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Illumiantion GOOD - lighting system

Electrical and electronics engineering (Kisumu National Polytechnic)

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LECTURE NOTES

ON
UTILASATION OF ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
2018 – 2019

IV B. Tech I Semester (JNTUA-R15)

Mr. J Srinu Naick, Professor

CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING

COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
Chadalawada Nagar, Renigunta Road, Tirupati – 517 506

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

[Link] IV-I Sem. (E.E.E)
(13A02703) UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
UNIT–I ILLUMINATION
Definition –Laws of Illumination–Polar Curves – Calculation of MHCP and MSCP. Lamps:
Incandescent Lamp, Sodium Vapour Lamp, Fluorescent Lamp, CFL and LED. Requirement of
Good Lighting Scheme – Types, Design and Calculation of Illumination. Street Lighting and
Factory Lighting – Numerical Problems.
UNIT–II ELECTRIC HEATING & WELDING
Electrical Heating: Advantages. Methods of Electric Heating – Resistance, Arc, Induction and
Dielectric Heating.
Electric Welding: Types – Resistance, Electric Arc, Gas Welding. Ultrasonic, Welding
Electrodes of Various Metals, Defects in Welding. Electrolysis - Faraday's Laws, Applications
of Electrolysis, Power Supply for Electrolysis.
UNIT–III ELECTRIC TRACTION – I
Introduction – Systems of Electric Traction. Comparison Between A. C And D. C Traction –
Special Features of Traction Motors - The Locomotive – Wheel arrangement and Riding
Qualities – Transmission of Drive – Characteristics and Control of Locomotives and Motor
Coaches for Track Electrification – DC Equipment – AC Equipment – Electric Breaking with
DC Motors and with AC Motors – Control Gear – Auxiliary Equipment – Track Equipment and
Collector Gear – Conductor-Rail Equipment – Overhead Equipment – Calculation of Sags and
Tensions – Collector Gear for Overhead Equipment.
UNIT–IV ELECTRIC TRACTION - II
Mechanics of Train Movement. Speed-Time Curves of Different Services – Trapezoidal and
Quadrilateral, Speed-Time Curves – Numerical Problems. Calculations of Tractive Effort,
Power, Specific Energy Consumption - Effect of Varying Acceleration and Braking
Retardation, Adhesive Weight and Coefficient of Adhesion – Problems.
UNIT–V ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF UTILISING ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
Power Factor Improvement, Improvement of Load Factor, Off Peak Loads- Use of Exhaust
Steam, Waste Heat recovery, Pit Head Generation, Diesel Plant, General Comparison of Private
Plant and Public Supply- Initial Cost and Efficiency, Capitalization of Losses, Choice of
Voltage.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Utilization of Electric Energy, E. Openshaw Taylor and V. V. L. Rao, Universities Press,
2009.
2. Art & Science of Utilization of electrical Energy, Partab, Dhanpat Rai & Co., 2004.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
[Link], distribution and utilization of electrical energy, C.L Wadhwa, Wiley Eastern
Limited,1993
[Link] Power, S. L. Uppal, Khanna pulishers,1988.

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UNIT-1
ILLUMINATION

INTRODUCTION
Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the principles of light
control as applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting but also to
understand outdoor applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting. Now a day, the
electrically produced light is preferred to the other source of illumination because of an account
of its cleanliness, ease of control, steady light output, low cost, and reliability. The best
illumination is that it produces no strain on the eyes. Apart from its esthetic and decorative
aspects, good lighting has a strictly utilitarian value in reducing the fatigue of the workers,
protecting their health, increasing production, [Link] science of illumination engineering is
therefore becoming of major importance.
NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human eye is
capable of receiving it. Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human being
ultimately depend upon the light.
Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by
such bodies depends upon their temperature. A hot body about 500–800°C becomes a red hot
and about 2,500–3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While the body is red hot, the
wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the energy available in the form
of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from red-hot to white-hot state,
the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range of the
wavelength of light. The wavelength of the light waves varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075 mm,
i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10–10 mm). The eye discriminates between different
wavelengths in this range by the sensation of color.
The whole of the energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose. Radiations
of very short wavelength varying from 0.0000156 × 10–6m to 0.001 × 10–6 m are not in the
visible range are called as rontgen or x-rays, which are having the property of penetrating
through opaque bodies.
TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

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The following terms are generally used in illumination.

Color: The energy radiation of the heated body is monochromatic, i.e. the radiation of only one
wavelength emits specific color. The wavelength of visible light lies between 4,000 and 7,500
Å. The color of the radiation corresponding to the wavelength is shown
in Fig. 6.1.

Fig. [Link]

Relative sensitivity: The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different
wavelengths varies from person to person, and also varies with age. The average relative
sensitivity is shown in Fig. 6.2. The eye is most sensitive for a wavelength of 5,500 Å. So that,
the relative sensitivity according to this wavelength is taken as unity. Referred from Fig. 6.1,
blue and violet corresponding to the short wavelengths and red to the long wavelengths, orange,
yellow, and green being in the middle of the visible region of wavelength. The color
corresponding to 5,500 Å is not suitable for most of the applications since yellowish green. The
relative sensitivity at any particular wavelength (λ) is known as relative luminous factor (Kλ).

Fig. 6.2 The average relative sensitivity

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Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation
upon the human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to watthours,which
denoted by the symbol ‘Q’.
Luminous flux: It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from
a luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in lumens.
Ex: Suppose the luminous body is an incandescent lamp. The total electrical power input to the
lamp is not converted to luminous flux, some of the power lost through conduction, convection,
and radiation, etc. Afraction of the remaining radiant flux is in the form of light waves lies in
between the visual range of wavelength, i.e. between 4,000 and 7,000 Å, as shown in Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.3 Flux diagram

Radiant efficiency When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is
produced to I2R loss, which increases its temperature of the conductor. At low temperature,
conductor radiates energy in the form of heat waves, but at very high temperatures, radiated
energy will be in the form of light as well as heat waves. ‘Radiant efficiency is defined as the
ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces sensation of vision to the total energy
radiated out by the luminous body’.

Plane angle
A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines (Fig.6.4). It is
denoted by the Greek letter ‘θ’ (theta) and is usually measured in degrees or radians. One radian
is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length by an arc of a circle whose
length is equals to the radius of the circle.

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Fig. 6.4 Plane angle

Solid angle Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the point
(Fig. 6.5). It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in steradian.

Fig.6.5 Solid angle

The largest solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere:

Relationship between plane angle and solid angle

Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height ‘h’ and radius of the
sphere ‘r’ as shown in Fig. 6.6. The surface area of the curved surface of the spherical segment
ABC = 2πrh. From the Fig. 6.6:

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Fig.6.6 Sectional view for solid angle

BD = OB – OD From

From the Equation (6.3), the curve shows the variation of solid angle with plane angle is
shown in Fig. 6.7.

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Fig. 6.7 Relation between solid angle and plane angle

Luminous intensity
Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the luminous flux emitted by the
source per unit solid angle (Fig. 6.8).

Fig. 6.8 Luminous flux emitting from the source

It is denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is usually measured in ‘candela’. Let ‘F’ be the luminous

flux crossing a spherical segment of solid angle ‘ω’. Then luminous intensity
lumen/steradian or candela.
Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of
one candle power per unit solid angle in all directions.
Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.
Lumen = CP × ω
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.
Candle power (CP)
The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines emitted by that source in a unit
solid angle.

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Illumination
Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit [Link] is usually
denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m2 or meter

Lux or meter candle

It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m and a source of 1
CP is fitted at the center of sphere.
Foot candle
It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere
of radius 1 foot, and a source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of it.
We know that 1 lux = 1 foot candle = 1 lumen/(ft)2

Brightness
Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity pen unit surface area of
the projected surface in the given direction. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘L’.If the luminous
intensity of source be ‘I’ candela on an area A, then the projected area is Acos θ.
The unit of brightness is candela/m2 or candela/cm2 or candela/(ft)2.

Relation between I, E, and L

Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters, at the center a source of 1
CP, and luminous intensity I candela.

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Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP)

MHCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in horizontal
plane.
Mean spherical candle power (MSCP)
MSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions in all planes.
Mean hemispherical candle power (MHSCP)
MHSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of source in all directions above or below
the horizontal plane.
Reduction factor
Reduction factor of the source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean spherical candle power
to its mean horizontal candle power.

Lamp efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the source to its
electrical power input in watts. It is expressed in lumen/W.

Specific consumption
It is defined as the ratio of electric power input to its average candle power.

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Space to height ratio

It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the height of their
Mountings.

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor

It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens reaching the working plane to the
Total number of lumens emitting from source.

Maintenance factor
It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination
when everything is clean. Its value is always less than 1, and it will be around 0.8. This is due to
the accumulation of dust, dirt, and smoke on the lamps that emit less light than that they emit
when they are so clean. Frequent cleaning of lamp will improve the maintenance factor.

Depreciation factor
It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained illumination on the
working [Link] values is always more than 1.

Waste light factor

When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the sources of light, there is certain
amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves; the wastage of light is taken into account
depending upon the type of area to be illuminated. Its value for rectangular area is 1.2 and for
irregular area is 1.5 and objects such as statues, monuments, etc.
Absorption factor
Normally, when the atmosphere is full of smoke and fumes, there is a possibility of absorption
of light. Hence, the total lumens available after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the
lamp are known as absorption factor.

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Reflection factor or coefficient of reflection

When light rays impinge on a surface, it is reflected from the surface at an angle of incidence
shown in Fig. 6.9. A portion of incident light is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of luminous
flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on it is known as reflection factor. Its
value will be always less than 1.

Fig.6.9 Reflected ray

Beam factor
It is defined as the ratio of ‘lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by
lamps’. Its value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into account for the
absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp.
Example 6.1: A 200-V lamp takes a current of 1.2 A, it produces a total flux of 2,860
lumens. Calculate: 1. the MSCPofthe lamp and 2. the efficiency of the lamp.
Solution:
Given V = 200 V
I = 1.2 A, flux = 2,860 lumens.

Example 6.2: A room with an area of 6 × 9 m is illustrated by ten 80-W lamps. The luminous
efficiency of the lamp is 80 lumens/W and the coefficient of utilization is [Link] the average
illumination.
Solution:
Room area = 6 × 9 = 54 m2.
Total wattage = 80 × 10 = 800 W.
Total flux emitted by ten lamps = 80 × 800 = 64,000 lumens.

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Flux reaching the working plane = 64,000 × 0.65 = 41,600 lumens

Example 6.3: The luminous intensity of a lamp is 600 CP. Find the flux given out. Also find
the flux in the hemisphere containing the source of light and zero above the horizontal.
Solution:
Flux emitted by source (lumen)
= Intensity (I) × solid angle (ω)
= 600 × 2 π = 3,769.911 lumens
∴ Flux emitted in the lower hemisphere = 3,769.911 lumens.
Example 6.4: The flux emitted by 100-W lamp is 1,400 lumens placed in a frosted globe of 40
cm diameter and gives uniform brightness of 250 milli-lumens/m2 in all directions. Calculate
the candel power of the globe and the percentage of light absorbed by the globe.
Solution:
Flux emitted by the globe
= brightness × globe area

= 1,256.63 lumens
Flux absorbed by the globe
= flux emitted by source – flux emitted by globe
= 1,400 – 1,256.63
= 143.36 lumens.

Example 6.5: A surface inclined at an angle 40° to the rays is kept 6 m away from 150 candle
power lamp. Find the average intensity of illumination on the surface.
Solution:
From the Fig. P.6.1:
θ = (90° – 40°) = 50°.

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∴ Average illumination:

Fig. P.6.1
LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.1. Inverse square law. 2. Lambert's cosine law.
1 Inverse square law
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and a point source’.
Proof:
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux emitting from
source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2, and A3 square meters, which are
separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as shown in Fig.
6.10.

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Fig. 6.10 Inverse square law

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity × solid angle

∴ Illumination 'E1' on the surface area 'A1' is:

Similarly, illumination 'E2' on the surface area A2 is:

and illumination ‘E3’ on the surface area A3 is:

From Equations (6.5), (6.6), and (6.7)

Hence, from Equation (6.8), illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the square
of distance between the surface and the source.
Lambert's cosine law

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This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle
‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown in Fig. 6.11.

Fig. 6.11 Lambert's cosine law

Let
PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source
‘O’.
Therefore, from Fig. 6.11:

From Fig. 6.11(b):

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Substituting ‘d' from the above equation in Equation (6.10):

Where

where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of source from
the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela. Hence, Equation (6.11) is also
known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the ‘illumination at any point on a surface is
dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle between line of flux and normal at that point’.
Note:
*From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only applicable
for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's cosine law is
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the line of flux.
Example 6.6: The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is to be
60 lumens/m2. The lamp gives 130 CP uniformly below the horizontal plane. Determine: 1.
The height at which lamp is suspended. 2. The illumination at a point on the working plane 2.8
m away from the vertical axis of the lamp.
Solution:
Given data:
Candle power of the lamp = 130 CP.
The illumination just below the lamp, E = 60 lumen/m2.
1. From the Fig. P.6.2, the illumination just below the lamp, i.e., at point A:

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2. The illumination at point ‘B':

Fig. P.6.2

POLAR CURVES
The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined using the intensity distribution curve.
Till now we assumed that the luminous intensity or the candle power from a source is
distributed uniformly over the surrounding surface. But due to its s not uniform in all directions.
The luminous intensity or the distribution of the light can be represented with the help of the
polar curves. The polar curves are drawn by taking luminous intensities in various directions at
an equal angular displacement in the sphere. A radial ordinate pointing in any particular
direction on a polar curve represents the luminous intensity of the source when it is viewed
from that direction. Accordingly, there are two different types of polar curves and they are:
1. A curve is plotted between the candle power and the angular position, if the luminous
intensity, i.e., candle power is measured in the horizontal plane about the vertical axis, called
'horizontal polar curve’.

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2. curve is plotted between the candle power, if it is measured in the vertical plane and the
angular position is known as 'verticalpolar curve’. Figure 6.12 shows the typical polar curves
for an ordinary lamp.

Fig 6.12 Polar

Depression at 180° in the vertical polar curve is due to the lamp holder. Slight depression at 0°
in horizontal polar curve is because of coiled coil filament. Polar curves are used to determine
the actual illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in that particular direction
as read from the vertical polar curve. These are also used to determine mean horizontal candle
power (MHCP) and mean spherical candle power (MSCP). The mean horizontal candle power
of a lamp can be determined from the horizontal polar curve by considering the mean value of
all the candle powers in a horizontal direction. The mean spherical candle power of a
symmetrical source of a light can be found out from the polar curve by means of a Rousseau's
construction.
Rousseau's construction
Let us consider a vertical polar curve is in the form of two lobes symmetrical
about XOX1 axis. A simple Rousseau's curve is shown in Fig. 6.13.

Fig. 6.13 Rousseau's curve

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Rules for constructing the Rousseau's curve are as follows:

1. Draw a circle with any convenient radius and with ‘O’ as center.
2. Draw a line 'AF’ parallel to the axis XOX1 and is equal to the diameter of the circle.
3. Draw any line ‘OPQ' in such a way that the line meeting the circle at point ‘Q’. Now let the
projection be ‘R’ onto the parallel line 'AF’.
4. Erect an ordinate at ‘R’ as, RB = OP.
5. Now from this line 'AF' ordinate equals to the corresponding radius on the polar curve are
setup such as SC = OM, TD = ON, and so on.
6. The curve ABC DEFA so obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau's curve.
The mean ordinate of this curve gives the mean spherical candle power (MSCP) of the lamp
having polar curve given in Fig. 6.13. The mean ordinate of the curve:

The area under the Rousseau's curve can be determined by Simpson's rule.
PHOTOMETRY
Photometry involves the measurement of candle power or luminous intensity of a given source.
Now, we shall discuss the comparison and measurement of the candle powers. The candle
power of a given source in a particular direction can be measured by the comparison with a
standard or substandard source. In order to eliminate the errors due to the reflected light, the
experiment is conducted in a dark room with dead black walls and ceiling. The comparison of
the test lamp with the standard lamp can be done by employing a photometer bench and some
form of photometer.
Principle of simple photometer
The photometer bench essentially consists of two steel rods with 2- to 3-m long. This bench
carries stands or saddles for holding two sources (test and standard lamps), the carriage for the
photometer head and any other apparatus employed in making measurements. Graduated scale
in centimeters or millimeters in one of the bar strips. The circular table is provided with a large
graduated scale in degrees round its edge so that the angle of the rotation of lamp from the axis
of bench can be measured. The photometer bench should be rigid so that the source being
compared may be free from vibration. The photometer head should be capable of moving
smoothly and the photometer head acts as screen for the comparison of the illumination of the

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standard lamp and the test lamp. The principle methods of measurement are based upon the
inverse square law. The photometer bench consists of two sources, the standard source ‘S’
whose candle power is known and the other source ‘T’ whose candle power is to be determined.
The photometer head acts as screen is moved in between the two fixed sources until the
illumination on both the sides of screen is same. A simple arrangement for the measurement of
the candle power of the test source is shown in Fig. 6.14.

Fig.6.14 Measurement of candle power

If the distances of the standard source ‘S’ and the test source ‘T’ from the photometer head are
L1 and L2, respectively, then, according to the inverse square law, if the illumination on both
the sides of screen are equal then the candle power of the source is proportional to the square of
the distance between the source and the photometer head.
The CP of standard source ∝ L1
.
The CP of test source ∝ L2

. In order to obtain the accurate candle power of test source, the distance of the sources
from the photometer head should be measured accurately.
Photometer heads
The photometer heads that are most common in use are:
1. Bunsen grease spot photometer.

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2. Lumer–Brodhun photometer.
3. Flicker photometer.
The first two are best suited for use, if the two sources to be compared give the light of same or
approximately similar colors. Increase the light from the two sources to be compared differ in
color, a flicker photometer is best suited.
(i) Bunsen grease spot photometer
Bunsen photometer consists of a tissue paper, with a spot of grease or wax at its center. It held
vertically in a carrier between the two light sources to be compared. The central spot will
appear dark on the side, having illumination in excess when seen from the other side. Then, the
observer will adjust the position of photometer head in such a way that until the semitransparent
spot and the opaque parts of the paper are equally bright then the grease spot is invisible, i.e.,
same contrast in brightness is got between the spot and the disc when seen from each sides as
shown in Fig. 6.15. The distance of the photometer from the two sources is measured. Hence,
the candle power of test source is then determined by using relation:

Fig.6.15 Bunsen grease spot photometer

The use of two reflecting mirrors above the photometer head makes it perhaps the accurate
method, since the two sides of spot and position of the head can be viewed simultaneously.
(ii) Lumer-Brodhun photometer
There are two types of Lumen–Brodhun photometer heads.
1. Equality of brightness type.
2. Contrast type.
The Contrast type is more accurate and therefore, extensively used in the photometric
measurements.
(a) Equality of brightness type photometer head

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The photometer head essentially consists of screen made of plaster of Paris, two mirrorsM1and
M2, glass cube or compound prism, and a telescope. The compound prism made up of two
right-angled glass prisms held together, one of which has sand blasted pattern on its face, i.e.,
principal surface as spherical with small flat portion at the center and the other is perfectly
plain. A typical Lumer–Brodhun photometer head is shown in Fig. 6.16.

Fig. 6.16 Lumer–Brodhun photometer (equality of brightness)

The two sides of the screen are illuminated by two sources such as the standard and test lamps
as shown in Fig. 6.16. The luminous flux lines emitting from the two sources are falling on the
screen directly and reflected by it onto the mirrors M1 and M2, which in turn reflects the same
onto the compound prism. The light ray reflected by M1 is passing through the plain prism and
the light ray reflected byM2 is falling on the spherical surface of the other prism and is reflected
again which pass through the telescope. Thus, observer view the center portion of the circular
area illuminated by the test lamp and the outer ring is illuminated by the standard lamp. The
positioning of the photometer head is adjusted in such away that the dividing line between the
center portion and the surrounding disappears. The disappearance of dividing line indicates the
same type of color of the test lamp and the standard lamp. Now, the distance of photometer
head from the two sources are measured and the candle power or luminous intensity of test
lamp can be calculated by using inverse square law.
(b) Contrast type photometer head
Similar to the equal brightness type photometer, it consists of a compound prism, which is
made up of two right-angled glass prism. The joining surfaces of the two right-angled glass

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prisms are flat, but one of the prism has its hypotenuses surface etched away at A,B, and C to
get pattern of the type shown in Fig. 6.17.

Fig. 6.17 Lumen–Brodhun photometer head (Contrast type)

As in case of equal brightness type, the light falling on the both sides of the screen passes
through the unetched portion of the joining surface and gets reflected at the etched surfaces (A,
B, and C). P and Q are the sheets of glass that give little reflected light to maintain the
difference between the illuminations of both the etched and the unetched portions. If the
illumination of the surfaces of the prism is different, then the etched portion will have
difference in illumination as compared to unetched portion. If the balance is got, the difference
in illuminations of both etched and unetched portions are same and equal to half of the circular
area; then, the photometer head is said to be in a balance position. When the balance position is
altered, the difference or the contrast in the illumination of area ‘C’ and its surrounding area
decreases. In addition, the contrast illumination area AB and the inner trapezium will increase.
Generally, in balanced position, the contrast is about 8%. The position of photometer head is
adjusted in such a way that the equal contrast is obtained between the etched and the unetched
portions. This contrast type of the head gives accuracy within 1%.
(iii) Flicker photometer
The flicker photometers are employed when two sources giving light of different colors to be
compared. The color contrast between two lights do not affect their working is the unit feature
of the flicker photometer. This is because the color contrast between the two alternating fields
of the light disappears at a lower speed of alternation than does a contrast of brightness. A

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typically used flicker photometer is a Simmance–Abady flicker photometer, where used

rotating disc made up of plaster of Paris. The dick is in the form of a doubletruncated cone as
shown in Fig. 6.18. The truncated portions of cone are fitted together to form the disc. The disc
is continuously rotated at the required minimum speed by small motor in between the two
sources to be compared. Each half of the disc is illuminated from one source and the eye is
presented with the two fields of the light to be compared alternately. When the two halves are
having unequal illuminations a flicker appears. Now, the disc is rotated to that position where
the flicker disappears. When the two halves of the disc are illuminated equally and then the
candle power of the test source can be calculated by measuring the distances of the disc from
the two sources in
the usual manner.

Fig. 6.18 Flicker photometer

Discharge lamps
In this method, the application of suitable voltage, known as ignition voltage, across the two
electrodes results in a discharge through the gas, this is accompanied by electromagnetic
radiation. Here, candle power, i.e., the color intensity of the light emitted depends upon the
nature of the gas. These sources do not depend on the temperature for higher efficiencies. Ex:
Neon lamp, sodium vapor lamp, mercury vapor lamp, and florescent lamp.
SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is light?
It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation upon the
human eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to watt-hours, which denoted by the
symbol ‘Q’.
2. Write the expression that shows the relation between solid angle and plane angle.

