of the
irregular coastline, the country abounds in good harbors, landlocked straits, and hundreds of rivers,
bays, and lakes.

Regions. As of 2020, the country is divided into 17 administrative divisions that primarily serve to
coordinate planning and organize national government services across multiple local government units
(LGUs).

Region Name of Region Local Government Units (LGUs) Regional Center

(Provinces/ independent component city)
NCR National Capital Caloocan, Las Piñas, Makati, Malabon, Manila
Region (NCR) Mandaluyong, Manila, Marikina,
Muntinlupa, Navotas, Parañaque, Pasay,
Pasig, Pateros, Quezon City, San Juan,
Taguig, Valenzuela
I Ilocos Region Dagupan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La San Fernando, La Union
Union, Pangasinan
II Cagayan Valley Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Tuguegarao
Region Quirino, Santiago
III Central Luzon Angeles, Aurora, Bataan, Bulacan, Nueva San Fernando, Pampanga
Ecija, Olongapo, Pampanga, Tarlac,
Zambales
IV-A CALABARZON Batangas, Cavite, Laguna, Lucena, Calamba
Quezon, Rizal
IV-B MIMAROPA Marinduque, Occidental Mindoro, Oriental Calapan
Mindoro, Palawan, Romblon, Puerto
Princesa
V Bicol Region Albay, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Legazpi
Catanduanes, Masbate, Naga, Sorsogon
CAR Cordillera Abra, Apayao, Baguio, Benguet, Ifugao, Baguio
Administrative Region Kalinga, Mountain Province
VI Western Visayas Aklan, Antique, Bacolod, Capiz, Guimaras, Iloilo City
Region Iloilo, Iloilo City, Negros Occidental
VII Central Visayas Bohol, Cebu, Cebu City, Lapu-Lapu Coty, Cebu City
Region Mandaue, Negros, Siquijor
VIII Samar-Leyte Region Biliran, Eastern Samar, Leyte, Northern Tacloban
Samar, Ormoc, Samar, Southern Leyte,
Tacloban
IX Zamboanga Peninsula Isabela, Zamboanga City, Zamboanga del Pagadian
Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga
Sibugay
X Northern Mindanao Bukidnon, Cagayan de Oro, Camiguin, Cagayan de Oro
Iligan, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental,
Misamis Oriental
XII Davao Davao City, Davao del Oro, Davao del Davao City
Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Occidental,
Davao Oriental
XII SOCCSKSARGEN South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Koronadal
Sarangani, General Santos City

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

XIII CARAGA Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Butuan, Butuan
Dinagat Islands, Surigao del Norte, Surigao
del Sur
BARMM Bangsamoro Basilan (excluding Isabela City), Cotabato Cotabato City
Autonomous Region in City, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sulu,
Muslim Mindanao Tawi-Tawi, 63 barangays in Cotabato City
Table 1. Administrative Divisions of the Philippines

Topography.

A look at the physical map of the Philippines shows that it is mountainous. There are numerous
peaks from north to south, of which Mt. Apo in Mindanao is the highest, standing at approximately 2,
954 m high. The northeastern parts of Luzon have rugged mountains in which are volcanic in origin.
There are three large mountain ranges in Luzon. They are the Western Caraballo Mountain Range,
the Sierra Madre Mountain Range, and the Caraballo de Baler. Western Caraballo ran from north to
south and divided itself into the Central Cordillera and the Northern Cordillera. Outside of these
significant mountain ranges are the small mountain ranges of Zambales and Tagaytay Ridge. Mindoro,
Panay, and Negros have small mountain ranges. Leyte and Samar are not as mountainous as the
provinces mentioned above. On the other hand, Mindanao has four distinct mountain ranges. They are
the Eastern Mountain Range, which begins at Surigao and follows the Pacific coast; the Central-
Eastern Mountain Range, which begins at Butuan and extends south to Agusan on the east and
Pulangui in the west; the Central-Western Range, which begins at Mt. Apo, follows the boundary of
Cotabato, and ends at the Zamboanga Peninsula; and the Western Range which begins west of Iligan
Bay and ends on the shores of Basilan Strait (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010, 3-4).

Natural Resources

Nature has given the Philippines fertile soil and plenty of natural resources. The rich valleys
and fertile plains are planted to crops such as rice, corn, coconuts, sugar cane, bananas, pineapples,
and varieties of vegetables. The country has enough water resources for electricity and food. There is
an abundant supply of minerals like gold, copper, silver, lead, zinc, nickel, manganese, and chromium,
as well as for non-metallic minerals like salt, clay, coal, sulfur, asbestos, limestones, gravel, and
gypsum. Gum resins and lumber can be obtained from the country’s vast forests. The Philippines also
has oil called “black gold,” discovered at Malampaya, Palawan.