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3. States the inverse square law of illumination.

This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and a point source’.
4. States the Lambert's cosine law of illumination.
This law states that ‘illumination, E at any pint on a surface is directly proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the line of flux’.
5. Define the MSCP.
It is defined as the mean of the candle power of the source in all directions in horizontal plane.
6. Define the MHCP.
It is defined as the mean of the candle power of the source in all directions in all planes.
7. Define the MHSCP.
It is defined as the mean of the candle power of the source in all directions above or below the
horizontal plane.
8. What is the need of polar curves?
The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined from the intensity distribution curve.
But the luminous intensity or the candle power of any practical lamp is not uniform in all
directions due to its unsymmetrical shape. The luminous intensity or the distribution of such
sources can be determined by polar curves.
9. List out the types of photometers used for the photometric measurements.
The photometer heads that are most common in use are:
1. Bunsen grease spot photometer.
2. Lumer–Brodhun photometer.
3. Flicker photometer.
10 What is photometry?
Photometry means the measurement of the candle power or the luminous intensity of a given
source. The candle power of any test source is measured with the comparison of a standard
source.
11 List out the various photocells used for photometric measurements. Generally used
photocells for photometric measurements are:

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0. photo voltaic cell and

1. photo emissive cell.
The photo voltaic cell is most widely used one because of its simplicity and associated circuits.
12 Define plane angle.
A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines. It is denoted
by the Greek letter 'θ' (theta) and is usually measured in degrees or radians.

13 Define solid angle.

Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle enclosed in the
volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the point. It is usually
denoted by symbol ‘ω’, and is measured in steradian.

14 Define luminous flux.

It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from a luminous body.
It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured in lumens.
15 Define luminous intensity. Luminous intensity in a given dissection is defined as the
luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle.

16 Define illumination.
Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.

17 Define lamp efficiency.

It is defined as the ratio of total luminous flux emitting from the source to its electrical power
input in watts.

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Various Illumination Methods

INTRODUCTION
Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in a day, it is
very difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is necessary to have
substitute for natural light. Light from incandescent bodies produced electrically, which playing
important role in everyday life due to its controlled output, reliability, and cleanliness
nowadays; various sources are producing artificial light. Each source has its own characteristics
and specific importance.
TYPES OF SOURCES OF ILLUMINATION
Usually in a broad sense, based upon the way of producing the light by electricity, the sources
of
light are classified into following four types.
Electric arc lamps
The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and provides intense
light.
Incandescent lamps
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light that falls in
the
visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating on this principle. Gaseous
discharge lamps
When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it produces visible
radiation by discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and mercury vapor lamps operate
on
this principle.
Fluorescent lamps
Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the absorbed energy
into visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This principle is employed in
fluorescent lamps.
ARC LAMPS

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In arc lamps, the electrodes are in contact with each other and are separated by some distance
apart; the electric current is made to flow through these two electrodes. The discharge is
allowed
to take place in the atmosphere where there are the production of a very intense light and a
considerable amount of UV radiation, when an arc is struck between two electrodes. The arcs
maintain current and is very efficient source of light. They are used in search lights, projection
lamps, and other special purpose lamps such as those in flash cameras.
Generally, used arc lamps are:
1. carbon arc lamp,
2. flame arc lamp, and
3. magnetic arc lamp.
Carbon arc lamp
Carbon arc lamp consists of two hard rod-type electrodes made up of carbon. Two electrodes
are placed end to end and are connected to the DC supply. The positive electrode is of a large
size than that of the negative electrode. The carbon electrodes used with AC supply are of the
same size as that of the DC supply. The DC supply across the two electrodes must not be less
than 45 V. When electric current passes through the electrodes are in contact and then
withdrawn apart about 2–3 mm an arc is established between the two rods. The two edges of the
rods becomes incandescence due to the high resistance offered by rods as shown in Fig. 7.1 by
transfer of carbon particles from one rod to the other. It is observed that carbon particles
transfer from the positive rod to the negative one. So that the positive electrode gets consumed
earlier than the negative electrode. Hence, the positive electrode is of twice the diameter than
that of the negative electrode.

Fig 7.1 Carbon arc lamp

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In case of AC supply, the rate of consumption of the two electrodes is same; therefore, the
cross-section of the two electrodes is same. A resistance ‘R’ is connected in series with the
electrode for stabilizing the arc. As current increases, the vaporizing rate of carbon increases,
which decreases the resistance so much, then voltage drop across the arc decreases. So, to
maintain the arc between the two electrodes, series resistance should be necessarily connected.
For maintaining the arc, the necessary voltage required is:
V = (39 + 2.8 l ) V,
where l is the length of the arc. The voltage drop across the arc is 60 V, the temperature of the
positive electrode is 3,500 – 4,200°C, and the temperature of the negative electrode is 2,500°C.
The luminous efficiency of such lamps is 9–12 lumens/W. This low luminous efficiency is due
to the service resistance provided in DC supply while in case of AC supply, an inductor is used
in place of a resistor. In carbon arc lamps, 85% of the light is given out by the positive
electrode, 10% of the light is given out by the negative electrodes, and 5% of the light is given
out by the air.
Flame arc lamp
The electrodes used in flame arc lamp are made up of 85% of carbon and 15% of fluoride. This
fluoride is also known as flame material; it has the efficient property that radiates light energy
from high heated arc stream. Generally, the core type electrodes are used and the cavities are
filled with fluoride. The principle of operation of the flame arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc
lamp. When the arc is established between the electrodes, both fluoride and carbon get
vaporized
and give out very high luminous intensities. The color output of the flame arc lamps depends
upon the flame materials. The luminous efficiency of such lamp is 8 lumens/W. A simple flame
arc lamp is shown in Fig. 7.2. Resistance is connected in service with the electrodes to stabilize
the arc.

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Fig. 7.2 Flame arc lamp

Magnetic arc lamp
The principle of the operation of the magnetic arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. This
lamp consists of positive electrode that is made up of copper and negative electrode that is
made up of magnetic oxide of iron. Light energy radiated out when the arc is struck between the
two electrodes. These are rarely used lamps.
INCANDESCENT LAMP
These lamps are temperature-dependent sources. When electric current is made to flow through
a fine metallic wire, which is known as filament, its temperature increases. At low temperatures,
it emits only heat energy, but at very high temperature, the metallic wire emits both heat and
light energy. These incandescent lamps are also known as temperature radiators. Choice of
material for filament The materials commonly used as filament for incandescent lamps are
carbon, tantalum, tungsten, and osmium.
The materials used for the filament of the incandescent lamp have the following properties.
1 The melting point of the filament material should be high.
2 The temperature coefficient of the material should be low.
3 It should be high resistive material.
4 The material should possess good mechanical strength to withstand vibrations.
5 The material should be ductile.
7.4.2 Comparisons of carbon, osmium, tantalum, and tungsten used for making the
filament
Carbon

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1 Carbon has high melting point of 3,500°C; even though, its melting point is high, carbon
starts
disintegration at very fast rate beyond its working temperature of 1,800°C.
2 Its resistance decreases with increase in temperature, i.e., its temperature coefficient of
resistivity is negative, so that it draws more current from the supply. The temperature
coefficient (α) is –0.0002 to – 0.0008.
3 The efficiency of carbon filament lamp is low; because of its low operating tem perature,
large electrical input is required. The commercial efficiency of carbon lamp is 3 – 4.5
lumens/W approximately.
4 Carbon has high resistivity (ρ), which is about 1,000–7,000 μΩ-cm and its density is 1.7–3.5.
Osmium
1 The melting point of osmium is 2,600°C.
2 It is very rare and expensive metal.
3 The average efficiency of osmium lamp is 5 lumens/W.
Tantalum
1 The melting point of tantalum is 3,000°C.
2 Resistivity (ρ) is 12.5 μΩ-cm.
3 The main drawback of the negative temperature coefficient of carbon is overcome in
tantalum. It has positive temperature coefficient (α) and its value is 0.0036.
4 The density of tantalum is 16.6.
5 The efficiency of tantalum lamp is 2 lumens/W.
Tungsten
1 The working temperature of tungsten is 2,500–3,000°C.
2 Its resistance at working temperature is about 12–15 times the cold resistance.
3 It has positive temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.0045.
4 Its resistivity is 5.6 12.5 μΩ-cm.
5 The density of tungsten is 19.3.
6 The efficiency of tantalum when working at 2,000°C is 18 lumens/W.
7 Its vapor pressure is low when compared to carbon.
In fact, the carbon lamp is the first lamp introduced by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879, owing to
two drawbacks, tungsten radiates more energy in visible spectrum and somewhat less in

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infrared spectrum so that there was a switch over in infrared spectrum so that there was a switch
over from carbon filament to tungsten filament. Nowadays, tungsten filament lamps are widely
used incandescent lamps.
The chemically pure tungsten is very strong and fragile. In order to make it into ductile,
tungsten oxide is first reduced in the form of gray power in the atmosphere of hydrogen and this
powder is pressed in steel mold for small bars; the mechanical strength of these bars can be
improved by heating them to their melting point and then hammered at red-hot position and
rerolled into wires.
Construction
Figure 7.3 shows the construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent lamp. It consists
of an evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with two pins to insert the
bulb into the socket. The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten filament and the support
wires are made of molybdenum to hold the filament in proper position. A glass button is
provided in which the support wires are inserted. A stem tube forms an air-tight seal around the
filament whenever the glass is melted.

Fig. 7.3 Incandescent lamp

Operation

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When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament, its
temperature increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both heat and light
radiations, which fall in the visible region. The maximum temperature at which the filament can
be worked without oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e., beyond this temperature, the tungsten filament
blackens the inside of
the bulb. The tungsten filament lamps can be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be
attained by inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen with small quantity of organ. But if
gas is inserted instead of vacuum in the inner side of the bulb, the heat of the lamp is conducted
away and it reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of heat by conduction and
convection, as far as possible, the filament should be so wound that it takes very little space.
This
is achieved by using a single-coil filament instead of a straight wire filament as shown in Fig.
7.4(a). This single-coil filament is used in vacuum bulbs up to 25 W and gas filled bulbs from
300 to 1,000 W.

Fig. 7.4 Various filaments used in incandescent lamps

On further development of the incandescent lamps, the shortening of the length of the filament
was achieved by adopting a coiled coil or a double coil filament as shown in Fig. 7.4(b). The
use of coiled coil filament not only improves the efficiency of the lamp but also reduces the
number of filament supports and thus simplified interior construction because the double coil
reduces the
filament mounting length in the ratio of 1:25 as compared to the straight wire filaments.
Usually, the tungsten filament lamp suffers from ‘aging effect’, the output of the light an
incandescent lamp decreases as the lamp ages. The output of the light of the lamp decreases due
to two reasons.
1 At very high temperature, the vaporization of filament decreases the coil diameter so that
resistance of the filament increases and hence its draws less current from the supply, so the
temperature of the filament and the light output of the bulb decrease.

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2 The current drawn from the mains and the power consumed by the filament decrease, which
decrease the efficiency of the lamp with the passage of time. In addition, the evaporation of the
filament at high temperature blackens the inside of the bulb.
The effects of voltage variations
The variations in normal supply voltages will affect the operating characteristics of
incandescent lamps. The performance characteristic of an incandescent lamp, when it is
subjected to voltage other than normal voltage, is shown in Fig. .

Fig Performance characteristics of incandescent lamp

With an increase in the voltage owing to the increase in the temperature, the luminous output
of the incandescent lamps, and the efficiency and power consumption, but its life span
decreases. The depreciation in the light output is around 15% over the useful life of the lamp.
The above stated factors are related to the variations of voltage are given as:
1 Lumens output ∝ (voltage)3.55.
2 Power consumption ∝ (voltage)1.55.
3 Luminous efficiency ∝ (voltage)2.
4 Life ∝ (voltage)–13 (for vacuum lamps).
5 Life ∝ (voltage)–14 (for gas filled lamps).
The advantages of the incandescent lamps
1 These lamps are available in various shapes and sizes.
2These are operating at unity power factor.

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3 These lamps are not affected by surrounding air temperature.

3Different colored light output can be obtained by using different colored glasses.
Filament dimensions
Let us consider a lamp, which is connected to the mains, is given the steady light output, i.e.
whatever the heat produced, it is dissipated and the filament temperature is not going to be
increase further. It is found to be the existence of a definite relation between the diameter of a
given filament and the current through it.
The input wattage to the lamp is expressed as:

where I is the current taken by the lamp A, a is the filament cross-section, sq. m, ρ is the
resistivity of the filament at working temperature Ω-m, l is the length of the filament m, andd is
the diameter of the filament. Let the emissivity of the material be ‘e’. Total heat dissipated will
depend upon the surface area and the emissivity of the material
∴ Heat dissipated ∝ surface area × emissivity:

At the steady state condition, the power input should be equal to the heat dissipated. From
Equations (7.1) and (7.2), we can write that:

If two filaments are made up of same material, working at same temperature and efficiency
but with different diameters, then from Equation (7.3):

If two filaments are working at the same temperature, then their luminous output must be same

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even though their lengths are different.

Limitations
The incandescent lamp suffers from the following drawbacks:
o Low efficiency.
o Colored light can be obtained by using different colored glass enclosures only.
DISCHARGE LAMPS
Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the incandescent lamp.
The
main principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge lamp is illustrated as below. In
all discharge lamps, an electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor, which produces
its illuminance. Normally, at high pressures and atmospheric conditions, all the gases are poor
conductors of electricity. But on application of sufficient voltage across the two electrodes,
these ionized gases produce electromagnetic radiation. In the process of producing light by
gaseous conduction, the most commonly used elements are neon, sodium, and mercury. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation depends upon the nature of gas and the gaseous
pressure used inside the lamp. A simple discharge lamp is shown in Fig. 7.6.

Fig. Discharge lamps

The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of
excitation and ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a
discharge tube. When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential,
gas or metal vapor starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two electrodes. Volt–
ampere characteristics of the arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp possess a negative

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resistance characteristics. A choke or ballast is provided to limit high currents to a safe value.
Here, the choke serves two functions.
o It provides ignition voltage initially.
o Limits high currents.
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all the
discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The nature
of
the gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.
Types of discharge lamps
Generally used discharge lamps are of two types. They are:
1. The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place through the gas or
vapor present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas, sodium vapor lamp, and mercury vapor lamp.
2. The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated inside
the walls of the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the vapor produces
UV radiation, then the invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and radiates light energy
falls in the visible region. This UV light causes fluorescence in certain phosphor materials, such
lamps are known as fluorescent lamps.
Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.
In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.
Drawbacks
The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers; therefore, the lamp
circuitry is complex.
2. High initial cost.
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have negative
resistance
characteristics.

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NEON DISCHARGE LAMP

This is a cold cathode lamp, in which no filament is used to heat the electrode for starting. Neon
lamp consists of two electrodes placed at the two ends of a long discharge tube is shown in Fig.
7.7.

Fig. Neon lamps

The discharge tube is filled with neon gas. A low voltage of 150 V on DC or 110 V on AC is
impressed across the two electrodes; the discharge takes place through the neon gas that emits
light or electro magnetic radiation reddish in color. The sizes of electrodes used are equal for
both AC and DC supplies. On DC, neon glow appear nearer to the negative electrode; therefore,
the negative electrode is made larger in size. Neon lamp electric circuit consists of a
transformer with high leakage reactance in order to stabilize the arc. Capacitor is used to
improve the power factor. Neon lamp efficiency is approximately 15–40 lumens/W. The power
consumption of the neon lamp is 5 W. If the helium gas is used instead of neon, pinkish white
light is obtained. These lamps are used as night lamps and as indicator lamps and used for the
determination of the polarity of DC mains and for advertising purpose.
SODIUM VAPOR LAMP
A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge lamp
consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask, to keep the temperature
of the tube within the working region. The inner U-tube consists of two oxide-coated

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electrodes, which are sealed with the ends. These electrodes are connected to a pin type base
construction of
sodium vapor lamp is shown in Fig. .

Fig. Sodium vapor lamp

This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so that the length of the lamp should be more.
In order to get the desired length, it is made in the form of a U-shaped tube. This longUtube
consists of a small amount of neon gas and metallic sodium. At the time of start, the neon gas
vaporizes and develops sufficient heat to vaporize metallic sodium in the U-shaped tube.
Working Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner tube.
When sufficient voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge starts in the inert gas,
i.e., neon; it operates as a low-pressure neon lamp with pink color. The temperature of the lamp

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increases gradually and the metallic sodium vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the
monochromatic yellow light. This lamp takes 10–15 min to give its full light output. The
yellowish output of the lamp makes the object appears gray. In order to start the lamp, 380 –
450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-W lamps. These voltages can be obtained
from a high reactance transformer or an auto transformer. The operating power factor of the
lamp is very poor, so that a capacitor is placed to improve the power factor to above 0.8. More
care should be taken while replacing the inner tube, if it is broken, then sodium comes in
contact with the moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or
nearly so, to spread out the sodium well along the tube. The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is
lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W. Normally, these lamps are manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and
140-W ratings. The normal operating temperatures of these lamps are 300°C. In general, the
average life of the sodium vapor lamp is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are not affected by voltage
variations.
Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:
o The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
o The filament breaks or burns out.
o All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.
o The life of the lamp increases due to aging.
The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are mainly
used for highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.
HIGH-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP
The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the pressure, voltage,
temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral quality and the efficiency of
the
lamp. Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
1. MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
2. MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
3. MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high
pressures.
MA type lamp
It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the construction of sodium

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vapor lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in Fig. 7.9

Fig. MA type lamp

MA type lamp consists of a long discharge tube in ‘U’ shape and is made up of hard glass or
quartz. This discharge tube is enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass. To prevent the heat
loss from the inner bulb, by convection, the gap between the two tubes is completely evacuated.
The inner tube contains two main electrodes and an auxiliary starting electrode, which is
connected through a high resistance of about 50 kΩ. It also contains a small quantity of argon
gas and mercury. The two main electrodes are tungsten coils coated with electron emitting
material (such as thorium metal).
Working
Initially, the tube is cold and hence the mercury is in condensed form. Initially, when supply is
given to the lamp, argon gas present between the main and the auxiliary electrodes gets ionized,

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and an arc is established, and then discharge takes place through argon for few minutes between
the main and the auxiliary electrodes. As a result, discharge takes place through argon for few
minutes in between the main and the auxiliary electrodes. The discharge can be controlled by
using high resistance that is inserted in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After few minutes,
the argon gas, as a whole, gets ionized between the two main electrodes. Hence, the discharge
shifts from the auxiliary electrode to the two main electrodes. During the discharge process,
heat is produced and this heat is sufficient to vaporize the mercury. As a result, the pressure
inside the discharge tube becomes high and the voltage drop across the two main electrodes will
increases from 20 to 150 V. After 5–7 min, the lamp starts and gives its full output. Initially, the
discharge through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through the mercury vapors is
greenish blue light; here, choke is provided to limit high currents and capacitor is to improve
the power factor of the lamp. If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the
vapor pressure be reduced before it will start. It takes approximately 3 – 4 min. The operating
temperature of the inner discharge tube is about 600°C. The efficiency of this type of lamp is
30–40 lumens/W. These lamps are manufactured in 250 and 400 W ratings for use on 200–250
V on AC supply. Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports,
shopping centers, railway yards, etc.
MAT type lamp
This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for
use on AC as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type lamp is similar to the MA
type
lamp except the outer tube being empty; it consists of tungsten filament so that at the time of
starting, it works as a tungsten filament lamp. Here, the filament itself acts as a choke or ballast
to limit the high currents to safer value. When the supply is switched on, it works as a tungsten
filament lamp, its full output is given by the outer tube. At this time, the temperature of the
inner discharge tube increases gradually, the argon gas present in it starts ionizing in the
discharge tube at any particular temperature is attained then thermal switch gets opened, and the
part of the filament is detached and voltage across the discharge tube increases. Now, the
discharge takes place through the mercury vapor. Useful color effect can be obtained by this
lamp. This is because of the combination of light emitted form the filament and blue radiations
from the discharge tube. In this type of lamp, capacitor is not required since the overall power

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factor of the lamp is 0.95; this is because the filament itself acts as resistance. Fig. 7.10 shows
the construction of MAT type lamp.

Fig. MAT type lamp

MB type lamp
Schematic representation of MB type lamp is shown in Fig. .

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Fig. MB type lamp

The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for the MB
type lamp is about 5 -cm long and is made up of quartz material. It has three electrodes; two
main and one auxiliary electrodes. There are three electrodes present in the MB type lamp,
namely two main electrodes and one auxiliary electrode. Relatively, very high pressure is
maintained inside the discharge tube and it is about 5–10 times greater than atmospheric
pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl glass material so as to withstand high temperatures.
We can use these tubes in any position, because they are made up of special glass material. The
working principle of the MB type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp. These lamps are
manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use in AC as well as DC supplies. An MB type lamp
consists a bayonet cap with three pins, so it may not be used in an ordinary sense. A choke coil
and a capacitor are necessary for working with these types of lamps.
FLUORESCENT LAMP (LOW-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP)
Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the construction and
working of the fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.
Construction
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it is
made

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in the form of a long tube. The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with
electron emissive material and are placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube contains small
quantity of argon gas and certain amount of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The
construction of fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. 7.12. Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor
lamps suffer from low efficiency and they produce an objectionable colored light. Such
drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the tube with fluorescent powders. They are in
the form of solids, which are usually knows as phosphors.