However, despite this natural abundance, conservationists and civil society have expressed
concern over the depletion of forests, abuse and misuse of land resources, and threats to marine and
coastal ecosystems (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010, 5).

Lesson 1.3. Peopling of the Philippines

Watch the following video: Xiao Time: Austronesians, Ang PInagmulan ng Lahi at Kulturang Pilipino
[Link]

Who were the first people to live in the Philippines?

Where did they come from?
What happened to them?

These questions on the past cannot fully be answered even by the scientists who studied
about our early ancestors.

The best explanations we have about our distant past come from three main sources:

1. The Story of God’s Creation in the Bible

 Spanish theologians during their colonization related that Filipinos was part of God’s
creation
 Fr. Francisco Colin, a Jesuit historian, wrote that the first settler of our country was
Tharsis, son of Javan (Son of Noah) together with his brothers and their descendants.

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 Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

2. Legends and myths made up by imaginative people

 In Filipino mythology, creation stories were popularized by the various tribal groups of
the islands.

Read “Selected folktales” excerpt from Philippine Folktales by Mabel Cole (1916) as examples about
the creation of the group. Refer to your Compilation of Readings.

3. The Story of Evolution made by human scientists

 It is a belief that man came from apelike creatures who
lived thousands of years ago in caves and have very crude
tools.
 When discovered in 1965, Tabon Man was thought of
as the first man in the Philippines who lived in caves at
Tabon, Southwest Palawan province, about 25,000 years
ago. It was believed that he belonged to the Stone Age Era
because of the stone tools and weapons discovered. The
Tabon Caves (Same with the Great Cave of Niah in Figure 4. The skullcap and mandible of
Sarawak) were the only Old Stone Age sited in the woman Tabon Man.
Pleistocene period in the whole Southeast Asia.

Adel, Rosette. “Man who dug deeper” UP professor leads discovery of Homo luzonensis.” Philstar. Posted on April 11,
[Link]://[Link]/headlines/2019/04/11/1909176/man-who-dug-deeper-professor-leads-discovery-homo-
luzonensis#huYSWMMas0giebYl.99

Gascon, Melvin. “Callao Man’ makes PH rock star in human history.” Philippine Daily Inquirer. Posted on April 15, 2019,
[Link]

In 2007, a team of archaeologists headed by Armand Salvador Mijares discovered a fossilized

remain in Callao Caves in Peñablanca, Cagayan. The said remain is a 61 mm-foot bone (metatarsal).
With the use of Uranium-series ablation, the team confirmed that the genus of the fossilized remain is
Homo. However, they were uncertain of its species classification.

Recently, last 2019, after the discovery of an additional 12 new specimens, they reassigned
the remains to a new species, Homo luzonensis, deriving from the name of the island.

Figure 5. Foot bone of Homo

luzonensis (left). Five of the
seven teeth attributed to
Homo luzonensis. The teeth
have small sizes and relatively
simple shapes.

Models of Migration

Watch: The Austronesian Migration (Crossroads – Civilization)

[Link]

Bellwood’s Austronesian Diffusion Theory/Out-of-Taiwan Theory

“A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” by Peter Bellwood (1984-1985) (Refer to Compilation of Readings for
full text)

Bellwood’s theory is the most widely accepted. Though it is based initially on linguistics, later,
it relies on archaeological, cultural, and genetic findings. He believed that between 4500 – 4000 BC,

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

the agricultural technology development in Yunnan Plateau, Mainland China created pressures that
drove certain people to migrate to Taiwan. These people were called Austronesians, who used to
Proto-Austronesian as their language. From Taiwan, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the
islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia, as well as voyaging further east to reach Marianas
Islands and to west in Madagascar.

Common Characteristics Among

Austronesians:
 Practice of Tattooing
 Outrigger Canoes
 Prehistoric Art Styles (present in
jars, potteries and jewelries)
 Social characters (Sea as basic
tenet of life) Figure 10. (From Left to Right) A Cordillera Man with tattoos; A Filipino
Outrigger Boat; and Manunggul Jar.

 “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The Nusantao Maritime Trading Network” by
Wilhelm Solheim II (2000) (Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text)

For Solheim, it is an alternative model based on the maritime

movement of people over different directions and routes. It
suggests that the Nusantao (an artificial term derived from
Austronesian root words nusa “south” and tao “people”) in the
Southeastern Islands, possibly in the present-day coastal eastern
Vietnam and Southern China, around 5000 BC or possibly earlier.
These seafarers traversed Asia-Pacific Region from the
southward going northward. Further, he suggested that there is an
indication of a maritime network, by describing the movement of
artifacts as found in the Philippines, northern Vietnam, coastal
South China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Some of the artifacts to
be associated with rice cultivation, stepped and pediform adzes,
and plain pottery.

Figure 6. Map of the Peopling of the

Philippines based on Bellwood and
Bellwood's Theories.