Fig. Fluorescent lamp

A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp
with bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the electrodes
directly across the supply at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series that acts as
ballast when the lamp is running, and it provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor of
4μF is connected across the starter in order to improve the power factor.
Working
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in the
form of globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open circuited and
full supply voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of electrodes and
choke coil. The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a

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starting glow. This glow warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited.
Hence, the two electrodes come in series and are connected across the supply voltage. Now, the
two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of current through them.
These
electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube discharge that takes place
through
the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts conduction with argon gas as the
temperature
increases, the mercury changes into vapor form and takes over the conduction of current. In the
mean time, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling down. As a
result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the series circuit. A very high
voltage around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter terminals in the
series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced voltage is quite
sufficient to break down the long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide with argon and
mercury vapor atoms. The excited atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which will not fall in
the visible region. Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the
re-emission of light of different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the
emission is called as luminescence.
This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:
1. Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
2. Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the excitation will
present. In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known as
fluorescent lamp. Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light of different
colors as given in Table.
. Table Colors of light
Phosphor material Color effect
1. Zinc silicate Green
2. Calcium tungstate Green
3. Magnesium tungstate Bluish while
4 4Cadmium silicate Yellowish pink
5 Zinc beryllium silicate Yellowish while
6 Cadmium borate Pink

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Advantages of fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp has the following advantages:
o High efficiency.
o The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
o The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
o Less chances of glare.
o These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be
unsatisfactory.
Although the fluorescent lamp has the above advantages, it sufferers form the following
disadvantages:
o The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
o The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low ambient
temperature.
o Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
o The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.
Stroboscopic effect
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a
cycle’. For 50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be
extinguished twice in a cycle and 100 times per second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye
cannot identify this extinguish phenomenon, because of the persistence of vision. If this light
falls upon a moving object, the object appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in
reverse direction, sometimes stationary. This effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the
light of the lamp. This effect is called as ‘stroboscopic effect’.This effect can be avoided by
employing any of the two techniques listed below.
1. If we have three-phase supply, then the fluorescent lamps that are adjacent should be fed
from different phases. Then, no two lamps will not be in same phase at zero instant of AC
supply, so light is present at any instant.
2. If the available supply is single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in Fig. 7.13, we can
eliminate stroboscopic effect.

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Fig. Lead–lag circuit

Twin tube circuit is also known as lead–lag circuit. Here two tubes are connected in parallel.
One of the two tubes provided with a capacitor in series with the choke coil. The current
through
the lamps is almost 90° out of phase and under these conditions, the light output of one of the
lamps is at maximum. Moreover, the overall power factor of lamps is unity. In this lead–lag
arrangement, one of the lamps is operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with capacitor, is
operating at 0.5 leading. In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on
the operating conditions, the lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr. It is
recommended to replace a lamp after 4,000–5,000 of its working hours.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT CONTROL
When light strikes the surface of an object, based on the properties of that surface, some portion
of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the surface, and the
remaining is absorbed. The method of light control is used to change the direction of light
through large angle. There are four light control methods. They are:
1. reflection,
2. refraction,

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3. riffusion, and
4. absorption.
Reflection
The light falling on the surface, whole of the light will not absorbed or transmitted through the
surface, but some of the light is reflected back, at an angle equals to the angle of incidence. The
ratio of reflected light energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor. The two
basic types of reflection are:
1. mirror or specular reflection and
2. diffuse reflection.
Specular reflection
When whole of the light falling on a smooth surfaces will be reflected back at an angle equal to
he angle of incidence. Such a reflection is known as specular reflection. With such reflection,
observer will be able to see the light source but not the illuminated surface. Most of the surfaces
causing the specular reflection are silvered mirrors, highly polished metal surfaces. Specular
reflection is shown in Fig. 7.17.

Fig. 7.17 Specular reflection

A surface that is almost free from reflection is called a matt surface.
Diffuse reflection
When the light ray falling on any surface, it is scattered in all directions irrespective of the
angle of incidence. Such type of reflector is known as diffuse reflection and is shown in Fig.
7.18. Most
of the surfaces causing the diffuse reflection are rough or matt surfaces such as blotting paper,
frosted glass, plaster, etc.

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Fig. 7.18 Diffuse reflection

In this reflection, observer will be able to see the illuminated surface but not the light source.
Refraction When a beam of light passes through two different mediums having different
densities, the light ray will be reflected. This phenomenon is known as refraction. Figure 7.19
shows the refraction of light ray from dense medium to rare medium where μ1 andμ2 are the
refractive indices of two medium, θ is the angle of incidence, and α is the angle of reflection.

Fig. 7.19 Refraction

The angle of light ray with normal is comparatively less in dense medium than in rare medium.
Diffusion
When a ray of light falling on a surface is reflected in all possible directions, so that such
surface appears luminous from all possible directions. This can be achieved with a diffusing
glass screen introduced between the observer and the light source. The normally employed
diffusing glasses are opal glass and frosted glass. Both are ordinary glasses, but frosted glass is
an ordinary glass coated with crystalline substance. Although frosted glass is cheaper than opal

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glass, the disadvantage of frosted glass is, it collects more dust particles and it is difficult to
clean.
Absorption
In some of the cases, whole of the light emitted by tungsten filament lamp will be excessive, so
that it is necessary to avoid that the amount of unwanted wavelengths without interference. This
can be achieved by using a special bluish colored glass for the filament lamp to absorb the
unwanted radiation.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
Usually, with the reflector and some special diffusing screens, it is possible to control the
distribution of light emitted from lamps up to some extent. A good lighting scheme results in an
attractive and commanding presence of objects and enhances the architectural style of the
interior of a building. Depending upon the requirements and the way of light reaching the
surface, lighting schemes are classified as follows:
1. direct lighting,
2. semidirect lighting,
3. indirect lighting,
4. semi-indirect lighting, and
5. general lighting.
Direct lighting schemes
Direct lighting scheme is most widely used for interior lighting scheme. In this scheme, by
using deep reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This scheme
is more efficient but it suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence, while designing such
schemes, all the possibilities that will cause glare on the eye have to be eliminated. It is mainly
used for industrial and general outdoor lighting. Semidirect lighting schemes In semidirect
lighting scheme, about 60–90% of lamps luminous flux is made to fall downward directly by
using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to illuminate the walls and ceiling. This
type of light scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling. Glare can be avoided by
employing diffusing globes. This scheme will improve not only the brightness but also the
efficiency. Indirect lighting schemes In this lighting scheme, 90% of total light is thrown
upwards to the ceiling. In such scheme, the ceiling acts as the lighting source and glare is
reduced to minimum. This system provides shadowless illumination, which is very useful for

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drawing offices and in workshops where large machines and other difficulties would cause
trouble some shadows if direct lighting schemes were used. Semi-indirect lighting schemes In
semi-indirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of light from the lamp is thrown upwards to the
ceiling and the remaining luminous flux reaches the working surface. Glare will be completely
eliminated with such type of lighting scheme. This scheme is widely preferred for indoor
lighting decoration purpose. General lighting scheme This scheme of lighting use diffusing
glasses to produce the equal illumination in all directions. Mounting height of the source should
be much above eye level to avoid glare. Lamp fittings of various lighting schemes are shown in
Fig. 7.20.

Fig. 7.20 Lighting schemes

DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
The lighting scheme should be such that:
o It should be able to provide sufficient illumination.
o It should be able to provide the uniform distribution of light throughout the working plane.
o It should be able to produce the light of suitable color.
o It should be able to avoid glare and hard shadows as much as possible.
While designing a lighting scheme, the following factors should be taken into consideration.
1. Illumination level.
2. The size of the room.
3. The mounting height and the space of fitting.

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STREET LIGHTING
Street lighting not only requires for shopping centers, promenades, etc. but also necessary for
the following. o In order to make the street more attractive, so that obstructions on the road
clearly visible to the drivers of vehicles.
o To increase the community value of the street.
o To clear the traffic easily in order to promote safety and convenience.
The basic principles employed for the street lighting are given below.
1. Diffusion principle.
2. The specular reflection principle.
Diffusion principle
In this method, light is directed downwards from the lamp by the suitably designed reflectors.
The design of these reflectors are in such a way that they may reflect total light over the road
surface uniformly as much as possible. The reflectors are made to have a cutoff between 30°
and
45°, so that the filament of the lamp is not visible expect just below the source, which results in
eliminating glare. Illumination at any point on the road surface is calculated by applying inverse
square low or point-by-point method.
Specular reflection principle
The specular reflection principle enables a motorist to see an object about 30 m ahead. In this
case, the reflectors are curved upwards, so that the light is thrown on the road at a very large
angle of incidence. This can be explained with the help of Fig. 7.21. An object resides over the
road at ‘P’ in between the lamps S1, S2, and S3 and the observer at ‘Q’.

Fig. 7.21 Specular reflection for street lighting

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Thus, the object will appear immediately against the bright road surface due to the lamps at a
longer distance. This method of lighting is only suitable for straight sections along the road. In
this method, it is observed that the objects on the roadway can be seen by a smaller expenditure
of power than by the diffusion method of lighting. Illumination level, mounting height, and the
types of lamps for street lighting Normally, illumination required depends upon the class of
street lighting installation. 1. Road junctions and important shopping centers. 30
2. Poorly lighted sub-urban streets. 4
3. Average well-lighted street. 8–15
Mercury vapor and sodium vapor discharge lamps are preferable for street lighting since the
overall cost of the installation of discharge lamps are less than the filament lamps and also the
less power consumption for a given amount of power output. Normal spacing for the standard
lamps is 50 m with a mounting height of 8 m. Lamp posts should be fixed at the junctions of
roads.
FLOODLIGHTING
Floodlighting means flooding of large surface areas with light from powerful projectors. A
special reflector and housing is employed in floodlighting in order to concentrate the light
emitted from the lamp into a relatively narrow beam, which is known as floodlight projector.
This projector consists of a reflecting surface that may be a silvered glass or chromium plate or
stainless steel. The efficiency of silvered glass and polished metal are 85–90% and 70%,
respectively. Usually metal reflectors are robust; therefore, they can be preferred. An important
application of illumination engineering is the floodlighting of large and open areas. It is
necessary to employ floodlighting to serve one or more of the following purposes.

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UNIT 2
Electric Heating
INTRODUCTION
Heat plays a major role in everyday life. All heating requirements in domestic purposes such as
cooking, room heater, immersion water heaters, and electric toasters and also in industrial
purposes such as welding, melting of metals, tempering, hardening, and drying can be met
easily by electric heating, over the other forms of conventional heating. Heat and electricity are
interchangeable. Heat also can be produced by passing the current through material to be
heated. This is called electric heating; there are various methods of heating a material but
electric heating
is considered far superior compared to the heat produced by coal, oil, and natural gas.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATING
The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:
(i) Economical
Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not require much skilled persons; therefore,
maintenance cost is less.
(ii) Cleanliness
Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the electric heating, it keeps surroundings
cleanly.
(iii) Pollution free
As there are no flue gases in the electric heating, atmosphere around is pollution free; no need
of providing space for their exit.
(iv) Ease of control

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In this heating, temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately either manually or
automatically.
(v) Uniform heating
With electric heating, the substance can be heated uniformly, throughout whether it may be
conducting or non-conducting material.
(vi) High efficiency
In non-electric heating, only 40–60% of heat is utilized but in electric heating 75–100% of heat
can be successfully utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very high.
(vii) Automatic protection
Protection against over current and over heating can be provided by using fast control devices.
(viii) Heating of non-conducting materials
The heat developed in the non-conducting materials such as wood and porcelain is possible
only through the electric heating.
(ix) Better working conditions
No irritating noise is produced with electric heating and also radiating losses are low.
(x) Less floor area
Due to the compactness of electric furnace, floor area required is less.
(xi) High temperature
High temperature can be obtained by the electric heating except the ability of the material to
withstand the heat.
(xii) Safety
The electric heating is quite safe.
MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEAT
The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the temperature
gradient takes place by any of the following methods:
1. conduction,
2. convection, or
3. radiation.
Conduction
In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part without the
movement in the molecules of substance. The rate of the conduction of heat along the substance

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depends upon the temperature gradient. The amount of heat passed through a cubic body with
two parallel faces with thickness ‘t’ meters, having the cross-sectional area of ‘A’ square meters
and the temperature of its two faces T1°C and T2°C, during ‘T’ hours is given by:

where k is the coefficient of the thermal conductivity for the material and it is measured in
MJ/m3/°C/hr.
Ex: Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.
Convection
In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of substance or fluid
due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of heat depends mainly on the
difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.
Ex: Immersion water heater.
The mount of heat absorbed by the water from heater through convection depends mainly upon
the temperature of heating element and also depends partly on the position of the heater. Heat
dissipation is given by the following expression.
H = a (T1 – T2)b W/m2,
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the constants whose values are depend upon the heating surface and
T1and T2 are the temperatures of heating element and fluid in °C, respectively. Radiation In
this mode, the heat transfers from source to the substance to be heated without heating the
medium in between. It is dependent on surface.
Ex: Solar heaters.
The rate of heat dissipation through radiation is given by Stefan's Law.

where T1 is the temperature of the source in kelvin, T2 is the temperature of the substance to be
heated in kelvin, and k is the radiant efficiency:
= 1, for single element
= 0.5–0.8, for several elements
e = emissivity = 1, for black body

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= 0.9, for resistance heating element.

From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to the difference of fourth power of the
temperature, so it is very efficient heating at high temperature.
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD HEATING ELEMENT
The materials used for heating element should have the following properties:
o High-specific resistance
Material should have high-specific resistance so that small length of wire may be required to
provide given amount of heat.
o High-melting point
It should have high-melting point so that it can withstand for high temperature, a small increase
in temperature will not destroy the element.
o Low temperature coefficient of resistance
From Equation (4.1), the radiant heat is proportional to fourth powers of the temperatures, it is
very efficient heating at high temperature. For accurate temperature control, the variation of
resistance with the operating temperature should be very low. This can be obtained only if the
material has low temperature coefficient of resistance
o Free from oxidation
The element material should not be oxidized when it is subjected to high temperatures;
otherwise the formation of oxidized layers will shorten its life.
o High-mechanical strength
The material should have high-mechanical strength and should withstand for mechanical
vibrations.
o Non-corrosive
The element should not corrode when exposed to atmosphere or any other chemical fumes.
o Economical
The cost of material should not be so high.
MATERIAL FOR HEATING ELEMENTS
The selection of a material for heating element is depending upon the service conditions such as
maximum operating temperature and the amount of charge to be heated, but no single element
will not satisfy all the requirements of the heating elements. The materials normally used as
heating elements are either alloys of nickel–chromium, nickel–chromium–iron, nickel–

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chromium–aluminum, or nickel–copper. Nickel–chromium–iron alloy is cheaper when

compared to simple nickel–chromium alloy. The use of iron in the alloy reduces the cost of
final product but, reduces the life of the alloy, as it gets oxidized soon. We have different types
of alloys for heating elements. Table 4.1 gives the relevant properties of some of the
commercial heating elements.

Table : Properties of some heating elements

The properties of some commercial heating element materials commonly employed for low and
medium temperatures up to 1,200°C are Ni–Cr and an alloy of Ni–Cr–Fe composition of these
alloys are given in Table 4.1. For operating temperatures above 1,200°C, the heating elements
are made up of silicon carbide, molebdenum, tungsten, and graphite. (Ni–Cu alloy is frequently
used for heating elements operating at low temperatures. Its most important property is that it
has virtually zero resistance and temperature coefficient.)
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF HEATING ELEMENTS
Heating element may fail due to any one of the following reasons.
1. Formation of hot spots.
2. Oxidation of the element and intermittency of operation.
3. Embrittlement caused by gain growth.
4. Contamination and corrosion.
Formation of hotspots

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Hotspots are the points on the heating element generally at a higher temperature than the main
body. The main reasons of the formation of hotspot in the heating element are the high rate of
the local oxidation causing reduction in the area of cross-section of the element leading to the
increase in the resistance at that spot. It gives rise to the damage of heating element due to the
generation of more heat at spot. Another reason is the shielding of element by supports, etc.,
which reduces the local heat loss by radiation and hence the temperature of the shielded portion
f the element will increase. So that the minimum number of supports should be used without
producing the distortion of the element. The sagging and wrapping of the material arise due to
the insufficient support for the element (or) selection of wrong fuse material may lead to the
uneven spacing of sections thereby developing the hotspots on the element. Oxidation and
intermittency of operation A continuous oxide layer is formed on the surface of the element at
very high temperatures such layer is so strong that it prevents further oxidation of the inner
metal of the element. If the element is used quite often, the oxide layer is subjected to thermal
stresses; thus, the layer cracks and flakes off, thereby exposing fresh metal to oxidation. Thus,
the local oxidation of the metal increases producing the hotspots. Embrittlement causing grain
growth In general, most of the alloys containing iron tend to form large brittle grains at high
temperatures. When cold, the elements are very brittle and liable to rupture easily on the
slightest handling and jerks. contamination and corrosion The heating elements may be
subjected to dry corrosion produced by their contamination with the gases of the controlled
atmosphere prevailing in annealing furnaces.
DESIGN OF HEATING ELEMENTS
By knowing the voltage and electrical energy input, the design of the heating element for an
electric furnace is required to determine the size and length of the heating element. The wire
employed may be circular or rectangular like a ribbon. The ribbon-type heating element permits
the use of higher wattage per unit area compared to the circular-type element.
Circular-type heating element
Initially when the heating element is connected to the supply, the temperature goes on
increasing and finally reaches high temperature. Let V be the supply voltage of the system and
R be the resistance of the element, then electric power input, If ρ is the resistivity of the
element, l is the length, ‘a’ is the area, and d is the diameter of the element, then: Therefore,
power input,

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By rearranging the above equation, we get:

where P is the electrical power input per phase (watt),

V is the operating voltage per phase

(volts), R is the resistance of the element (Ω), l is the length of the element (m), a is the area of
cross-section (m2), d is the diameter of the element (m), and ρ is the specific resistance (Ω-m)
According to Stefan's law, heat dissipated per unit area is

where T1 is the absolute temperature of the element (K), T2 is the absolute temperature of the
charge (K), e is the emissivity, and k is the radiant efficiency. The surface area of the circular
heating element:
S = πdl.
∴ Total heat dissipated = surface area × H
= Hπdl.
Under thermal equilibrium,
Power input = heat dissipated
P = H × πdl.
Substituting P from Equation (4.2) in above equation:

By solving Equations (4.3) and (4.4), the length and diameter of the wire can be determined.

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Ribbon-type element
Let ‘w’ be the width and ‘t’ be the thickness of the ribbon-type heating element.

We know that, (for ribbon or rectangular element, a = w × t)

The surface area of the rectangular element (S) = 2 l × w.

∴ Total heat dissipated = H × S

= H × 2 lw.
∴ Under the thermal equilibrium,
Electrical power input = heat dissipated
P = H × 2 lw

By solving Equations (4.7) and (4.8), the length and width of the heating element can be
determined.
Example 4.1: A 4.5-kW, 200-V, and 1-φ resistance oven is to have nichrome wire heating
elements. If the wire temperature is to be 1,000°C and that of the charge 500°C. Estimate the
diameter and length of the wire. The resistivy of the nichrome alloy is 42.5 μΩ-m. Assume the
radiating efficiency and the emissivity of the element as 1.0 and 0.9, respectively.
Solution:
Given data
Power input (P) = 4.5 kW
Supply voltage (V) = 200 V

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Temperature of the source (T1) = 1,000 + 273

= 1,273 K.
Temperature of the charge T2 = 500 + 273
= 773 K.
According to the Stefan's law,

The heat dissipation is given by:

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By solving Equations (1) and (2):

d3 = 0.7466
d = 0.907 mm.
Substitute the value of ‘d’ in Equation (2):
l = 135.14 m.

METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING

Heat can be generated by passing the current through a resistance or induced currents. The
initiation of an arc between two electrodes also develops heat. The bombardment by some heat
energy particles such as α, γ, β, and x-rays or accelerating ion can produce heat on a surface.
Electric heating can be broadly classified as follows.
(i) Direct resistance heating
In this method, the electric current is made to pass through the charge (or) substance to be
heated. This principle of heating is employed in electrode boiler.
(ii) Indirect resistance heating
In this method, the electric current is made to pass through a wire or high-resistance heating
element, the heat so developed is transferred to charge from the heating element by convection
or
radiation. This method of heating is employed in immersion water heaters.
Fig. Classification of electrical heating
Infrared (or) radiant heating
In this method of heating, the heat energy is transferred from source (incandescent lamp) and
focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of electromagnetic radiations. Normally, this
method is used for drying clothes in the textile industry and to dry the wet paints on an object.
Direct arc heating

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In this method, by striking the arc between the charge and the electrode or electrodes, the heat
so developed is directly conducted and taken by the charge. The furnace operating on this
principle is known as direct arc furnaces. The main application of this type of heating is
production of steel.
Indirect arc heating
In this method, arc is established between the two electrodes, the heat so developed is
transferred
to the charge (or) substance by radiation. The furnaces operating on this principle are known as
indirect arc furnaces. This method is generally used in the melting of non-ferrous metals.
Direct induction heating
In this method of heating, the currents are induced by electromagnetic action in the charge to be
heated. These induced currents are used to melt the charge in induction furnace.
Indirect induction heating
In this method, eddy currents are induced in the heating element by electromagnetic action.
Thus, the developed heat in the heating element is transferred to the body (or) charge to be
heated by radiation (or) convection. This principle of heating is employed in induction furnaces
used for the heat treatment of metals.
Dielectric heating
In this method of electric heating, the heat developed in a non-metallic material due to
interatomic friction, known as dielectric loss. This principle of heating usually employed for
preheating of plastic performs, baking foundry cores, etc.
RESISTANCE HEATING
When the electric current is made to pass through a high-resistive body (or) substance, a power
loss takes place in it, which results in the form of heat energy, i.e., resistance heating is passed
upon the I2R effect. This method of heating has wide applications such as drying, baking of
potteries, commercial and domestic cooking, and the heat treatment of metals such as annealing
and hardening. In oven where wire resistances are employed for heating, temperature up to
about
1,000°C can be obtained.
The resistance heating is further classified as:
1. direct resistance heating,

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2. indirect resistance heating, and

3. infrared (or) radiant heating.
Direct resistance heating
In this method, electrodes are immersed in a material or charge to be heated. The charge may be
in the form of powder, pieces, or liquid. The electrodes are connected to AC or DC supply as
shown in Fig. 4.1(a). In case of DC or 1-φ AC, two electrodes are immersed and three
electrodes
are immersed in the charge and connected to supply in case of availability of 3-φsupply. When
metal pieces are to be heated, the powder of lightly resistive is sprinkled over the surface of the
charge (or) pieces to avoid direct short circuit. The current flows through the charge and heat is
produced in the charge itself. So, this method has high efficiency. As the current in this case is
not variable, so that automatic temperature control is not possible. This method of heating is
employed in salt bath furnace and electrode boiler for heating water.

Fig. (a) Direct resistance heating

(i) Salt bath furnace
This type of furnace consists of a bath and containing some salt such as molten sodium chloride
and two electrodes immersed in it. Such salt have a fusing point of about 1,000–1,500°C
depending upon the type of salt used. When the current is passed between the electrodes
immersed in the salt, heat is developed and the temperature of the salt bath may be increased.
Such an arrangement is known as a salt bath furnace. In this bath, the material or job to be
heated is dipped. The electrodes should be carefully immersed in the bath in such a way that the
current flows through the salt and not through the job being heated. As DC will cause
electrolysis so, low-voltage AC up to 20 V and current up to 3,000 A is adopted depending
upon the type of furnaces. The resistance of the salt decreases with increase in the temperature

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of the salt, therefore, in order to maintain the constant power input, the voltage can be
controlled by providing a tap changing transformer. The control of power input is also affected
by varying the depth of immersion and the distance between the electrodes.
(ii) Electrode boiler
It is used to heat the water by immersing three electrodes in a tank as shown in Fig. 4.2. This is
based on the principle that when the electric current passed through the water produces heat due
to the resistance offered by it. For DC supply, it results in a lot of evolution of H2 at negative
electrode and O2 at positive electrode. Whereas AC supply hardly results in any evolution of
gas,
but heats the water. Electrode boiler tank is earthed solidly and connected to the ground. A
circuit breaker is usually incorporated to make and break all poles simultaneously and an over
current protective device is provided in each conductor feeding an electrode.

Fig. 4.2 Electrode boiler

Indirect resistance heating
In the indirect resistance heating method, high current is passed through the heating element. In
case of industrial heating, some times the heating element is placed in a cylinder which is
surrounded by the charge placed in a jacket is known as heating chamber is shown inFig. 4.3.
The heat is proportional to power loss produced in the heating element is delivered to the
charge by one or more of the modes of the transfer of heat viz. conduction, convection, and
radiation. This arrangement provides uniform temperature and automatic temperature control.
Generally, this method of heating is used in immersion water heaters, room heaters, and the
resistance ovens
used in domestic and commercial cooling and salt bath furnace.

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Fig. 4.3 Indirect resistance heating

Resistance ovens
According to the operating temperatures, the resistance furnaces may be classified into various
types. Low-temperature heating chamber with the provision for ventilation is called as oven.
For drying varnish coating, the hardening of synthetic materials, and commercialand domestic
heating, etc., the resistance ovens are employed. The operating temperature of medium
temperature furnaces is between 300°C and 1,050°C. These are employed for the melting of
nonferrous metals, stove (annealing), etc. Furnaces operating at temperature between 1,050°C
and 1,350°C are known as high-temperature furnaces. These furnaces are employed for
hardening applications. A simple resistance oven is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4 Resistance oven

Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating elements are placed as shown
in the Fig. 4.4. The inner surface of the heating chamber is made to suit the character of the
charge and the type of furnace or oven. The type of insulation used for heating chamber is
determined by the maximum temperature of the heating chamber.

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Efficiency and losses of resistance ovens

The heat produced in the heating elements, not only raises the temperature of the charge to
desired value, but also used to overcome the losses occurring due to:
1. Heat used in raising the temperature of oven (or) furnace.
2. Heat used in raising the temperature of containers (or) carriers,
3. Heat conducted through the walls.
4. Heat loss due to the opening of oven door.
1. The heat required to raise the temperature of oven to desired value can be calculated by
knowing the mass of refractory material (M), its specific heat (S), and raise of temperature (ΔT)
and is given by:
Hoven = MSΔTJ.
In case the oven is continuously used, this loss becomes negligible.
2. Heat used in rising the temperature of containers (or) carriers can be calculated exactly the
same way as for oven (or) furnaces.
3. Heat loss conducted through the walls of the container can be calculated by knowing the area
of the container (A) in square meters, the thickness of the walls (t) in meters, the inside and out
side temperatures of the container T1 and T2 in °C, respectively, and the thermal conductivity
of the container walls ‘k’ in m3/°C/hr and is given by: Heat loss by conduction Actually, there
is no specific formula for the determination of loss occurring due to the opening of door for the
periodic inspection of the charge so that this loss may be approximately taken as 0.58–1.15
MJ/m2 of the door area, if the door is opened for a period of 20–30 sec.
The efficiency of the oven is defined as the ratio of the heat required to raise the temperature of
he charge to the desired value to the heat required to raise the charge and losses. The efficiency
of the oven:

The efficiency of the resistance oven lies in between 60% and 80%.
Infrared or radiant heating
In this method of heating, the heat transfer takes place from the source to the body to be heated
through radiation, for low and medium temperature applications. Whereas in resistance ovens,
the heat transfers to the charge partly by convection and partly by radiation. In the radiant

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heating, the heating element consists of tungsten filament lamps together with reflector and to
direct all the heat on the charge. Tungsten filament lamps are operating at 2,300°C instead of
3,000°C to give greater portion of infrared radiation and a longer life. The radiant heating is
mainly used for drying enamel or painted surfaces. The high concentration of the radiant energy
enables the heat to penetrate the coating of paint or enamel to a depth sufficient to dry it out
without wasting energy in the body of the workpiece. The main advantage of the radiant heating
is that the heat absorption remains approximately constant whatever the charge temperature,
whereas with the ordinary oven the heat absorption falls off very considerably as the
temperature of the charge raises. The lamp ratings used are usually between 250 and 1,000 W
and are operating at voltage of 115 V in order to ensure a robust filament.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF RESISTANCE HEATING
To control the temperature of a resistance heating at certain selected points in a furnace or oven,
as per certain limits, such control may be required in order to hold the temperature constant or
to
vary it in accordance with a pre-determined cycle and it can be carried out by hand or
automatically. In resistance furnaces, the heat developed depends upon I2 R t (or) t. Therefore,
the temperature of the furnaces can be controlled either by:
1. Changing the resistance of elements.
2. Changing the applied voltage to the elements (or) current passing through the elements.
3. Changing the ratio of the on-and-off times of the supply.
Voltage across the furnace can be controlled by changing the transformer tapings. Auto
transformer or induction regulator can also be used for variable voltage supply. In addition to
the
above, voltage can be controlled by using a series resistance so that some voltage dropped
across
this series resistor. But this method is not economical as the power is continuously wasted in
controlling the resistance. Hence, this method is limited to small furnaces. An on-off switch can
be employed to control the temperature. The time for which the oven is connected to the supply
and the time for which it is disconnected from supply will determine the temperature.
Temperature can be controlled by providing various combinations of groups of resistances used
in the furnace and is given as follows:

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(i) Variable number of elements

If ‘R’ be the resistance of one element and ‘n’ be the number of elements are connected in
parallel, so that the equivalent resistance is R/n. Heat developed in the furnace is: i.e., if the
number of elements connected in parallel increases, the heat developed in the furnace also
increased. This method does not provide uniform heating unless elements not in use are well
distributed.
(ii) Series parallel (or) star delta arrangement of elements
If the available supply is single phase, the heating elements can be connected in series for the
low temperatures and connected in parallel for the high temperature by means of a series—
parallel switch. In case, if the available supply is three phase, the heating elements can be
connected in star for the low temperature and in delta for the high temperatures by using star—
delta switch.
ARC HEATING
If the high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air in the gap gets ionized under the
influence of electrostatic forces and becomes conducting medium, current flows in the form of
a continuous spark, known as arc. A very high voltage is required to establish an arc but very
small voltage is sufficient to maintain it, across the air gap. The high voltage required for
striking
an arc can be obtained by using a step-up transformer fed from a variable AC supply. Another
method of striking the arc by using low voltage is by short circuiting the two electrodes
momentarily and with drawing them back. Electrodes made up of carbon or graphite and are
used in the arc furnaces when the temperature obtained is in the range of 3,000–3,500°C.
Electrodes used in the arc furnaces Normally used electrodes in the arc furnaces are carbon
electrodes, graphite electrodes, and selfbaking electrodes. Usually the carbon and graphite
electrodes are used and they can be selected based on their electrical conductivity insolubility,
chemical inertness, mechanical strength, resistance to thermal shock, etc. The size of these
electrodes may be 18–27 cm in diameter. The carbon electrodes are used with small furnaces
for manufacturing of ferro-alloys, aluminum phosphorous, etc. The self-baking electrodes are
employed in the electrochemical furnaces and in the electrolytic production of aluminum.
The salient features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:

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1. Resistivity: The graphite electrodes have low-specific resistance than the carbon electrodes,
so the graphite required half in size for the same current resulting in easy replacement.
2. Oxidation: Graphite begins to oxides at 600°C where as carbon at 400°C.
3. Electrode consumption: For steel-melting furnaces, the consumption of the carbon
electrodes is about 4.5 kg of electrodes per tonne of steel and 2.3–to 6.8 kg electrodes per tonne
of steel for the graphite electrodes.
4. Cost: The graphite electrodes cost about twice as much per kg as the carbon electrodes. The
choice of electrodes depends chiefly on the question of the total cost. In general, if the
processes requiring large quantities of electrode, carbon is used but for other processes, the
choice depends on local conditions.
Types of arc furnaces
There are two types of arc furnaces and they are:
1. direct arc furnace and
2. indirect arc furnace.
(i) Direct arc furnace
When supply is given to the electrodes, two arcs are established and current passes through the
charge, as shown in Fig. 4.5. As the arc is in direct contact with the charge and heat is also
produced by current flowing through the charge itself, it is known as direct arc furnace.

Fig. Direct arc furnace

If the available supply is DC or 1-φ, AC, two electrodes are sufficient, if the supply is 3-φ, AC,
three electrodes are placed at three vertices of an equilateral triangle. The most important
feature of the direct arc furnace is that the current flows through the charge, the stirring action is

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inherent due to the electromagnetic force setup by the current, such furnace is used for
manufacturing alloy steel and gives purer product. It is very simple and easy to control the
composition of the final product during refining process operating the power factor of arc
furnace is 0.8 lagging. For 1-ton furnace, the power required is about 200 kW and the energy
consumed is 1.0 MWh/ton.
(ii) Indirect arc furnace
In indirect arc furnace, the arc strikes between two electrodes by bringing momentarily in
contact
and then with drawing them heat so developed, due to the striking of arc across air gap is
transferred to charge is purely by radiation. A simple indirect arc furnace is shown inFig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Indirect arc furnace

These furnaces are usually l-φ and hence their size is limited by the amount of one-phase load
which can be taken from one point. There is no inherent stirring action provided in this furnace,
as current does not flow through the charge and the furnace must be rocked mechanically. The
electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along the horizontal axis. This
furnace is also sometimes called as rocking arc furnace. The charge in this furnace is heated not
only by radiation from the arc between electrode tips but also by conduction from the heated
refractory during rocking action; so, the efficiency of such furnace is high. The arc is produced
by bringing electrodes into solid contact and then withdrawing them; power input to the furnace
is regulated
by adjusting the arc length by moving the electrodes. Even though it can be used in iron
foundries where small quantities of iron are required frequently, the main application of this
furnace is the melting of non-ferrous metals.

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HIGH-FREQUENCY HEATING
The main difference between the power-frequency and the high-frequency heating is that in the
conventional methods, the heat is transferred either by conduction convection or by radiation,
but
in the high-frequency heating methods, the electromagnetic energy converted into the heat
energy in side the material. The high-frequency heating can be applied to two types of
materials. The heating of the conducting materials, such as ferro-magnetic and non-ferro-
magnetic, is known as induction heating. The process of heating of the insulating materials is
known as dielectric heating. The heat transfer by the conventional method is very low of the
order of 0.5–20 W/sq. cm. And, the heat transfer rate by the high-frequency heating either by
induction or by dielectric heating is as much as 10,000 W/sq. cm. Thus, the high-frequency
heating is most importance for tremendous speed of production.
INDUCTION HEATING
The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the electromagnetic action
in
the material to be heated. To develop sufficient amount of heat, the resistance of the material

must be low , which is possible only with the metals, and the voltage must
be higher, which can be obtained by employing higher flux and higher frequency. Therefore,
the magnetic materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials due to their high
permeability. In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider a
circular disc to be heated carrying a current of ‘I’ amps at a frequency ‘f’ Hz. As shown in Fig.
4.9.

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Fig. 4.9 Induction heating

Heat developed in the disc is depending upon the following factors.
o Primary coil current.
o The number of the turns of the coil.
o Supply frequency.
o The magnetic coupling between the coil and the disc.
o The high electrical resistivity of the disc.
If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to eddy current loss,
whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis loss in addition to eddy current loss.
Both hysteresis and eddy current loss are depended upon frequency, but at high-frequency
hysteresis, loss is very small as compared to eddy currents. The depth of penetration of induced
currents into the disc is given by:

where ρ is the specific resistance in Ω-cm, f is the frequency in Hz, and μ is the permeability of
the charge. There are basically two types of induction furnaces and they are:
1. Core type or low-frequency induction furnace.
2. Coreless type or high-frequency induction furnace.
Core type furnace
The operating principle of the core type furnace is the electromagnetic induction. This furnace
is
operating just like a transformer. It is further classified as:
1. Direct core type.
2. Vertical core type.
3. Indirect core type.
(i) Direct core type induction furnace

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The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be heated forms
singleturn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron core as
shown
in Fig. 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 Direct core type furnace

The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which contains the charge to
be melted in the form of an annular ring. This type of furnace has the following characteristics:
o This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically interlinked with primary
winding, which is energized from an AC source. The magnetic coupling between primary and
secondary is very weak; it results in high leakage reactance and low pf. To overcome the
increase in leakage reactance, the furnace should be operated at low frequency of the order of
10 Hz.
o When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes open circuited thereby
cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace, the molten metal has to be taken in the
hearth to keep the secondary as short circuit.
o Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence and severe stirring action
in the molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is also necessary to operate the furnace at low
frequency.
o In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator set (or) frequency changer
is to be provided, which involves the extra cost.
o The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical
viewpoint.
o If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-electromagnetic forces in
the molten metal and hence adjacent molecules repel each other, as they are in the same

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direction. The repulsion may cause the interruption of secondary circuit (formation of bubbles
and voids); this effect is known as pinch effect.
The pinch effect is also dependent on frequency; at low frequency, this effect is negligible, and
so it is necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.
(ii) Vertical core type induction furnace
It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of the disadvantages
mentioned above. This type of furnace consists of a vertical core instead of horizontal core as
shown in Fig. 4.11. It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

Fig. 4.11 Vertical core type furnace (Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace)

Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the main body of the
crucible. The leakage reactance is comparatively low and the power factor is high as the
magnetic coupling is high compared to direct core type. There is a tendency of molten metal to
accumulate at the bottom that keeps the secondary completed for a vertical core type furnace as
it consists of narrow V-shaped channel. The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the
type charge used. Clay lining is used for yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is
used for red brass. The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which can
be removed for admitting the charge. Necessary hydraulic arrangements are usually made for
tilting the furnace to take out the molten metal. Even though it is having complicated
construction, it is operating at power factor of the order of 0.8–0.83. This furnace is normally
used for the melting and refining of brass and non-ferrous metals.
Advantages

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o Accurate temperature control and reduced metal losses.

o Absence of crucibles.
o Consistent performance and simple control.
o It is operating at high power factor.
o Pinch effect can be avoided.
(iii) Indirect core type furnace
This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple induction furnace
with the absence of core is shown in Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12 Indirect core type furnace

The secondary winding itself forms the walls of the container or furnace and an iron core links
both primary and secondary windings. The heat produced in the secondary winding is
transmitted to the charge by radiation. An oven of this type is in direct competition with
ordinary resistance oven. It consists of a magnetic circuit AB is made up of a special alloy and
is kept inside the chamber of the furnace. This magnetic circuit loses its magnetic properties at
certain temperature and regains them again when it is cooled to the same temperature. When the
oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases many times
and the inductive effect decreases thereby cutting off the supply heat. Thus, the temperature of
the furnace can be effectively controlled. The magnetic circuit ‘AB’ is detachable type that can
be replaced by the other magnetic circuits having critical temperatures ranging between 400°C
and 1,000°C. The furnace operates at a pf of around 0.8. The main advantage of such furnace is
wide variation of temperature control is possible.

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Coreless type induction furnace It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown in Fig.
4.13. In this furnace, heat developed in the charge due to eddy currents flowing through it.

Fig. 4.13 Coreless induction furnace

The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape enclosed within a
coil that forms primary of the transformer. The furnace also contains a conducting or
nonconducting container that acts as secondary. If the container is made up of conducting
material, charge can be conducting or nonconducting; whereas, if the container is made up of
non-conducting material, charge taken should have conducting properties. When primary coils
are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up by these coils induce the eddy currents in
the charge. The direction of the resultant eddy current is in a direction opposite to the current in
the primary coil. These currents heat the charge to melting point and they also set up
electromagnetic forces that produce a stirring action to the charge. ∴ The eddy currents
developed in any magnetic circuit are given as:
We ∝ Bm
2f2, where Bm is the maximum flux density (tesla), f is the frequency in (Hz), and We is the
eddy
current loss (watts). In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is no core. Hence,
the primary supply should have high frequency for compensating the low flux density. If it is
operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it results copper loss, thereby increasing the
temperature of the primary winding. This necessitates in artificial cooling. The coil, therefore,

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is made of hollow copper tube through which cold water is circulated. Minimum stray magnetic
field is maintained when designing coreless furnace, otherwise there will be considerable eddy
current loss. The selection of a suitable frequency of the primary current can be given by
penetration formula. According to this:

where ‘t’ is the thickness up to which current in the metal has penetrated, ‘ρ’ is the resistivity in
Ω-cm,'μ’ is the permeability of the material, and ‘f’ is the frequency in Hz. For the efficient
operation, the ratio of the diameter of the charge (d) to the depth of the penetration of currents
(t) should be more than ‘6’, therefore let us take: Substitute above in Equation (4.11). Following
are the advantages of coreless furnace over the other furnaces:
o Ease of control.
o Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.
o The eddy currents in the charge itself results in automatic stirring.
o The cost is less for the erection and operation.
o It can be used for heating and melting.
o Any shape of crucible can be used.
o It is suitable for intermittent operation.

DIELECTRIC HEATING
When non-metallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, and china glass are
subjected to high-voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses, and due to
interatomic friction caused by the repeated deformation and the rotation of atomic structure
(polarization), heat is produced. This is known as dielectric loss. This dielectric loss in
insulators corresponds to hysteresis loss in ferro-magnetic materials. This loss is due to the
reversal of magnetism or magneto molecular friction. These losses developed in a material that
has to be heated. An atom of any material is neutral, since the central positive charge is equals
to the negative charge. So that, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide as long as
there is no external field is applied, as shown in Fig. (a). When this atom is subjected to the
influence of the electric field, the positive charge of the nucleus is acted upon by some force in
the direction of negative charges in the opposite direction. Therefore, the effective centers of

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both positive and negative charges no longer coincident as shown in Fig. (b). The electric
charge of an atom equivalent to Fig.(b) is shown in Fig. (c).

Fig. Polarization
This gives raise to an electric dipole moment equal to P = q d, where d is the distance between
the two centers and q is the charge on the nucleus. Now, the atom is said to be polarized atom.
If we apply alternating voltage across the capacitor plate, we will get alternating electric field.
Electric dipoles will also try to change their orientation according to the direction of the
impressed electric field. In doing so, some energy will be wasted as inter-atomic friction, which
is called dielectric loss. As there is no perfect conductor, so there is no perfect insulator. All the
dielectric materials can be represented by a parallel combination of a leakage resistor ‘R’ and a
capacitor ‘C’ as shown in Fig. 4.15 (a) and (b).

Fig. Dielectric heating

If an AC voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, an electric current flows; total current ‘I’
supposed to be made up of two components IC and IR, where IC is the capacitive current

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leading the applied voltage by 90° and IR is in phase with applied voltage as shown in Fig.
4.15(c). where ‘V' is the applied voltage in volts, ‘f’ is the supply frequency in Hz, ɛ0 is the
absolute permittivity of the medium = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m, ɛr is the relative permittivity of the
medium = 1
for free space, A is the area of the plate or electrode (m2), d is the thickness of the dielectric
medium, and δ is the loss angle in radian. From Equation (4.14): Normally frequency used for
dielectric heating is in the range of 1–40 MHz. The use of high voltage is also limited due to the
breakdown voltage of thin dielectric that is to be heated, under normal conditions; the voltage
gradient used is limited to 18 kV/cm.
The advantages of the dielectric heating
o The heating of the non-conducting materials is very rapid.
o The uniform heating of material is possible.
o Heat is produced in the whole mass of the material.
The applications of the dielectric heating
o The drying of paper, wood, etc.
o The gluing of wood.
o The heat-sealing of plastic sheets.
o The heating for the general processing such as coffee roasting and chocolate industry.
o The heating for the dehydration such as milk, cream, and vegetables.
o The preparation of thermoplastic resins.
o The heating of bones and tissues.
o Diathermy, i.e., the heat treatment for certain body pains and diseases, etc.
o The sterilization of absorbent cotton, bandages, etc.
o The processing of rubber, synthetic materials, chemicals, etc.
SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Give any two advantages of electric heating.
1. Electric heating equipment is cheaper; it does not require much skilled
persons so maintenance cost is less.
2. In this heating, the temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately
either manually or automatically.
What are the modes of the transfer of heat?

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The modes of the transfer of heat are:

0. Conduction.
1. Convection.
2. Radiation.
What is an oven?
Oven is mean that a low-temperature heating chamber with provision for ventilation.
Define conduction.
The process of heat transfers from one part of a substance to another part without
movement in the molecules of substance. The rate of conduction of heat along the
substance depends upon temperature gradient.
Define convection.
The process of heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of a substance or
a fluid due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of the heat
depends mainly on the difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.
Define radiation.
The process of heat transfers from the source to the substance to be heated without
heating the medium in between the source and the substance.
What are the essentials requirements of heating elements?
The materials used for heating element should have:
0. High-specific resistance.
1. High-melting point.
2. High-mechanical strength.
3. Free from oxidation.
What is the Stefan's formula for heat dissipation?
Stefan's law for heat dissipation is:
What are the causes of the failure of the heating elements?
The failure of the heating element may cause due to:
0. The formation of hotspots.
1. The oxidation of the element and the intermittency of operation.
2. The embitterment caused by gain growth
3. Contamination and corrosion.

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What is meant by resistance heating?

The process of heating the charge or substance by the heat produced due to the
resistance offered by the charge or heating element.
What is meant by induction heating?
The process of heating the material due to the heat developed by the currents induced
in the material by electromagnetic induction process.
What is meant by dielectric heating?
The process of heating non-metallic materials, i.e., the insulators such as wood,
plastics, and china clay due to the heat developed in the material when they are
subjected to high voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses and due to
inter-atomic friction caused by the repeated deformation and rotation of atomic
structure.
What are the various losses occurring in resistance oven?
The heat produced in the heating elements, not only raises the temperature of charge to
desired value, but also used to overcome the losses occurring due to:
0. The heat used in raising the temperature of oven (or) furnace.
1. The heat used in raising the temperature of containers (or) carriers.
2. The heat conducted through the walls.
3. The heat loss due to the opening of oven door.
List out various methods of controlling the temperature of resistance heating.
The temperature of the furnaces can be controlled either by:
0. Varying the resistance of elements.
1. Varying the applied voltage to the elements or the current flowing through
the elements
2. Varying the ratio of the on-and-off times of supply.
What are the types of arc furnaces?
There are two types of arc furnaces and they are:
0. Direct arc furnace.
1. Indirect arc furnace.
What is the condition for the maximum power output of electric arc furnace?
The condition for the maximum power output of electric arc furnace is:

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[Link] is pinch effect?