Core Population Theory

F. L. Jocano, a UP Professor and anthropologist, disagreed with the diffusionist model. He

hypothesized that there were not clear finite waves of migration and that there were early humans in
the Philippines who lived thousands of years ago with similar culture (base culture), but due through a
gradual process over time, were driven by environmental factors, then differentiated themselves with
one another.

He related the three important characteristics of his theory:

1. “They stand co-equal as ethnic groups, without anyone being the dominant group, racially or
culturally.”
2. “The differences are due to the differences in their response to their environment.”
3. “Similarities are due to the adjustment to their environment.”

Furthermore, he proposed a local and internal development model for the peopling of the
Philippines based on the technology, tools, and other implements used. The following were the
three phases:

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

 Formative Phase referred to the technological development and cultural adaptation that took
place during the Pleistocene.
 Incipient Phase which characterized by the development of metal tools and pottery.
 Emergent Phase which was the beginning of trade by local inhabitants to other parts of Asia
and the Middle East

 Map of the Archaeological Sites in the Philippines (Refer to Compilation of Readings for full text)

Archaeological experts referred to these phases as Age of Stone, Age of Metals, and Age of
Contact. The Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) spans from approximately 800,000 to 9,000 years BP.
Archaeological materials associated with this period include the flake-and-pebble tools used by hunter-
gatherer groups. Examples of the Paleolithic sites are the early Callao Cave in Cagayan Valley and
Tabon Cave in Palawan.

The Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) spans from approximately 9,000 to 4,000 BP commonly
associated with assemblages such as polished stone tools, bone and slate projectile points, and a
tradition of pottery, as well as the evidence for food production and the domestication of animals.

The Metal Phase spans from 4,000 to 1,000 years BP (500 BC) and does not have a well-delineated
bronze and iron period like in other countries. It is recognized tough that the bronze objects were made
and used earlier than the iron objects. Archaeological evidence also indicates elaborate decorations in
pottery, as well as primary and secondary burial practices. The Maitum Cave in Sarangani Province,
where anthropomorphic jars discovered, is one of the examples of the sites.

Lastly, the Age of Contact spans from 1,450 BP to 330 BP (500 BC – 1400 AD) is associated with
the materials such as Chinese porcelain, glass beads, metals, and a society divided into chiefdoms.
These societies were integrated into a regional network through local-based trading and raiding
activities. Early polities in the Philippines put primacy on alliance networking rather than territorial
conquest in expanding their political power. See Figure 10, about the map of polities and sultanates
existed in the Philippines during this period, before the coming of the Spaniards (Historical Atlas of the
Philippines 2016, 14).

Community life throughout the archipelago was dominantly founded on trade and by increasing
specialization in craftmanship. The common sharing of culture like religion and writing was facilitated
by intensive internal trade, principally between riverine and coastal communities.
For the natives to Figure 7. success in engaging maritime trade with their Asian neighbors, they
had improved their maritime navigation and boat-building skill. These boats were known as balangay ,
a plank boat, driven either by sail or by paddling.

Important Keywords:
 Geography is the study of a places and the relationships between people and their
environments. With the help of geography in studying history, we can understand how human
culture interacts with the natural environment and the way that locations and places can have
an impact on people.
 Homo luzonensis is the new hominin species discovered in Callao Cave, in Penablanca,
Cagayan Province. They have been dated to between 67,000 years ago and 50,000 years ago,
 Austronesian-speaking peoples are a large group of various peoples in Southeast Asia,
Oceania and the African island of Madagascar, who are speakers of the Austronesian
languages.

 Application/Assessment
1. Map Quiz. Answer Activity 3 in Compilation of Readings.

2. Directed Paraphrasing.

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Let the students

paraphrase part from any
of the lessons in this chapter
module about what they
have learned so far, using
their own words.

References

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Module in Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC

Agoncillo, T., and Mangahas, F. 2010. Philippine History Expanded and Updated Ed. Quezon City,
Phil.: C & E Publishing Inc.

Bellwood, Peter. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” Asian Perspectives, xxvi (1), 1984 – 1985:
107-117.

Choose the Philippines| It’s More in the Philippines [Link]

CIA. “Philippines.” [Link]

Cole, Mabel. “Selected folktales.” Philippine Folktales, Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1916.
[Link]

De Viana, A. 2011. The Philippines: A Story of A Nation. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store Inc.

Jocano, F. “Geological Foundation” Philippine Prehistory: An Anthropological Overview of the

Beginnings of Filipino Society and Culture, Manila: Community Publishers, Inc., 1975, 21-39.

Maps from Historical Atlas of the Republic, 2016.

Solheim, Wilhelm II, “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The Nusantao Maritime
Trading Network,” JEAA 2, vol. 1-2 (2000): 273-284.

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