The formation of bubbles and voids in the charge to be heated by the electromagnetic
induction due to high-electromagnetic forces, which causes the interruption of
secondary circuit. This effect is known as pinch effect.
[Link] is high-frequency eddy current heating?
The process of heating any material by the heat developed due to the conversion of
electromagnetic energy into heat energy.
[Link] amount of heat is controlled in high-frequency eddy current heating?
The amount of heat is controlled by controlling the supply frequency and the flux
density in high-frequency eddy current heating.

Electric Welding
INTRODUCTION
Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal or non-metal together by heating them to
their melting point. Filler metal may or may not be used to join two pieces. The physical and
mechanical properties of a material to be welded such as melting temperature, density, thermal
conductivity, and tensile strength take an important role in welding. Depending upon how the
heat applied is created; we get different types of welding such as thermal welding, gas welding,
and electric welding. Here in this chapter, we will discuss only about the electric welding and
some introduction to other modern welding techniques. Welding is nowadays extensively used
in
automobile industry, pipe-line fabrication in thermal power plants, machine repair work,
machine frames, etc.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING
Some of the advantages of welding are:
o Welding is the most economical method to permanently join two metal parts.
o It provides design flexibility.
o Welding equipment is not so costly.
o It joins all the commercial metals.
o Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined by welding.
o Portable welding equipment are available.
Some of the disadvantages of welding are:

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o Welding gives out harmful radiations and fumes.

o Welding needs internal inspection.
o If welding is not done carefully, it may result in the distortion of workpiece.
o Skilled welding is necessary to produce good welding.
ELECTRIC WELDING
It is defined as the process of joining two metal pieces, in which the electrical energy is used to
generate heat at the point of welding in order to melt the joint.
The classification

Fig. Classification of electric welding

The selection of proper welding process depends on the following factors.
o The type of metal to be joined.
o The techniques of welding adopted.
o The cost of equipment used.
o The nature of products to be fabricated.
RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding is the process of joining two metals together by the heat produced due to the
resistance offered to the flow of electric current at the junctions of two metals. The heat
produced by the resistance to the flow of current is given by:
H = I2Rt,

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where I is the current through the electrodes, R is the contact resistance of the interface, and t is
the time for which current flows. Here, the total resistance offered to the flow of current is
made up of:
1. The resistance of current path in the work.
2. The resistance between the contact surfaces of the parts being welded.
3. The resistance between electrodes and the surface of parts being welded.
In this process of welding, the heat developed at the contact area between the pieces to be
welded
reduces the metal to plastic state or liquid state, then the pieces are pressed under high
mechanical pressure to complete the weld. The electrical voltage input to the welding varies in
between 4 and 12 V depending upon area, thickness, composition, etc. and usually power
ranges
from about 60 to 180 W for each sq. mm of area. Any desired combination of voltage and
current can be obtained by means of a suitable transformer in AC; hence, AC is found to be
most suitable for the resistance welding. The magnitude of current is controlled by changing the
primary voltage of the welding transformer, which can be done by using an auto-transformer or
a tap-changing transformer. Automatic arrangements are provided to switch off the supply after
a pre-determined time from applying the pressure, why because the duration of the current flow
through the work is very important in the resistance welding. The electrical circuit diagram for
the resistance welding is shown in Fig. 5.2. This method of welding consists of a tap-changing
transformer, a clamping device for holding the metal pieces, and some sort of mechanical
arrangement for forcing the pieces to form a complete weld.

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Fig. Electric circuit for resistance welding

Advantages
o Welding process is rapid and simple.
o Localized heating is possible, if required.
o No need of using filler metal.
o Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
o Comparatively lesser skill is required.
o Maintenance cost is less.
o It can be employed for mass production.
However, the resistance welding has got some drawbacks and they are:
o Initial cost is very high.
o High maintenance cost.
o The workpiece with heavier thickness cannot be welded, since it requires high input current.
Applications
o It is used by many industries manufacturing products made up of thinner gauge metals.
o It is used for the manufacturing of tubes and smaller structural sections.
Types of resistance welding Depending upon the method of weld obtained and the type of
electrodes used, the resistance
welding is classified as:
1. Spot welding.

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2. Seam welding.
3. Projection welding.
4. Butt welding.
(i) Spot welding
Spot welding means the joining of two metal sheets and fusing them together between copper
electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of heavy electric current passed through the
electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 Spot welding

This type of joint formed by the spot welding provides mechanical strength and not air or water
tight, for such welding it is necessary to localize the welding current and to apply sufficient
pressure on the sheet to be welded. The electrodes are made up of copper or copper alloy and
are water cooled. The welding current varies widely depending upon the thickness and
composition of the plates. It varies from 1,000 to 10,000 A, and voltage between the electrodes
is usually less than 2 V. The period of the flow of current varies widely depending upon the
thickness of sheets to be joined. A step-down transformer is used to reduce a high-voltage and
low-current supply to low-voltage and high-current supply required. Since the heat developed
being proportional to the product of welding time and square of the current. Good weld can be
obtained by low currents for longer duration and high currents for shorter duration; longer
welding time usually produces stronger weld but it involves high energy expenditure, electrode
maintenance, and lot of distortion of workpiece. When voltage applied across the electrode, the
flow of current will generate heat at the three junctions, i.e., heat developed, between the two
electrode tips and workpiece, between the two workpieces to be joined as shown in Fig. 3.3.

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The generation of heat at junctions 1 and 3 will effect electrode sticking and melt through holes,
the prevention of electrode striking is achieved by:
1. Using water-cooled electrodes shown in Fig. 5.4. By avoiding the heating of junctions 1 and
3 electrodes in which cold water circulated continuously as shown in Fig. 5.3.
2. The material used for electrode should have high electrical and thermal conductivity. Spot
welding is widely used for automatic welding process, for joining automobile parts, joining and
fabricating sheet metal structure, etc.

Fig. Water cooled electrode

(ii) Seam welding
Seam welding is nothing but the series of continuous spot welding. If number spots obtained by
spot welding are placed very closely that they can overlap, it gives rise to seam welding. In this
welding, continuous spot welds can be formed by using wheel type or roller electrodes instead
of tipped electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.5.

Fig. 5.5 Seam welding

Seam welding is obtained by keeping the job under electrodes. When these wheel type
electrodes travel over the metal pieces which are under pressure, the current passing between

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them heats the two metal pieces to the plastic state and results into continuous spot welds. In
this welding, the contact area of electrodes should be small, which will localize the current
pressure to the welding point. After forming weld at one point, the weld so obtained can be
cooled by splashing water over the job by using cooling jets. In general, it is not satisfactory to
make a continuous weld, for which the flow of continuous current build up high heat that
causes burning and wrapping of the metal piece. To avoid this difficulty, an interrupter is
provided on the circuit which turns on supply for a period sufficient to heat the welding point.
The series of weld spots depends upon the number of welding current pulses. The two forms of
welding currents are shown in Fig. 5.6(a) and (b).

Fig. 5.6 Welding current

Welding cannot be made satisfactorily by using uninterrupted or un-modulated current, which
builds up high heat as the welding progress; this will over heat the workpiece and cause
distortion. Seam welding is very important, as it provides leak proof joints. It is usually
employed in welding of pressure tanks, transformers, condensers, evaporators, air craft tanks,
refrigerators, varnish containers, etc.
(iii) Projection welding
It is a modified form of the spot welding. In the projection welding, both current and pressure
are localized to the welding points as in the spot welding. But the only difference in the
projection welding is the high mechanical pressure applied on the metal pieces to be welded,
after the formation of weld. The electrodes used for such welding are flat metal plates known as
platens. The two pieces of base metal to be weld are held together in between the two platens,
one is movable and the other is fixed, as shown in Fig. 5.7.

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Fig. 5.7 Projection welding

One of the two pieces of metal is run through a machine that makes the bumps or projections of
required shape and size in the metal. As current flows through the two metal parts to be welded,
which heat up and melt. These weld points soon reach the plastic state, and the projection
touches the metal then force applied by the two flat electrodes forms the complete weld. The
projection welding needs no protective atmosphere as in the spot welding to produce successful
results. This welding process reduces the amount of current and pressure in order to join two
metal surfaces, so that there is less chance of distortion of the surrounding areas of the weld
zone. Due to this reason, it has been incorporated into many manufacturing process. The
projection welding has the following advantages over the spot welding.
o Simplicity in welding process.
o It is easy to weld some of the parts where the spot welding is not possible.
o It is possible to join several welding points.
o Welds are located automatically by the position of projection.
o As the electrodes used in the projection welding are flat type, the contact area over the
projection is sufficient. This type of welding is usually employed on punched, formed, or
stamped parts where the projection automatically exists. The projection welding is particularly
employed for mass production work, i.e., welding of refrigerators, condensers, crossed wire
welding, refrigerator racks, grills, etc.
(iv) Butt welding
Butt welding is similar to the spot welding; however, the only difference is, in butt welding,
instead of electrodes the metal parts that are to be joined or butted together are connected to the
supply.
The three basic types of the butt welding process are:

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1. Upset butt welding.

2. Flash butt welding.
3. Percussion butt welding.
(a) Upset butt welding
In upset welding, the two metal parts to be welded are joined end to end and are connected
across the secondary of a welding transformer as shown in Fig. 5.8.

Fig. 5.8 Upset butt welding

Due to the contact resistance of the metals to be welded, heating effect is generated in this
welding. When current is made to flow through the two electrodes, heat will develop due to the
contact resistance of the two pieces and then melts. By applying high mechanical pressure
either manually or by toggle mechanism, the two metal pieces are pressed. When jaw-type
electrodes are used that introduce the high currents without treating any hot spot on the job.
This type of welding is usually employed for welding of rods, pipes, and wires and for joining
metal parts end to end.
(b) Flash butt welding
Flash butt welding is a combination of resistance, arc, and pressure welding. This method of
welding is mainly used in the production welding. A simple flash butt welding arrangement is
shown in Fig. 5.9.

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Fig. 5.9 Flash butt welding

In this method of welding, the two pieces to be welded are brought very nearer to each other
under light mechanical pressure. These two pieces are placed in a conducting movable clamps.
When high current is passed through the two metal pieces and they are separated by some
distance, then arc established between them. This arc or flashing is allowed till the ends of the
workpieces reach melting temperature, the supply will be switched off and the pieces are
rapidly brought together under light pressure. As the pieces are moved together, the fused metal
and slag
come out of the joint making a good solid joint. Following are the advantages of the flash butt
welding over the upset welding.
o Less requirement of power.
o When the surfaces being joined, it requires only less attention.
o Weld obtained is so clean and pure; due to the foreign metals appearing on the surfaces will
burn due to flash or arc.
(c) Percussion welding
It is a form of the flash butt welding, where high current of short duration is employed using
stored energy principle. This is a self-timing spot welding method. Percussion welding
arrangement consists of one fixed holder and the other one is movable. The pieces to be welded
are held apart, with the help of two holders, when the movable clamp is released, it moves
rapidly carrying the piece to be welded. There is a sudden discharge of electrical energy, which
establishes an arc between the two surfaces and heating them to their melting temperature,
when the two pieces are separated by a distance of 1.5 mm apart. As the pieces come in contact
with each other under heavy pressure, the arc is extinguished due to the percussion blow of the

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two parts and the force between them affects the weld. The percussion welding can be obtained
in two methods; one is capacitor energy storage system and the other is magnetic energy
storage system. The capacitor discharge circuit for percussion welding is shown in Fig. 5.10.

Fig. 5.10 Capacitor discharge circuit for percussion welding

The capacitor ‘C’ is charged to about 3,000 V from a controlled rectifier. The capacitor is
connected to the primary of welding transformer through the switch and will discharge. This
discharge will produce high transient current in the secondary to join the two metal pieces.
Percussion welding is difficult to obtain uniform flashing of the metal part areas of the cross
section grater than 3 sq. cm. Advantage of this welding is so fast, extremely shallow of heating
is
obtained with a span of about 0.1 sec. It can be used for welding a large number of dissimilar
metals.
Applications
o It is useful for welding satellite tips to tools, sliver contact tips to copper, cast iron to steel,
etc.
o Commonly used for electrical contacts.
o The metals such as copper alloys, aluminum alloys, and nickel alloys are percussion welded.
CHOICE OF WELDING TIME
The successful welding operation mainly depends upon three factors and they are:
1. Welding time.
2. Welding current.

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3. Welding pressure.
Figure 5.11 shows how the energy input to the welding process, welding strength, and welding
current vary with welding time

.
Fig. 5.11 Performance characteristics of electric welding
The heat developed during welding process is given by H = I2Rt. Here both welding current
and welding time are critical variables. Greater the welding current, the shorter the welding
time required is; usually longer welding time produces stronger weld but there is lot of
distortion of workpiece and high energy expenditure. From Fig. 5.11, it is to be noted that, from
0 to t1 sec, there is appreciable increase in welding strength, but after t2 sec, the increase in the
welding time does not appreciably result in the increase in strength; therefore, ‘t2’ is the
optimum welding time. This optimum time varies with the thickness of the material. The
optimum times of material (sheet steel) with different thickness are given as:
Dimensions of material Optimum time
2 × 24 SWG 8 cycles
2 × 14 SWG 20 cycles
2¼″ 2 sec
Therefore, from the above discussion, it is observed that shorter welding times with strength
and
economy are always preferable. Electromagnetic storage welding circuit is shown in Fig. 5.12.
In this type of welding, the energy stored in the magnetic circuit is used in the welding
operation.

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Fig. 5.12 Magnetic energy storage welding circuit

In this system, rectifier is fed from AC supply, which is converted to DC, the DC voltage of
rectifier is controlled in such a way that, voltage induced in the primary without causing large
current in the secondary of transformer on opening the contactor switch, DC on longer flows,
there is rapid collapse of magnetic field, which induces very high current in the secondary of a
transformer. Induced currents in the secondary of the transformer flow through the electrodes
that develop heat at the surface of the metal and so forming the complete weld.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
Electric arc welding is the process of joining two metallic pieces or melting of metal is obtained
due to the heat developed by an arc struck between an electrode and the metal to be welded or
between the two electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.13 (a).

Fig. Arrangement of electric welding equipment

In this process, an electric arc is produced by bringing two conductors (electrode and metal
piece) connected to a suitable source of electric current, momentarily in contact and then
separated by a small gap, arc blows due to the ionization and give intense heat. The heat so
developed is utilized to melt the part of workpiece and filler metal and thus forms the weld. In
this method of welding, no mechanical pressure is employed; therefore, this type of welding is
also known as 'non-pressure welding’.
The length of the arc required for welding depends upon the following factors:
o The surface coating and the type of electrodes used.

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o The position of welding.

o The amount of current used.
When the supply is given across the conductors separated by some distance apart, the air gap
present between the two conductors gets ionized, as the arc welding is in progress, the
ionization
of the arc path and its surrounding area increases. This increase in ionization decreases the
resistance of the path. Thus, current increases with the decrease in voltage of arc. This VI
characteristic of an arc is shown in Fig. (b), it also known as negative resistance characteristics
of an arc. Thus, it will be seen that this decrease in resistance with increase in current does not
remain the arc steadily. This difficulty cab be avoided, with the supply, it should fall rapidly
with
the increase in the current so that any further increase in the current is restricted. For the arc
welding, the temperature of the arc should be 3,500°C. At this temperature, mechanical
pressure for melting is not required. Both AC and DC can be used in the arc welding. Usually
70–100 V on AC supply and 50–60 V on DC supply system is sufficient to struck the arc in the
air gap between the electrodes. Once the arc is struck, 20–30 V is only required to maintain it.
However, in certain cases, there is any danger of electric shock to the operator, low voltage
should be used for the welding purpose. Thus, DC arc welding of low voltage is generally
preferred. Electric arc welding is extensively used for the joining of metal parts, the repair of
fractured casting, and the fillings by the deposition of new metal on base metal, etc.
Various types of electric arc welding are:
1. Carbon arc welding.
2. Metal arc welding.
3. Atomic hydrogen arc welding.
4. Inert gas metal arc welding.
5. Submerged arc welding.
Carbon arc welding
It is one of the processes of arc welding in which arc is struck between two carbon electrodes or
the carbon electrode and the base metal. The simple arrangement of the carbon arc welding is
shown in Fig. 5.14.

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Fig. Carbon arc welding

In this process of welding, the electrodes are placed in an electrode holder used as negative
electrode and the base metal being welded as positive. Unless, the electrode is negative relative
to the work, due to high temperature, there is a tendency of the particles of carbon will fuse and
mix up with the base metal, which causes brittleness; DC is preferred for carbon arc welding
since there is no fixed polarity maintained in case of AC. In the carbon arc welding, carbon or
graphite rods are used as electrode. Due to longer life and low resistance, graphite electrodes
are used, and thus capable of conducting more current. The arc produced between electrode and
base metal; heat the metal to the melting temperature, on the negative electrode is 3,200°C and
on the positive electrode is 3,900°C. This process of welding is normally employed where
addition of filler metal is not required. The carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of
the arc can be easily varied. One major problem with carbon arc is its instability which can be
overcome by using an inductor in the electrode of 2.5-cm diameter and with the current of
about of 500–800 A employed to deposit large amount of filler metal on the base metal. Filler
metal and flux may not be used depending upon the type of joint and material to be welded.
Advantages
o The heat developed during the welding can be easily controlled by adjusting the length of the
arc.
o It is quite clean, simple, and less expensive when compared to other welding process.
o Easily adoptable for automation.
o Both the ferrous and the non-ferrous metals can be welded.
Disadvantages
o Input current required in this welding, for the workpiece to rise its temperature to
melting/welding

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temperature, is approximately double the metal arc welding.

o In case of the ferrous metal, there is a chance of disintegrating the carbon at high temperature
and transfer to the weld, which causes harder weld deposit and brittlement. o A separate filler
rod has to be used if any filler metal is required.
Applications
o It can be employed for the welding of stainless steel with thinner gauges.
o Useful for the welding of thin high-grade nickel alloys and for galvanized sheets using copper
silicon manganese alloy filler metal. Metal arc welding In metal arc welding, the electrodes
used must be of the same metal as that of the work-piece to be welded. The electrode itself
forms the filler metal. An electric arc is stuck by bringing the electrode connected to a suitable
source of electric current, momentarily in contract with the work pieces to be welded and
withdrawn apart. The circuit diagram for the metal arc welding is
shown in Fig. 5.15.

Fig. 5.15 Metal arc welding

The arc produced between the work piece and the electrode results high temperature of the
order of about 2,400°C at negative metal electrode and 2,600°C at positive base metal or work
piece. This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as well as the tip of the electrode, then
the electrode melts and deposited over the surface of the workpiece, forms complete weld. Both
AC and DC can be used for the metal arc welding. The voltage required for the DC metal arc
welding is about 50–60 V and for the AC metal arc welding is about 80–90 V In order to
maintain the voltage drop across the arc less than 13 V, the arc length should be kept as small as
possible, otherwise the weld will be brittle. The current required for the welding varies from 10

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to 500 A depending upon the type of work to be welded. The main disadvantage in the DC
metal arc welding is the presence of arc blow, i.e., distortion of arc stream from the intended
path due to the magnetic forces of the non-uniform magnetic field with AC arc blow is
considerably reduced. For obtaining good weld, the flux-coated electrodes must be used, so the
metal which is melted is covered with slag produces a non oxidizing gas or a molten slag to
cover the weld, and also stabilizes the arc.
Atomic hydrogen arc welding
In atomic hydrogen arc welding, shown in Fig. 5.16, the heat for the welding process is
produced from an electric arc struck between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of
hydrogen. Here, hydrogen serves mainly two functions; one acts as a protective screen for the
arc and the other acts as a cooling agent for the glowing tungsten electrode tips. As the
hydrogen gas passes through the arc, the hydrogen molecules are broken up into atoms, absorbs
heat from the glowing
tungsten electrodes so that these are cooled.

Fig. 5.16 Atomic hydrogen arc welding

But, when the atoms of hydrogen recombine into molecules outside the arc, a large amount of
heat is liberated. This extra heat is added to the intense heat of arc, which produces a
temperature
of about 4,000°C that is sufficient to melt the surfaces to be welded, together with the filler rod
if
used. Moreover hydrogen includes oxygen and some other gases that might combine with the
molten metal and forms oxides and other impurities. Hydrogen also removes oxides from the
surface of work piece. Thus, this process is capable of producing strong, uniform, smooth, and
ductile welds. In the atomic hydrogen arc welding, the arc is maintained between the two non-

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consumable tungsten electrodes under a pressure of about 0.5 kg/cm2. In order to obtain equal
consumption of electrodes, AC supply is used. Arc currents up to 150 A can be used. High
voltage about 300 V is applied for this welding through a transformer. For striking the arc
between the electrodes the open circuit voltage required varies from 80 to 100 V. As the atomic
hydrogen welding is too expensive, it is usually employed for welding alloy steel, carbon steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, etc. Inert gas metal arc welding It is a gas-shielded metal arc welding,
in which an electric arc is stuck between tungsten electrode and work piece to be welded. Filler
metal may be introduced separately into the arc if required. A welding gun, which carries a
nozzle, through this nozzle, inert gas such as beryllium or argon is blown around the arc and
onto the weld, as shown in Fig. 5.17. As both beryllium and argon are chemically inert, so the
molten metal is protected from the action of the atmosphere by an envelope of chemically
reducing or inert gas.

Fig. 5.17 Inert gas metal are welding

As molten metal has an affinity for oxygen and nitrogen, if exposed to the atmosphere, thereby
forming their oxides and nitrides, which makes weld leaky and brittle Thus, several methods of
shielding have been employed. With the use of flux coating electrodes or by pumping, the inert
gases around the arc produces a slag that floats on the top of molten metal and produces an
envelope of inert gas around the arc and the weld.
Advantages
o Flux is not required since inert gas envelope protects the molten metal without forming oxides
and nitrates so the weld is smooth, uniform, and ductile.
o Distortion of the work is minimum because the concentration of heat is possible.
Applications

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o The welding is employed for light alloys, stainless steel, etc.

o The welding of non-ferrous metal such as copper, aluminum, etc.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
It is an arc welding process, in which the arc column is established between above metal
electrode and the workpiece. Electric arc and molten pool are shielded by blanket of granular
flux on the workpiece. Initially to start an arc, short circuit path is provided by introducing steel
wool between the welding electrode and the workpiece. This is due to the coated flux material,
when cold it is non-conductor of the electricity but in molten state, it is highly conductive.
Welding zone is shielded by a blanket of flux, so that the arc is not visible. Hence, it is known
as 'submerged arc welding’. The arc so produced, melts the electrode, parent the metal and the
coated flux, which forms a protective envelope around both the arc and the molten metal. As
the arc in progress, the melted electrode metal forms globules and mix up with the molten base
metal, so that the weld is completed. In this welding, the electrode is completely covered by
flux. The flux may be made of silica, metal oxides, and other compounds fused together and
then crushed to proper size. Therefore, the welding takes place without spark, smoke, ash, etc.
Thus, there is no need of providing protective shields, smoke collectors, and ventilating
systems. Figure 5.18 shows the filling of parent metal by the submerged arc welding.

Fig. 5.18 Submerged arc welding

Voltage required for the submerged arc welding varies from 25 to 40 V. Current employed for
welding depends upon the dimensions of the workpiece. Normally, if DC supply is used
employing current ranging from 600 to 1,000 A, the current for AC is usually 2,000 A.
Advantages
o Deep penetration with high-quality weld is possible.
o Job with heavy thickness can be welded.

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o The weld so obtained has good ductility, impact strength, high corrosion resistance, etc.
o The submerged arc welding can be done manually or automatically.
Applications
o The submerged arc welding is widely used in the heavy steel plant fabrication work.
o It can be employed for welding high strength steel, corrosion resistance steel, and low carbon
steel.
o It is also used in the ship-building industry for splicing and fabricating subassemblies,
manufacture of vessels, tanks, etc.
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
It is one of the processes of the electric welding, in which the heat required for carrying out the
welding operation is obtained by the electron bombardment heating. In the electron
bombardment heating, continuous stream of electron is produced between the electron emitting
material cathode and the material to be heated. The electrons released from cathode possess KE
traveling with high velocity in vacuum of 10-3-10-5 mmHg. When the fast moving electrons
hit, the material or work piece releases their KE as heat in the material to be heated. This heat is
utilized to melt the metal. If this process is carried out in high vacuum, without providing any
electrodes, gasses, or filler metal, pure weld can be obtained. Moreover, high vacuum is
maintained around the (filament) cathode. So that, it will not burn up and also produces
continuous stable beam. If a vacuum was not used, the electron would strike the small partials
in the atmosphere, reducing their velocity and also the heating ability. Thus, the operation
should be performed in vacuum to present the reduction of the velocity of electron. That's why
this is also called as'vacuum electron beam welding’. The power released by the electron beam
is given by:
P = nqv watts,
where n is the number of charged particles, q is the charge in coulombs per meter, and v is the
voltage required to accelerate the electrum from rest. The electron beam welding (Fig. 5.19)
process requires electron-emitting heating filament as cathode, focusing lens, etc.

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Fig. 5.19 Electron beam welding

Advantages
o Heat input to the electron beam welding can be easily controlled by varying beam current,
voltage, the position of filament, etc.
o The electron beam welding can be used to join high temperature metals such as columbium.
o It can be employed for the welding of thick sections, due to high penetration to width ratio.
o It eliminates contamination of both weld zone and weld metal.
o Narrow electron beam reduces the distortion of workpiece.
Disadvantages
o The pressure build up in the vacuum chamber due to the vapor of parent metal causes
electrical break down.
o Most of the super alloys, refractory metals, and combinations of dissimilar metals can also be
welded.
LASER BEAM WELDING
The word laser means 'light amplification stimulated emission of radiation’. It is the process of
joining the metal pieces by focusing a monochromatic light into the extremely concentrated
beams, onto the weld zone. This process is used without shielding gas and without the
application of pressure. The laser beam is very intense and unidirectional but can be focused
and refracted in the same way as an ordinary light beam. The focus of the laser beam can be
controlled by controlling the lenses, mirrors, and the distance to the workpiece. Ablock diagram
of the laser beam welding system is shown in Fig. 5.20.

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Fig. 5.20 Laser beam welding

In laser beam welding system, flash tube is designed to give thousands of flashes per second.
When capacitor bank is triggered, the electrical energy is injected into the flash tube through
trigger wire. Flash tube consists of thick xenon material, which produces high power levels for
very short period. If the bulb is operated in this manner, it becomes an efficient device, which
converts electrical energy to light energy. The laser is then activated. The laser beam emitting
from the flash tube, passing through the focusing lens, where it is pinpointed on the work piece.
The heat so developed by the laser beam melts the work-piece and the weld is completed. The
welding characteristics of the laser are similar to the electron beam. The laser beam has been
used to weld carbon steel, low-alloy steel, aluminum, etc. The metals with relatively high-
electrical resistance and the parts of different sizes and mass can be welded.
TYPES OF WELDING ELECTRODES
An electrode is a piece of metal in the form of wire or rod that is either bare or coated uniformly
with flux. Electrode carries current for the welding operation. One contact end of the electrode
must be clean and is inserted into the electrode holder, an arc is set up at the other end. The
electrodes used for the arc welding are classified as follows (Fig. 5.21).

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Fig Classification of electrods

Non-consumable electrodes Electrodes, which do not consume or fuse during the welding
process, are called non consumable electrodes.
Ex: Electrodes made up of carbon, graphite, or tungsten do not consume during welding.
Consumable electrodes Electrodes, which are consumed during the welding operation, are
consumable electrodes. These are made up of various materials depending upon their purpose
and the chemical composition of metal to be welded. The consumable electrodes are made in
the form of rod having diameter of about 2–8 mm and length of about 200–500 mm. They act
as filler rod and are consumed during welding operation.
Bare electrodes
These are the consumable electrodes, which are not coated with any fluxing material. Bare
electrodes are in the form of wire. During welding operation, an arc is struck between the work
piece and the electrode wire, then the electrode is melted down into the weld. When the molten
metal electrode and the work piece are exposed to the atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen, they
form their oxides and nitrides and cause the formation of some non-metallic constituent, which
reduces the strength and ductility of the deposited weld. The bare electrodes are usually
employed in automatic and semiautomatic welding. With bare electrode, the welding can be
done satisfactorily with DC supply only if the electrode should be connected to the negative
terminal of the supply.
Coated electrodes
Depending upon the thickness of flux coating, the coated electrode may classified into:
1. lightly coated electrodes and

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2. heavily coated electrodes.

For obtaining good weld, the coated electrodes are always preferred.
(i) Lightly coated electrodes
These electrodes are coated with thin layer of coating material up to less than 1 mm. This
coating
is usually consists of lime mixed with soluble glass which serves as a binder. These electrodes
are considered as improvement over bare electrodes. The main purpose of using the light
coating layer on the electrode is to increase the arc stability, so they are also called as
stabilizing electrodes. The mechanical strength of the weld increased because slag layer will not
formed on the molten weld. For this reason, lightly coated electrodes may only be used for
welding non-essential work pieces.
(ii)Heavily coated electrodes
These electrodes have coating layer with heavy thickness. The heavily coated electrodes
sometimes referred to as the shielded arc electrodes. The materials commonly used for coating
the electrodes are titanium oxide, ferromanganese, silica, flour, asbestos clay, calcium
carbonate, etc. This electrode coating helps in improving the quality of weld, as if the coating
layer of the electrodes burns in the heat of the arc provides gaseous shield around the arc, which
prevents the
formation oxides and nitrites.
Advantages
o Arc is stabilized due to the flux compounds of sodium and potassium.
o The weld metal can be protected from the oxidizing action of oxygen and the nitrifying action
of nitrogen due to the gas shielded envelope.
o The impurities present on the surface being welded are fluxed away.
o The electrode coating increases deposition efficiency and weld metal deposition rate through
iron powder and ferro alloy addition.
o In case of AC supply arc cools at zero current and there is a tendency of deionizing the arc
path. Covering gases keep the arc space ionized.
o The welding operation becomes faster due to the increased melting rate.
o The coated electrodes help to deoxidize and refine the weld metal. The type of electrode used
for the welding process depends upon the following factors.

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o The nature of the electric supply, either AC or DC.

o The type of the metal to be welded.
o The welding position.
o The polarity of the welding machine.
COMPARISON BETWEEN RESISTANCE AND ARC WELDING
Resistance welding Arc welding
1 The source of supply is AC only. The source of supply is either AC (1-φ or 3-φ) or DC.
2 The head developed is mainly due to the
flow of contact resistance.
The heat developed is mainly due to the striking of arc between
electrodes or an electrode and the workpiece.
3 The temperature attained by the workpiece
is not so high.
The temperature of the arc is so high, so proper care should be taken
during the welding.
4 External pressure is required. No external pressure is required hence the welding equipment is
more
simple and easy to control.
5 Filler metal is not required to join two
metal pieces.
Suitable filler electrodes are necessary to get proper welding strength.
6 It cannot be used for repair work; it is
suitable for mass production.
It is not suitable for mass production. It is most suitable for repair
works and where more metal is to be deposited.
7 The power consumption is low. The power consumption is high.
8 The operating power factor is low. The operating power factor is high.
9 Bar, roller, or flat type electrodes are used
(not consumable).
Bare or coated electrodes are used (consumable or non-consumable).
ELECTRIC WELDING EEQUIPMENT

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Electric welding accessories required to carry out proper welding operation are:
1. Electric welding power sets.
2. Electrode holder to hold the electrodes.
3. Welding cable for connecting electrode and workpiece to the supply.
4. Face screen with colored glass.
5. Chipping hammers to remove slag from molten weld.
6. Wire brush to clean the weld.
7. Earth clamp and protective clothing.
COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC WELDING
AC welding DC welding
1 Motor generator set or rectifier is required in case of
the availability of AC supply.
Only transformer is required.
2 The cost of the equipment is high. The cost of the equipment is cheap.
3 Arc stability is more. Arc stability is less.
4 The heat produced is uniform. The heat produced is not uniform.
5 Both bare and coated electrodes can be used. Only coated electrodes should be used.
6 The operating power factor is high. The power factor is low. So, the capacitors are necessary
to improve the power factor.
7 It is safer since no load voltage is low. It is dangerous since no load voltage is high.
8 The electric energy consumption is 5–10 kWh/kg of deposited metal. The electrical energy
consumption is 3–4 kWh/kg of deposited metal
9 Arc blow occurs due to the presence of non-uniform magnetic field. Arc blow will not occur
due to the uniform magnetic field.
10 The efficiency is low due to the rotating parts. The efficiency is high due to the absence of
rotating parts.

UNIT 3
Electric Traction-I
INTRODUCTION
The system that causes the propulsion of a vehicle in which that driving force or tractive force
is obtained from various devices such as electric motors, steam engine drives, diesel engine

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dives, etc. is known as traction system. Traction system may be broadly classified into two
types. They are electric traction systems, which use electrical energy, and non-electric traction
system, which does not use electrical energy for the propulsion of vehicle. Requirements of
ideal traction system Normally, no single traction system fulfills the requirements of ideal
traction system, why because each traction system has its merits and suffers from its own
demerits, in the fields of applications.
The requirements of ideal traction systems are:
o Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive effort in order to
have rapid acceleration.
o The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
o Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.
o Equipment required for traction system should be minimum with high efficiency.
o It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.
o Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should be in such a way to cause
minimum wear on the break shoe.
o Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable of withstanding overloads.
o Interference to the communication lines should be eliminated while the locomotive running
along the track.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Traction
Electric traction system has many advantages compared to non-electric traction systems. The
following are the advantages of electric traction:
o Electric traction system is more clean and easy to handle.
o No need of storage of coal and water that in turn reduces the maintenance cost as well as the
saving of high-grade coal.
o Electric energy drawn from the supply distribution system is sufficient to maintain the
common necessities of locomotives such as fans and lights; therefore, there is no need of
providing additional generators.
o The maintenance and running costs are comparatively low.
o The speed control of the electric motor is easy.
o Regenerative braking is possible so that the energy can be fed back to the supply system
during the braking period.

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o In electric traction system, in addition to the mechanical braking, electrical braking can also
be used that reduces the wear on the brake shoes, wheels, etc.
o Electrically operated vehicles can withstand for overloads, as the system is capable of
drawing more energy from the system.
In addition to the above advantages, the electric traction system suffers from the following
drawbacks:
o Electric traction system involves high erection cost of power system.
o Interference causes to the communication lines due to the overhead distribution
networks.
o The failure of power supply brings whole traction system to stand still.
o In an electric traction system, the electrically operated vehicles have to move only on the
electrified routes.
o Additional equipment should be needed for the provision of regenerative braking, it will
increase the overall cost of installation.
REVIEW OF EXISTING ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEM IN INDIA
In olden days, first traction system was introduced by Britain in 1890 (600-V DC track).
Electrification system was employed for the first traction vehicle. This traction system was
introduced in India in the year 1925 and the first traction system employed in India was from
Bombay VT to Igatpuri and Pune, with 1,500- V DC supply. This DC supply can be obtained
for traction from substations equipped with rotary converters. Development in the rectifiers
leads to the replacement of rotary converters by mercury arc rectifiers. But nowadays further
development in the technology of semiconductors, these mercury arc valves are replaced by
solid-state semiconductors devices due to fast traction system was introduced on 3,000-V DC.
Further development in research on traction system by French international railways was
suggested that, based on relative merits and demerits, it is advantageous to prefer to AC rather
than DC both financially and operationally. Thus, Indian railways was introduced on 52-kV,
50-Hz single-phase AC system in 1957; this system of track electrification leads to the
reduction of the cost of overhead, locomotive equipment, etc. Various systems employed for
track electrification are shown in Table .
Table Track electrification systems
SYSTEM OF TRACTION

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Traction system is normally classified into two types based on the type of energy given as input
to drive the system and they are:
1. Non-electric traction system
Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which do not involve the use of
electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle known as electric traction system. Ex:
Direct steam engine drive and direct internal combustion engine drive.
2. Electric traction system
Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which involves the use of electrical
energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle, known as electric traction system. Based upon
the type of sources used to feed electric supply for traction system, electric traction may be
classified into two groups:
1. Self-contained locomotives.
2. Electric vehicle fed from the distribution networks.
Self-contained locomotives
In this type, the locomotives or vehicles themselves have a capability of generating electrical
energy for traction purpose. Examples for such type of locomotives are:
1. Steam electric drive
In steam electric locomotives, the steam turbine is employed for driving a generator used to
feed the electric motors. Such types of locomotives are not generally used for traction because
of some mechanical difficulties and maintenance problems.
2. Diesel electric trains
A few locomotives employing diesel engine coupled to DC generator used to feed the electric
motors producing necessary propelling torque. Diesel engine is a variable high-speed type that
feeds the self- or separately excited DC generator. The excitation for generator can be supplied
from any auxiliary devices and battery. Generally, this type of traction system is suggested in
the areas where coal and steam tractions are not available. The advantages and disadvantages of
the diesel engine drive are given below:
Advantages
o As these are no overhead distribution system, initial cost is low.
o Easy speed control is possible.
o Power loss in speed control is very low

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o Time taken to bring the locomotive into service is less.

o In this system, high acceleration and braking retardation can be obtained compared to steam
locomotives.
o The overall efficiency is high compared to steam locomotives.
Disadvantages
o The overloading capability of the diesel engine is less.
o The running and maintenance costs are high.
o The regenerative braking cannot be employed for the diesel engine drives.
Petrol electric traction
This system of traction is used in road vehicles such as heavy lorries and buses These vehicles
are capable of handling overloads. At the same time, this system provides fine and smooth
control so that they can run along roads without any jerking. Battery drives In this drive, the
locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power to DC motors employed for driving the
vehicle. This type of drives can be preferred for frequently operated services such as local
delivery goods traction in industrial works and mines, etc. This is due to the unreliability of
supply source to feed the electric motors. Electric vehicles fed from distribution network
Vehicles in electrical traction system that receives power from over head distribution network
fed or substations with suitable spacing. Based on the available supply, these groups of vehicles
are further subdivided into:
1. System operating with DC supply. Ex: tramways, trolley buses, and railways.
2. System operating with AC supply. Ex: railways.
Systems operating with DC supply
In case if the available supply is DC, then the necessary propelling power can be obtained for
the vehicles from DC system such as tram ways, trolley buses, and railways.
Tramways: Tramways are similar to the ordinary buses and cars but only the difference is they
are able to run only along the track. Operating power supply for the tramways is 500-V DC
tramways are fed from single overhead conductor acts as positive polarity that is fed at suitable
points from either power station or substations and the track rail acts as return conductor. The
equipment used in tramways is similar to that used in railways but with small output not more
than 40–50 kW. Usually, the tramways are provided with two driving axels to control the speed
of the vehicles from either ends. The main drawback of tramways is they have to run along the

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guided routes only. Rehostatic and mechanical brakings can be applied to tramways.
Mechanical brakes can be applied at low speeds for providing better saturation where electric
braking is ineffective, during the normal service. The erection and maintenance costs of
tramways are high since the cost of overhead distribution structure is costlier and sometimes, it
may cause a source of danger to other road users.
Trolley buses: The main drawback of tramways is, running along the track is avoided in case
of trolley buses. These are electrically operated vehicles, and are fed usually 600-V DC from
two overhead conductors, by means of two collectors. Even though overhead distribution
structure is costlier, the trolley buses are advantageous because, they eliminate the necessity of
track in the roadways. In case of trolley buses, rehostatic braking is employed, due to high
adhesion between roads and rubber types. A DC compound motor is employed in trolley buses.
SYSTEM OF TRACK ELECTRIFICATION
Now a day, based on the available supply, the track electrification system are categorized into.
1. DC system.
2. Single-phase AC system.
3. Three-phase AC system.
4. Composite system.
1 DC system
In this system of traction, the electric motors employed for getting necessary propelling torque
should be selected in such a way that they should be able to operate on DC supply. Examples
for such vehicles operating based on DC system are tramways and trolley buses. Usually, DC
series motors are preferred for tramways and trolley buses even though DC compound motors
are available where regenerative braking is desired. The operating voltages of vehicles for DC
track
electrification system are 600, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 V. Direct current at 600–750 V is
universally employed for tramways in the urban areas and for many suburban and main line
railways, 1,500–3,000 V is used. In some cases, DC supply for traction motor can be obtained
from substations equipped with rotary converters to convert AC power to DC. These
substations receive AC power from 3-φ high voltage line or single-phase overhead distribution
network. The operating voltage for traction purpose can be justified by the spacing between
stations and the type of traction motors available. Theses substations are usually automatic and

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remote controlled and they are so costlier since they involve rotary converting equipment. The
DC system is preferred for suburban services and road transport where stops are frequent and
distance between the stops is small.
2 Single-phase AC system
In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors are used for getting the
necessary propelling power. The distribution network employed for such traction systems is
normally 15–25 kV at reduced frequency of 163∴ Hz or 25 Hz. The main reason of operating at
reduced frequencies is AC series motors that are more efficient and show better performance at
low frequency. These high voltages are stepped down to suitable low voltage of 300–400 V by
means of step-down transformer. Low frequency can be obtained from normal supply
frequency with the help of frequency converter. Low-frequency operation of overhead
transmission line reduces the line reactance and hence the voltage drops directly and single-
phase AC system is mainly preferred for main line services where the cost of overhead structure
is not much importance moreover rapid acceleration and retardation is not required for
suburban services.
3 Three-phase AC system
In this system of track electrification, 3-φ induction motors are employed for getting the
necessary propelling power. The operating voltage of induction motors is normally 3,000–
3,600-V AC at either normal supply frequency or 16∴-Hz frequency. Usually 3-φ induction
motors are preferable because they have simple and robust construction, high operating
efficiency, provision of regenerative braking without placing any additional equipment, and
better performance at both normal and seduced frequencies. In addition to the above
advantages, the induction motors
suffer from some drawbacks; they are low-starting torque, high-starting current, and the
absence of speed control. The main disadvantage of such track electrification system is high
cost of overhead distribution structure. This distribution system consists of two overhead wires
and track rail for the third phase and receives power either directly from the generating station
or through transformer substation. Three-phase AC system is mainly adopted for the services
where the output power required is high and regeneration of electrical energy is possible.
4 Composite system

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As the above track electrification system have their own merits and demerits, 1- φ AC system is
preferable in the view of distribution cost and distribution voltage can be stepped up to high
voltage with the use of transformers, which reduces the transmission losses. Whereas in DC
system, DC series motors have most desirable features and for 3-φ system, 3-φ induction motor
has the advantage of automatic regenerative braking. So, it is necessary to combine the
advantages of the DC/AC and 3-φ/1-φ systems. The above cause leads to the evolution of
composite system.
Composite systems are of two types.
1. Single-phase to DC system.
2. Single-phase to three-phase system or kando system.
Single-phase to DC system
In this system, the advantages of both 1-φ and DC systems are combined to get high voltage for
distribution in order to reduce the losses that can be achieved with 1-φ distribution networks,
and DC series motor is employed for producing the necessary propelling torque. Finally, 1-φ
AC distribution network results minimum cost with high transmission efficiency and DC series
motor is ideally suited for traction purpose. Normal operating voltage employed of distribution
is 25 kV at normal frequency of 50 Hz. This track electrification is employed in India. Single-
phase to 3-φ system or kando system In this system, 1-φ AC system is preferred for distribution
network. Since single phase overhead distribution system is cheap and 3-φ induction motors are
employed as traction motor because of their simple, robust construction, and the provision of
automatic regenerative braking. The voltage used for the distribution network is about 15–25
kV at 50 Hz. This 1-φ supply is converted to 3-φ supply through the help of the phase
converters and
high voltage is stepped down transformers to feed the 3-φ induction motors. Frequency
converters are also employed to get high-starting torque and to achieve better speed control
with the variable supply frequency.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF TRACTION MOTORS
The general features of the electric motors used for traction purpose are:
1. Mechanical
2. Electrical features.
Mechanical features

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1. A traction motor must be mechanically strong and robust and it should be capable of
withstanding severe mechanical vibrations.
2. The traction motor should be completely enclosed type when placed beneath the locomotive
to protect against dirt, dust, mud, etc.
3. In overall dimensions, the traction motor must have small diameter, to arrange easily beneath
the motor coach.
4. A traction motor must have minimum weight so the weight of locomotive will decrease.
Hence, the load carrying capability of the motor will increase.
Electrical features
High-starting torque
A traction motor must have high-starting torque, which is required to start the motor on load
during the starting conditions in urban and suburban services.
Speed control
The speed control of the traction motor must be simple and easy. This is necessary for the
frequent starting and stopping of the motor in traction purpose.
Dynamic and regenerative braking
Traction motors should be able to provide easy simple rehostatic and regenerative braking
subjected to higher voltages so that system must have the capability of withstanding voltage
fluctuations.
Temperature
The traction motor should have the capability of withstanding high temperatures during
transient conditions.
Overload capacity
The traction motor should have the capability of handling excessecive overloads.
Parallel running
In traction work, more number of motors need to run in parallel to carry more load. Therefore,
the traction motor should have such speed–torque and current–torque characteristics and those
motors may share the total load almost equally.
Commutation
Traction motor should have the feature of better commutation, to avoid the sparking at the
brushes and commutator segments.

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TRACTION MOTORS
No single motor can have all the electrical operating features required for traction. In earlier
days, DC motor is suited for traction because of the high-starting torque and having the
capability of handling overloads. In addition to the above characteristics, the speed control of
the DC motor is very complicated through semiconductor switches. So that, the motor must be
designed for high base speed initially by reducing the number of turns in the field winding. But
this will decrease the torque developed per ampere at the time of staring. And regenerative
braking is also complicated in DC series motor; so that, the separately excited motors can be
preferred over the series motor because their speed control is possible through semi-controlled
converters. And also dynamic and regenerative braking in separately excited DC motor is
simple and efficient. DC compound motors are also preferred for traction applications since it is
having advantageous features than series and separately excited motors. But nowadays squirrel
cage induction and synchronous motors are widely used for traction because of the availability
of reliable variable frequency semiconductor inverters. The squirrel cage induction motor has
several advantages over the DC motors.
They are:
1. Robust construction.
2. Highly reliable.
3. Low maintenance and low cost.
4. High efficiency.
Synchronous motor features lie in between the squirrel cage induction motor and the DC motor.
The main advantages of the synchronous motor over the squirrel cage induction motor are:
1. The synchronous motors can be operated at leading power by varying the field excitation.
2. Load commutated thyristor inverter is used in synchronous motors as compared to forced
commutation thyristor inverter in squirrel cage induction motors. Even though such forced
commutation reduces the weight and volume of induction motor, the synchronous motor is less
expensive.
1. DC series motor
From the construction and operating characteristics of the DC series motor, it is widely suitable
for traction purpose. Following features of series motor make it suitable for traction.

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1. DC series motor is having high-starting torque and having the capability of handling
overloads that is essential for traction drives.
2. These motors are having simple and robust construction.
3. The speed control of the series motor is easy by series parallel control.
4. Sparkless commutation is possible, because the increase in armature current increases the
load torque and decreases the speed so that the emf induced in the coils undergoing
commutation.
5. Series motor flux is proportional to armature current and torque. But armature current is
independent of voltage fluctuations. Hence, the motor is unaffected by the variations in supply
voltage.
6. We know that:

But the power output of the motor is proportional to the product of torque and speed.

∴ Motor output
That is motor input drawn from the source is proportional to the square root of the torque.
Hence, the series motor is having self-retaining property.
7. If more than one motor are to be run in parallel, their speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics must not have wide variation, which may result in the unequal wear of driving
wheels.
2 DC shunt motor
From the characteristics of DC shunt motor, it is not suitable for traction purpose, due to the
following reasons:
1. DC shunt motor is a constant speed motor but for traction purpose, the speed of the motor
should vary with service conditions.

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2. In case of DC shunt motor, the power output is independent of speed and is proportional to
torque. In case of DC series motor, the power output is proportional to So that, for a given load
torque, the shunt motor has to draw more power from the supply than series motor. 3. For shunt
motor, the torque developed is proportional to armature current (T ∝ Ia). So for a given load
torque motor has to draw more current from the supply.
4. The flux developed by shunt motor is proportional to shunt field current and hence supply

voltage. . But the torque developed is proportional to φsh and Ia.

Hence, the torque developed by the shunt motor is affected by small
variations in supply voltage.
5. If two shunt motors are running in parallel, their speed–torque and speed–current
characteristics must be flat and same. Otherwise, the currents drawn by the motor from the
supply mains will be different and cause to unequal sharing of load.

AC series motor
Practically, AC series motor is best suited for the traction purpose due to high starting torque
(Fig. 9.1). When DC series motor is fed from AC supply, it works but not satisfactorily due to
some of the following reasons:
1. If DC series motor is fed from AC supply, both the field and the armature currents reverse for
every half cycle. Hence, unidirectional torque is developed at double frequency.
2. Alternating flux developed by the field winding causes excessive eddy current loss, which
will cause the heating of the motor. Hence, the operating efficiency of the motor will decrease.
3. Field winding inductance will result abnormal voltage drop and low power factor that leads
to the poor performance of the motor.
4. Induced emf and currents flowing through the armature coils undergoing commutation will
cause sparking at the brushes and commutator segments.

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Fig. AC series motor

Hence, some modifications are necessary for the satisfactory operation of the DC series motor
on the AC supply and they are as follows:
1. In order to reduce the inductive reactance of the series field, the field winding of AC series
motor must be designed for few turns.
2. The decrease in the number of turns of the field winding reduces the load torque, i.e., if field
turns decrease, its mmf decrease and then flux, which will increase the speed, and hence the
torque will decrease. But in order to maintain constant load torque, it is necessary to increase
the armature turns proportionately.
3. If the armature turns increase, the inductive reactance of the armature would increase, which
can be neutralized by providing the compensating winding.
4. Magnetic circuit of an AC series motor should be laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
5. Series motor should be operating at low voltage because high voltage low current supply
would require large number of turns to produce given flux.
6. Motor should be operating at low frequency, because inductive reactance is proportional to
the frequency. So, at low frequency, the inductive reactance of the field winding decreases. The
operating characteristics of the AC series motor are similar to the DC series motor. Weight of
an AC series motor is one and a half to two times that of a DC series motor. And operating
voltage is limited to 300 V. They can be built up to the size of several hundred kW for traction
work. At the time of starting operation, the power factor is low; so that, for a given current, the
torque developed by the AC motor is less compared to the DC motor. Thus, the AC series
motor is not suitable for suburban services with frequent stops and preferred for main line
service where high acceleration is not required.
Three-phase induction motor

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The three-phase induction motors are generally preferred for traction purpose due to the
following advantages.
1. Simple and robust construction.
2. Trouble-free operation.
3. The absence of commutator.
4. Less maintenance.
5. Simple and automatic regeneration.
6. High efficiency.
Three-phase induction motor also suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. Low-starting torque.
2. High-starting current and complicated speed control system.
3. It is difficult to employ three-phase induction motor for a multiple-unit system used for
propelling a heavy train. Three-phase induction motor draws less current when the motor is
started at low frequencies. When a three-phase induction motor is used, the cost of overhead
distribution system increases and it consists of two overhead conductors and track rail for the
third phase to feed power to locomotive, which is a complicated overhead structure and if any
person comes in contact with the third rail, it may cause danger to him or her. This drawback
can be overcome by employing kando system. In this system, 1- φ supply from the overhead
distribution structure is converted to 3-φ supply by using phase converters and is fed to 3-
φinduction motor. The speed controller of induction motor becomes smooth and easy with the
use of thyristorized inverter circuits to get variable frequency supply that can be used to control
the speed of three-phase induction motor. Nowadays, by overcoming the drawbacks of three-
phase induction motor, it can be used for traction purpose.
Linear induction motor It is a special type of induction motor that gives linear motion instead
of rotational motion, as in the case of a conventional motor. In case of linear induction motor,
both the movement of field and the movement of the conductors are linear. A linear induction
motor consists of 3-φ distributed field winding placed in slots, and secondary is nothing but a
conducting plate made up of either copper or aluminum as shown in Fig.

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Fig Linear induction motor

The field system may be either single primary or double primary system. In single primary
system, a ferro magnetic plate is placed on the other side of the copper plate; it is necessary to
provide low reluctance path for the magnetic flux. When primary is excited by 3-φ AC supply,

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according to mutual induction, the induced currents are flowing through secondary and ferro
magnetic plate. Now, the ferro magnetic plate energized and attracted toward the primary
causes to unequal air gap between primary and secondary as shown in Fig. 9.2(a). This
drawback can be overcome by double primary system as shown in Fig. 9.2(b). In this system,
two primaries are placed on both the sides of secondary, which will be shorter in length
compared to the other depending upon the use of the motor. When the operating distance is
large, the length of the primary is made shorter than the secondary because it is not economical
to place very large 3-φ primary. Generally, the short secondary form of system is preferred for
limited operating distance, as shown in
When 3-φ primary winding is excited by giving 3-φ AC supply, magnetic field is developed
rotating at linear synchronous speed, Vs.
The linear synchronous speed is given by:
Vs = 2τ f m/s,
where τ is the pole pitch in m and f is the supply frequency in hertzs. Note: here, the
synchronous speed does not depend upon the number of poles but depends upon the pole pitch
and the supply frequency.
1. Short single primary.
2. Short double primary.
3. Short secondary.
The flux developed by the field winding pulls the rotor same as to the direction of the magnetic
field linearly, which will reduce relative speed between field and rotor plate. If the speed of the
rotor plate is equal to the magnetic field, then the field would be stationary when viewed from
the rotor plate. If rotor plate is rotating at a speed more than linear synchronous, the direction of
a force would be reversed, which causes regenerative braking. The slip of the linear induction
motor is given by:

where ‘V ’ is the actual speed of the rotor plate.

The speed–torque (tractive effort) characteristics is shown in Fig. 9.3.

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Fig. 9.3 Torque–speed characteristics

Therefore, force or tractive effort is given by: where ‘P2’ is the actual power supply to the
rotor.
Advantages
1. Simple in construction.
2. Low initial cost.
3. Maintenance cost is low.
4. Maximum speed is not limited due centrifugal forces.
5. Better power to weight ratio.
Disadvantages
1. High cost of providing collector system.
2. Poor efficiency and low power factor, due to high currents drawn by the motor because of
large air gap.
Applications
Linear induction motor are generally used in:
o High-speed rail traction.
o Trolley cars and metallic belt conveyors.
o Electromagnetic pumps.
Synchronous motor
The synchronous motor is one type of AC motor working based upon the principle of magnetic
lacking. It is a constant speed motor running from no-load to full load. The construction of the
synchronous motor is similar to the AC generator; armature winding is excited by giving three-
phase AC supply and field winding is excited by giving DC supply. The synchronous motor can

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be operated at leading and lagging power factors by varying field excitation. The synchronous
motor can be widely used various applications because of constant speed from no-load to full
load.
o High efficiency.
o Low-initial cost.
o Power factor improvement of three-phase AC industrial circuits.
BRAKING
If at any time, it is required to stop an electric motor, then the electric supply must be
disconnected from its terminals to bring the motor to rest. In this method, even though supply is
cut off, the motor continue to rotate for long time due to inertia. In some cases, there is delay in
bringing the other equipment. So that, it is necessary to bring the motor to rest quickly. The
process of bringing the motor to rest within the pre-determined time is known as braking.
A good braking system must have the following features:
o Braking should be fast and reliable.
o The equipment to stop the motor should be in such a way that the kinetic energy of the
rotating parts of the motor should be dissipated as soon as the brakes are applied.
Braking applied to bring the motor to rest position is of two types and they are:
1. Electric braking.
2. Mechanical braking.
Electric braking
In this process of braking, the kinetic energy of the rotating parts of the motor is converted into
electrical energy which in turn is dissipated as heat energy in a resistance or in sometimes,
electrical energy is returned to the supply. Here, no energy is dissipated in brake shoes.
Mechanical braking
In this process of braking, the kinetic energy of the rotating parts is dissipated in the form of
heat by the brake shoes of the brake lining that rubs on a wheel of vehicle or brake drum.
The advantages of the electric braking over the mechanical braking
o The electric braking is smooth, fast, and reliable.
o Higher speeds can be maintained; this is because the electric braking is quite fast. This leads
to the higher capacity of the system.
o The electric braking is more economical; this is due to excessive wear on brake blocks

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or brake lining that results frequent and costly replacement in mechanical braking.
o Heat produced in the electric braking is less and not harmful but heat produced in the
mechanical braking will cause the failure of brakes.
o In the electric braking, sometimes, it is possible to fed back electric energy during braking
period to the supply system. This results in saving in the operating cost. This is not possible in
case of mechanical braking.
Disadvantages
In addition to the above advantages, the electric braking suffers from the following
disadvantages.
o During the braking period, the traction motor acts generator and electric brakes can almost
stop the motor but it cannot hold stationary. Hence, it is necessary to employ mechanical
braking in addition to electric braking.
o Traction motor has to work as a generator during braking period. So that, motor has to select
in such a way that it should have suitable braking characteristics.
o The initial cost of the electric braking equipment is costlier.
TYPES OF ELECTRIC BRAKING
Electric braking can be applied to the traction vehicle, by any one of the following methods,
namely:
1. Plugging.
2. Rehostatic braking.
3. Regenerative braking.
Plugging
In this method of braking, the electric motor is reconnected to the supply in such a way that it
has to develop a torque in opposite direction to the movement of the rotor. Now, the motor will
decelerates until zero speed is zero and then accelerates in opposite direction. Immediately, it is
necessary to disconnect the motor from the supply as soon as system comes to rest. The main
disadvantage of this method is that the kinetic energy of the rotating parts of the motor is
wasted and an additional amount of energy from the supply is required to develop the torque in
reverse direction, i.e., in this method, the motor should be connected to the supply during
braking. This method can be applied to both DC and AC motors.
Plugging applied to DC motors

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Pulling is nothing but reverse current braking. This method of braking can be applied to both
DC shunt and DC series motors by reversing either the current through armature or the field
winding in order to produce the torque in apposite direction, but not both. The connection
diagrams for both DC shunt and DC series motors during normal and braking periods are given
as follows. The connection diagram for normal running conditions of both DC shunt and DC
series motors are shown in Figs. 9.4 (a) and 9.5 (a). The back emf developed by the motor is
equal in magnitude and same as to the direction of terminal or supply voltage. During the
braking, the armatures of both shunt and series motors are reversed as shown in Fig. 9.4 (b) and
Fig. 9.5 (b). Now, the back emf developed by the motor direction of terminal voltage. A high
resistance ‘R’ is connected in series with the armature to limit high-starting current during the
braking period.

Fig. 9.4 Plugging of DC shunt motor

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Fig. 9.5 Plugging of DC series motor

Current flowing through the armature during normal run condition:

where V is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf, and Ra is the armature resistance.
Current flowing through the armature during braking period:

∴ Electric braking torque, TB ∝ φ I2.

But we know that:

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Substitute Equation (9.3) in Equation (9.2):

Where and .
We know that,

in case of series motor flux (φ) developed by the winding is depending the current flowing
through it. In case of shunt motor, the flux remains constant.

Plugging applied to induction motor

During the normal operating condition, the rotating magnetic field developed by the stator and
the rotation of rotor are in the same direction. But during the braking period, plugging is applied
to an induction motor by reversing any two phases of the three phases of stator winding in order
to change the direction of the rotating magnetic field as shown in Fig. 9.6. So that, the rotating
magnetic filed and the rotor will be rotating in opposite direction. So that, the relative speed
between emf and rotor is nearly twice the synchronous speed Ns –(–Ns) = 2Ns

Fig. 9.6 Plugging applied to induction motor

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∴ Slip during the braking period:

But the voltage induced in the rotor (E2) is proportional to the slip (S ) × stator
voltage (V):
∴ E2 ∝ SV.
So, the rotor voltage during the braking period is twice the normal voltage. To avoid the
damage of the rotor winding, it should be provided with additional insulation, to withstand the
high induced voltage. The rotation of the magnetic field in the reverse direction produce torque
in reverse direction; thereby applying the brakes to the motor. The braking of induction motor
can be analyzed by the torque–slip characteristics shown in Fig. 9.7.

Fig. 9.7 Torque–slip characteristics

Rotor current during the braking period,

The characteristic curve for the rotor current and the rotor voltage with the variation of the slip
is shown in Fig. 9.8.

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Fig. Rotor current–slip characteristics

Plugging applied to synchronous motor
Normally, the stator winding of the synchronous motor is fed with 3-φ AC supply to produce
the rotating magnetic field that induces stator poles. And, the field winding is excited by giving
the DC supply thereby inducing the rotor poles. At any instant, the stator poles gets locked with
the rotor poles and the synchronous motor rotating at the synchronous speed. In this method of
plugging applied to synchronous motor, simply it is not possible to produce the counter torque
during the braking period by interchanging any two of three phases. This is due to the magnetic
locking of stator and rotor poles (Fig. 9.9).

Fig. 9.9 Synchronous motor

In order to develop the counter torque, the rotor of synchronous motor should be provided with
damper winding. The EMF induced in the damper winding whenever there is any change, i.e.,
the reversal of the direction of the stator field. Now, according to Lenz's law, the emf induced in
the damper winding opposes the change which producing it. This emf induced in the damper
winding produces the circulating current to produce the torque in the reverse direction. This
torque is known as braking torque. This braking torque helps to bring the motor to rest.
Rheostatic or dynamic braking In this method of braking, the electric motor is disconnected
from the supply during the braking period and is reconnected across same electrical resistance.
But field winding is continuously excited from the supply in the same direction. Thus, during

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the starts working as generator during the braking period and all the kinetic energy of the
rotating parts is converted into electric energy and is dissipated across the external resistance.
One of the main advantages of the rehostatic braking is electrical energy is not drawn by the
motor during braking period compared to plugging. The rehostatic braking can be applied to
various DC and AC motors.
Rehostatic braking applied to DC motors
The rheostatic braking can be applied to both DC shunt and DC series motors, by disconnecting
the armature from the supply and reconnecting it across and external resistance. This is required
to dissipate the kinetic energy of all rotating parts thereby brining the motor to rest.
DC shunts motor
Figure 9.10 shows the connection diagram of the DC shunt motor during both normal and
braking conditions. In case of DC shunt motor, both armature and field windings are connected
across the DC supply, as shown in Fig. 9.10 (a.)

Fig.9.10 Rheostatic braking of DC shunt motor

During the braking period, the armature is disconnected from the supply and field winding is
continuously excited by the supply in the same direction, as shown in Fig. 9.10 (b). The kinetic
energy of all rotating parts is dissipated in the resistor ‘R’ now the machine starts working as
generator. Now, braking developed is proportional to the product of the field and the armature
currents. But the shunt motor flux remains constant, so the braking torque is proportional to
armature current at low-speeds braking torque is less and in order to maintain constant braking
torque, the armature is gradually disconnected. Hence, the armature current remains same
thereby maintaining the uniform braking torque.
DC series motor

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In this braking, which is applied to DC series motor, the armature is disconnected from the
supply and is reconnected across an external resistance ‘R’ shown in Fig 9.11 (a) and (b). But,
simply, it is not possible to develop the retarding torque by the DC series motor after
connecting armature across the resistance as DC shunt motor.

Fig.9.11 Rheostatic braking of DC series motor

In case of DC series motor, both the field and armature windings are connected across the
resistance after disconnecting the same from the supply; current directions of both the field and
armatures are reversed. This results in the production of torque in same direction as before. So,
in order to produce the braking torque only the direction of current in the armature has to be
reversed. The connection diagram of DC series is shown in Fig. 9.11. If more than one motor
has to be used as in electric traction. All motors can be connected in equalizer connection as
shown in Fig. 9.12. In this connection, one machine is excited by the armature current of
another machine.

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Fig.9.12 Equalizer connection

Braking torque
The current flowing through the armature during braking period:

where Eb is the back emf developed, R is the external resistance, and Ra is the armature
resistance.

Braking torque, TB ∝ φ Ia.

Now, substitute Equation (9.8) in Equation (9.9):

For shunt motor flux is practically constant:
DC series motor
In case of DC series motor, it is not easy to apply regenerative braking as of DC shunt motor.
The main reasons of the difficulty of applying regenerative braking to DC series motor are:
1. During the braking period, the motor acts as generator by reversing the direction of current
flowing through the armature, but at the same time, the current flowing through the field

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winding is also reversed; hence, there is no retarding torque. And, a short-circuit condition will
set up both back emf and supply voltage will be added together. So that, during the braking
period, it is necessary to reverse the terminals of field winding.
2. Some sort of compensating equipment must be incorporated to take care of large change in
supply voltage On doing some modifications during the braking period, the regenerative
braking
can be applied to DC series motor. Any one of the following methods is used.
Method-I (French method)
If one or more series motors are running in parallel, during the braking period, the field
windings, of all series motors, are connected across the supply in series with suitable resistance.
Thereby converting all series machines in shunt machines as shown in Fig. 9.15.

Fig9.15. Regenerative braking of DC series motor

The main advantage of this method is, all armatures are connected in parallel and current
supplied to one machine is sufficient to excite the field windings of all the machines, and the
energy supplied by remaining all the machines is fed back to the supply system, during the
braking period.
Method-II
In this method, the exciter is provided to excite the field windings of the series machine during
the regenerative braking period. This is necessary to avoid the dissipation of energy or the loss
of power in the external resistance. Whenever the excitation of field winding is adjusted to
increase the rotational emf more than the supply voltage, then the energy is supplied to the
supply system.

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At that time, the field winding of the series machine is connected across an excited being driven
by motor operated from an auxiliary supply. Now, during the braking period, the series machine
acts as separately excited DC generator which supplies energy to the main lines. A stabilizing
resistance is used to control the braking torque (Figs. 9.16 and 9.17).

Fig.9.16 Regenerative braking

Fig.9.16 Regenerative braking

Method-III
In this method, the armature of exciter is connected in series. With the field winding of series
machine, this combination is connected across the stabilizing resistance. Here, the current
flowing through stabilizing resistance is the sum of exciter current and regenerated current by
the series machines. During the braking period, the regenerated current increases the voltage
drop

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across the stabilizing resistance, which will reduce the voltage across the armature circuit and
cause the reduction of the exciter current of the series machine field winding. Hence, the
traction motors operating as series generators.
Regenerative braking applied to 3-φ induction motor
Regenerative braking is applied to the induction motor by increasing its speed above the
synchronous speed. Now, the induction motor acting as an induction generator that feeds power
to the main line. The torque slip characteristics of the induction motors are shown in Fig. 9.18.

Fig.9.18 Torque vs slip characteristics

The main advantage of the induction motor is during the braking period; no need of placing
external resistance in the rotor circuit. The speed during the braking remains almost constant
and independent of the gradient and the weight of the train. This regenerative braking applied to
an induction motor can save 20% of the total energy leads the reduction of operating cost.
Regenerative braking applied to AC series motors
It is not simple way to apply regenerative braking to an AC series motor. In this method, the
armature of traction motor is connected to the top changing transformer through iron cored
reactors RE1 andRE2 and commutating pole winding ‘C’. An auxiliary transformer is provided
to excite the field winding of the traction motor. Let us assume ‘V ’ be the voltage of tap-
changing transformer and If is the field current of traction motor. Due to the presence of
reactor, If lags V by an angle 90° of traction motor is phase with exciting current as shown in
Fig. 9.19.

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Fig. Phasor diagram

From the phasor diagram, the vector difference of and gives voltage across iron-cored reactor
RE1. Now, the armature current Ia lags by 90°. And, the braking torque developed the series
machine will be proportional to Ia cosφ. And, the power returned to the supply is also
proportional Ia cosφ. So that, proper phase angle must be obtained for efficient braking effect
arise in the regenerative braking applied to an AC series motor are:
o During the regenerative braking, the braking torque is proportional to the operating power
factor. In order to operate the series motor at high power factor field, winding must be excited
separately from other auxiliary devices.
o Proper phase-shifting device must be incorporated to ensure correct phase angle. To
overcome the difficulty stated above, a special arrangement is adopted that is known as Behn
Eschenburg method of regenerative braking. The circuit diagram for applying regenerative
braking to an AC series motor is shown in Fig. 9.20.

Fig. 9.20 Regenerative braking of AC series motor

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TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL

Normally, at the time of starting, the excessive current drawn by the electric motor from the
main supply causes to the effects. So that, it is necessary to reduce the current drawn by the
traction motor for its smooth control such as:
1. To achieve smooth acceleration without any jerking and sudden shocks.
2. To prevent damage to coupling.
3. To achieve various speed depending upon the type of services.
Control of DC motors
At the time of starting, excessive current is drawn by the traction motor when rated voltage is
applied across its terminals. During the starting period, the current drawn by the motor is
limited to its rated current. This can be achieved by placing a resistance in series with the
armature winding. This is known as starting resistance; it will be cut off during the normal
running period thereby applying rated voltage across its armature terminals. By the resistance of
stating resistor, there is considerable loss of energy takes place in it.
∴ At the time of switching on, the back emf developed by the motor Eb = 0.

where Vs is the voltage drop across starting resistance and IaRa is the voltage drop in armature.
During the running condition:

At the end of accelerating period, the total starting resistance will be cut off from the armature

then:
1. Various drops during staring and running with armature resistance.
2. Various drops during staring and running with negligible armature resistance.
When armature resistance is neglected Ra = 0 and ‘t’ is the time in seconds for starting, then
total energy supplied is, VaIat watts-sec and the energy wasted in the starting resistance at the
time of starting can be calculated from Fig. 9.21(b) as:

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Fig9.21Traction control of DC motor

That is whatever the electrical energy supplied to the motor, half of the energy is wasted during
the starting resistor.
∴ The efficiency of the traction motor at time of starting, ηstart = 50%.
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
A traction system comprises of the following auxiliary equipment in addition to the main
traction motors required to be arranged in the locomotive are discussed below.
Motor–generator set
Motor–generator set consists of a series motor and shunt generator. It is mainly used for
lighting, control system, and the other power circuits of low voltages in the range 10–100 V.
The voltage of generator is effectively controlled by automatic voltage regulator.
Battery
It is very important to use the battery as a source of energy for pantograph, to run auxiliary
compressor, to operate air blast circuit breaker, etc. The capacity of battery used in the
locomotive is depending on the vehicle. Normally, the battery may be charged by a separate
rectifier.
Rectifier unit

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If the track electrification system is AC motors and available traction motors are DC motors,
then rectifiers are to be equipped with the traction motors to convert AC supply to DC to feed
the DC traction motors.
Transformer or autotransformer
Depending on the track electrification system employed, the locomotive should be equipped
with tap-changing transformers to step-down high voltages from the distribution network to the
feed low-voltage traction motors. Driving axles and gear arrangements All the driving motors
are connected to the driving axle through a gear arrangement, with ratios of 4:1 or 6:1.
TRANSMISSION OF DRIVE
Drive is a system used to create the movement of electric train. The electric locomotives are
specially designed to have springs between the driving axles and the main body. This
arrangement of springs reduces the damage not only to the track wings but also to the hammer
blows. The power developed by the armature of the traction motors must be transferred to the
driving axels through pinion and gear drive. There are several methods by which power
developed by the armature can be transferred to the driving wheel. Gearless drive Gearless
drives are of two types.
Direct drive
It is a simple drive. The armatures of the electric motors are mounted directly on the driving
axle with the field attached to the frame of locomotive. In this system, the poles of electric
motors should be flat so that the armature can be able to move freely without affecting of the
operation. Here, the size of the armatures of the traction motor is limited by the diameter of the
driving wheels. The arrangement of direct drive is shown in fig,

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Fig. Direct drive

Direct quill drive
Quill is nothing but a hallow shaft. Driving axle is surrounded by the hollow shaft attached by
springs. The armature of the motor is mounted on a quill. The speed and the size of the
armature are limited by the diameter of the driving wheels.
Geared drive
In this drive, the armature of the traction motor is attached to the driving wheel through the gear
wheel system. Now, the power developed by the armature is transferred to the driving wheel
through the gear system. Here, gear drive is necessary to reduce the size of the motor for given
output at high speeds (Fig. 9.33). The gear ratio of the system is usually 3–5:1.

Fig. Geared drive

Brown–Boveri individual drive
In this drive, a special link is provided between the gear wheel and driving wheel, which
provides more flexibility of the system.

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UNIT-4

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Electric Traction-II,
INTRODUCTION
The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be most conveniently studied by
means of the speed–distance and the speed–time curves. The motion of any vehicle may be at
constant speed or it may consist of periodic acceleration and retardation. The speed–time curves
have significant importance in traction. If the frictional resistance to the motion is known value,
the energy required for motion of the vehicle can be determined from it. Moreover, this curve
gives the speed at various time instants after the start of run directly.
TYPES OF SERVICES
There are mainly three types of passenger services, by which the type of traction
system has to be selected, namely:
1. Main line service.
2. Urban or city service.
3. Suburban service.
Main line services
In the main line service, the distance between two stops is usually more than 10 km. High
balancing speeds should be required. Acceleration and retardation are not so important.
Urban service
In the urban service, the distance between two stops is very less and it is less than 1 km. It
requires high average speed for frequent starting and stopping.
Suburban service
In the suburban service, the distance between two stations is between 1 and 8 km. This service
requires rapid acceleration and retardation as frequent starting and stopping is required.
SPEED–TIME AND SPEED–DISTANCE CURVES FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES
The curve that shows the instantaneous speed of train in kmph along the ordinate and time in
seconds along the abscissa is known as ‘speed–time’ curve. The curve that shows the distance
between two stations in km along the ordinate and time in seconds along the abscissa is known
as ‘speed–distance’ curve. The area under the speed–time curve gives the distance travelled
during, given time internal and slope at any point on the curve toward abscissa gives the
acceleration and retardation at the instance, out of the two speed–time curve is more important.

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Speed–time curve for main line service Typical speed–time curve of a train running on main
line service is shown in Fig. 10.1. It mainly consists of the following time periods:
1. Constant accelerating period.
2. Acceleration on speed curve.
3. Free-running period.
4. Coasting period.
5. Braking period.

Fig. 10.1 Speed–time curve for mainline service

Constant acceleration
During this period, the traction motor accelerate from rest. The curve ‘OA’ represents the
constant accelerating period. During the instant 0 to T1, the current is maintained approximately
constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased by cutting out the starting
resistance slowly moving from one notch to the other. Thus, current taken by the motor and the
tractive efforts are practically constant and therefore acceleration remains constant during this
period. Hence, this period is also called as notch up accelerating period or rehostatic
accelerating
period. Typical value of acceleration lies between 0.5 and 1 kmph. Acceleration is denoted with
the symbol ‘α’.
Acceleration on speed-curve
During the running period from T1 to T2, the voltage across the motor remains constant and the
current starts decreasing, this is because cut out at the instant ‘T1’. According to the
characteristics of motor, its speed increases with the decrease in the current and finally the

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current taken by the motor remains constant. But, at the same time, even though train
accelerates, the acceleration decreases with the increase in speed. Finally, the acceleration
reaches to zero for certain speed, at which the tractive effort excreted by the motor is exactly
equals to the train
resistance. This is also known as decreasing accelerating period. This period is shown by the
curve ‘AB’.
Free-running or constant-speed period
The train runs freely during the period T2 to T3 at the speed attained by the train at the instant
‘T2’. During this speed, the motor draws constant power from the supply lines. This period is
shown by the curve BC.
Coasting period
This period is from T3 to T4, i.e., from C to D. At the instant ‘T3’ power supply to the traction,
the motor will be cut off and the speed falls on account of friction, windage resistance, etc.
During this period, the train runs due to the momentum attained at that particular instant. The
rate of the decrease of the speed during coasting period is known as coasting retardation.
Usually, it is denoted with the symbol ‘βc’.
Braking period
Braking period is from T4 to T5, i.e., from D to E. At the end of the coasting period, i.e., at ‘T4’
brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period, the speed of the train decreases
rapidly and finally reduces to zero. In main line service, the free-running period will be more,
the starting and braking periods are very negligible, since the distance between the stops for the
main line service is more than 10 km. Speed–time curve for suburban service In suburban
service, the distance between two adjacent stops for electric train is lying between 1 and 8 km.
In this service, the distance between stops is more than the urban service and smaller than the
main line service. The typical speed–time curve for suburban service is shown in Fig. 10.2.

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Fig. 10.2 Typical speed–time curve for suburban service

The speed–time curve for urban service consists of three distinct periods. They are:
1. Acceleration.
2. Coasting.
3. Retardation.
For this service, there is no free-running period. The coasting period is comparatively longer
since the distance between two stops is more. Braking or retardation period is comparatively
small. It requires relatively high values of acceleration and retardation. Typical acceleration and
retardation values are lying between 1.5 and 4 kmphp and 3 and 4 kmphp, respectively. Speed–
time curve for urban or city service The speed–time curve urban or city service is almost similar
to suburban service and is shown in Fig. 10.3.

Fig. 10.3 Typical speed–time curve for urban service

In this service also, there is no free-running period. The distance between two stop is less about
1 km. Hence, relatively short coasting and longer braking period is required. The relative values
of acceleration and retardation are high to achieve moderately high average between the stops.
Here, the small coasting period is included to save the energy consumption. The acceleration

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for the urban service lies between 1.6 and 4 kmphp. The coasting retardation is about 0.15
kmphp and the braking retardation is lying between 3 and 5 kmphp. Some typical values of
various services are shown in Table. 10.1.

Table 10.1 Types of services

SOME DEFINITIONS
Crest speed
The maximum speed attained by the train during run is known as crest speed. It is denoted with
‘Vm’.
Average speed
It is the mean of the speeds attained by the train from start to stop, i.e., it is defined as the ratio
of the distance covered by the train between two stops to the total time of rum. It is denoted

with ‘Va’.

where Va is the average speed of train in kmph, D is the distance between stops in km, and T is
the actual time of run in hours.
Schedule speed
The ratio of the distance covered between two stops to the total time of the run including the
time for stop is known as schedule speed. It is denoted with the symbol ‘Vs’.
where Ts is the schedule time in hours.
Schedule time

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It is defined as the sum of time required for actual run and the time required for stop.
i.e., Ts = Trun + Tstop.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHEDULE SPEED OF A TRAIN
The factors that affect the schedule speed of a train are:
1. Crest speed.
2. The duration of stops.
3. The distance between the stops.
4. Acceleration.
5. Braking retardation.
Crest speed
It is the maximum speed of train, which affects the schedule speed as for fixed acceleration,
retardation, and constant distance between the stops. If the crest speed increases, the actual
running time of train decreases. For the low crest speed of train it running so, the high crest
speed of train will increases its schedule speed. Duration of stops If the duration of stops is
more, then the running time of train will be less; so that, this leads to the low schedule speed.
Thus, for high schedule speed, its duration of stops must be low. Distance between the stops If
the distance between the stops is more, then the running time of the train is less; hence, the
schedule speed of train will be more.
Acceleration
If the acceleration of train increases, then the running time of the train decreases provided the
distance between stops and crest speed is maintained as constant. Thus, the increase in
acceleration will increase the schedule speed.
Breaking retardation
High breaking retardation leads to the reduction of running time of train. These will cause high
schedule speed provided the distance between the stops is small.
SIMPLIFIED TRAPEZOIDAL AND QUADRILATERAL SPEED TIME CURVES
Simplified speed–time curves gives the relationship between acceleration, retardation average
speed, and the distance between the stop, which are needed to estimate the performance of a
service at different schedule speeds. So that, the actual speed–time curves for the main line,
urban, and suburban services are approximated to some from of the simplified curves. These
curves may be of either trapezoidal or quadrilateral shape. Analysis of trapezoidal speed–time

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curve Trapezoidal speed–time curve can be approximated from the actual speed–time curves of
different services by assuming that:
o The acceleration and retardation periods of the simplified curve is kept same as to that of the
actual curve.
o The running and coasting periods of the actual speed–time curve are replaced by the constant
periods.
This known as trapezoidal approximation, a simplified trapezoidal speed–time curve is shown
in fig,

Fig. Trapezoidal speed–time curve

Calculations from the trapezoidal speed–time curve
Let D be the distance between the stops in km, T be the actual running time of train in second,
α be the acceleration in km/h/sec, β be the retardation in km/h/sec, Vm be the maximum or the
crest speed of train in km/h, and Va be the average speed of train in km/h. From the Fig. 10.4:

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Area under the trapezoidal speed–time curve gives the total distance between the two stops
(D).
∴ The distance between the stops (D) = area under triangle OAE + area of
rectangle ABDE + area of triangle DBC
= The distance travelled during acceleration + distance travelled during freerunning period +
distance travelled during retardation.
Now:
The distance travelled during acceleration = average speed during accelerating period × time for
acceleration

The distance travelled during free-running period = average speed × time of free running

The distance travelled during retardation period = average speed × time for retardation

The distance between the two stops is:

Solving quadratic Equation (10.5), we get:

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Solving quadratic Equation (10.5), we get:

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By considering positive sign, we will get high values of crest speed, which is practically not
possible, so negative sign should be considered:

Analysis of quadrilateral speed–time curve

Quadrilateral speed–time curve for urban and suburban services for which the distance between
two stops is less. The assumption for simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is the initial
acceleration and coasting retardation periods are extended, and there is no free-running period.
Simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is shown in Fig. 10.5.

Fig. Quadrilateral speed–time curve

Let V1 be the speed at the end of accelerating period in km/h, V2 be the speed at the end of
coasting retardation period in km/h, and βc be the coasting retardation in km/h/sec.
Time for acceleration,

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Time for coasting period,

Time period for braking retardation period,

Total distance travelled during the running period D: = the area of triangle PQU + the area of
rectangle UQRS + the area of triangle TRS.
= the distance travelled during acceleration + the distance travelled during
coastingretardation + the distance travelled during breaking retardation.
But, the distance travelled during acceleration = average speed × time for Acceleration

The distance travelled during coasting retardation=

The distance travelled during breaking retardation = average speed × time for
breaking retardation

∴ Total distance travelled:

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TRACTIVE EEFFORT (FT)

It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the train is
known as ‘tractive effort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive effort is a vector
quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It is measured in newton. The
net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a locomotive or a train to run
on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:
1. Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).
2. To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
3. To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).
Mechanics of train movement
The essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in Fig. 10.6. The electric
locomotive consists of pinion and gear wheel meshed with the traction motor and the wheel of

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the locomotive. Here, the gear wheel transfers the tractive effort at the edge of the pinion to the
driving wheel.

Fig. 10.6Driving mechanism of electric locomotives

Let T is the torque exerted by the motor in N-m, Fp is tractive effort at the edge of the pinion in
Newton,Ft is the tractive effort at the wheel, D is the diameter of the driving wheel, d1 and d2
are the diameter of pinion and gear wheel, respectively, and η is the efficiency of the power
transmission for the motor to the driving axle.

The tractive effort at the edge of the pinion transferred to the wheel of locomotive is:

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10.7.2 Tractive effort required for propulsion of train

From Equation (10.8), the tractive effort required for train propulsion is:
Ft = Fa + Fg + Fr,
where Fa is the force required for linear and angular acceleration, Fg is the force required to
overcome the gravity, and Fr is the force required to overcome the resistance to the motion.
Force required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa)
According to the fundamental law of acceleration, the force required to accelerate the motion of
the body is given by:
Force = Mass × acceleration

UNIT-5

INTRODUCTION
The function of a power station is to deliver power at the lowest possible cost per kilo watt
hour. This total cost is made up of fixed charges consisting of interest on the capital, taxes,
insurance, depreciation and salary of managerial staff, the operating expenses such as cost of
fuels, water, oil, labor, repairs and maintenance etc.

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1. The cost of power generation can be minimized by:

2. Choosing equipment that is available for operation during the largest possible % of time in a
year.
3. Reducing the amount of investment in the plant.
4. Operation through fewer men.
5. Having uniform design
6. Selecting the station as to reduce cost of fuel, labor, etc.
All the electrical energy generated in a power station must be consumed immediately as
it can not be stored. So the electrical energy generated in a power station must be regulated
according to the demand. The demand of electrical energy or load will also vary with the time
and a power station must be capable of meeting the maximum load at any time
Economics of power factor improvement:

For example, real power produces the mechanical output of a motor. Reactive power is not used
to do work, but is needed to operate equipment and is measured in volt-amperes-reactive
(VAR) or kilovar (kVAR). Many industrial loads are inductive such as motors, transformers,
fluorescent lighting ballasts, power electronics, and induction furnaces.
The current drawn by an inductive load consists of two components: magnetizing
current and power producing current. The magnetizing current is required to sustain the

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electromagnetic field in a device and creates reactive power. An inductive load draws current
that lags the voltage, in that the current follows the voltage wave form. The amount of lag is
the electrical displacement (or phase) angle between the voltage and current. n the absence of
harmonics, apparent power (also known as demand power) is comprised of (vectorial sum) both
real and reactive power and is measured in units of volt-amps (VA) or kilovolt-amps (kVA).
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of the real power to apparent power and represents how much real
power electrical equipment uses. It is a measure of how effectively electrical power is being
used. Power factor is also equal to the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current
Electrical loads demand more power than they consume. Induction motors convert at most 80%
to 90% of the delivered power into useful work or electrical losses. The remaining power is
used
to establish an electromagnetic field in the motor. The field is alternately expanding and
collapsing (once each cycle), so the power drawn into the field in one instant is returned to the
electric supply system in the next instant. Therefore, the average power drawn by the field is
zero, and reactive power does not register on a kilowatt-hour meter. The magnetizing current
creates reactive power. Although it does no useful work, it circulates between the generator and
the load and places a heavier drain on the power source as well as the transmission and
distribution system. As a means of compensation for the burden of supplying extra current,
many utilities establish a power factor penalty in their rate schedule. A minimum power factor,
usually 0.85 to 0.95, is established. When a customer’s power factor drops below the minimum
value, the utility collects a low power factor revenue premium on the customer’s bill. Another
way some utilities collect a low power factor premium is to charge for kVA (apparent power)
rather than kW (real power). With a diverse range of billing rate structures imposed by
electrical utilities especially for large users, it is imperative to fully understand the billing
method employed
Improving power factor:
Adding capacitors is generally the most economical way to improve a facility’s power factor.
While the current through an inductive load lags the voltage, current to a capacitor leads the
voltage. Thus, capacitors serve as a leading reactive current generator to counter the lagging
reactive current in a system.
The expression “release of capacity” means that as power factor of the system is improved, the

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total current flow will be reduced. This permits additional loads to be added and served by the
existing system. In the event that equipment, such as transformers, cables, and generators, may
be thermally overloaded, improving power factor may be the most economical way to reduce
current and eliminate the overload condition. Primarily, the cost-effectiveness of power factor
correction depends on a utility’s power factor penalties. It is crucial to understand the utility’s
rate structure to determine the return on investment to improve power factor.

Maintaining a high power factor in a facility will yield direct savings. In addition to reducing
power factor penalties imposed by some utilities, there may be other economic factors that,
when
considered in whole, may lead to the addition of power factor correction capacitors that provide
a
justifiable return on investment. Other savings, such as decreased distribution losses, improved
voltage reduction, and increased facility current carrying capacity, are less obvious. Though
real,
often these reductions yield little in cost savings and are relatively small in comparison to the
savings to be gained from reducing power factor penalties.
Harmonic current considerations:
This article intentionally assumes that a facility does not have significant harmonic currents
present. However, some caution must be taken when applying capacitors in a circuit where
harmonics are present (true power factor). Although capacitors themselves do not generate
harmonics, problems arise when capacitors for power factor correction improvement are
applied

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to circuits with nonlinear loads that interject harmonic currents. Those capacitors may lower the
resonant frequency of that circuit enough to create a resonant condition. Resonance is a special
condition in which the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance. As resonance is
approached, the magnitude of harmonic current in the system and capacitor becomes much
larger than the harmonic current generated by the nonlinear load. The current may be high
enough to blow capacitor fuses, create other “nuisance” problems, or develop into a
catastrophic event. A solution to this problem is to detune the circuit by changing the point
where the capacitors are connected to the circuit, changing the amount of applied capacitance,
or installing passive filter reactors to a capacitor bank, which obviously increases its cost. Use
of an active harmonic filter may be another solution.
Capacitor bank considerations and associated costs:
The selection of the type of capacitor banks and their location has an impact on the cost of
capacitor banks. More difficult than determining the total capacitance required is deciding
where the capacitance should be located. There are several factors to consider, including:
Should one large capacitor bank be used, or is it better to add small capacitors at individual
loads? Should fixed or automatically switched capacitors be employed? In general, since
capacitors act as a kVAR generator, the most efficient place to install them is directly at an
inductive load for which the power factor is being improved.
Fixed capacitor location schemes include:
This will generally improve losses, although it is not an optimal solution .Distributing the
capacitors using the motor sizes and the NEMA tables as a guide. This solution does not reflect
the need for more released capacity, if this is a goal. Capacitors sized for small loads are often
proportionally much more expensive than larger fixed capacitors, primarily because of
installation costs.
Capacitor switching options include:
Switching a few of the capacitors with larger motors is an option. The capacitors may be
physically installed either directly connected to the motor or through a contactor on the motor
control center that is tied in with the motor control. If the motors are large enough to use
capacitors of the same size as were being considered for the fixed capacitor scheme, little
additional cost is incurred for installing them on the motors. Where the economy is lost is when

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the capacitors are placed on several small motors. There is relatively little difference in
installation costs for large and small 480-V units.
The second switching option is to consider an automatic power factor controller installed in the
Capacitor bank. This will switch large capacitor banks in small steps (25 through 50 is
common)
to follow the load. Automatic power factor capacitor banks should be installed at the motor
control center rather than on the main bus, if optimal distribution loss is a goal. The economics
of purchasing, installing
Improving Load Factor Your company could increase efficiency by improving load factor.
Increasing your load factor will reduce the average unit cost (demand and energy) of the kWh.
Depending on your situation, improving your load factor could mean substantial savings. The
load factor corresponds to the ratio between your actual energy consumption (kWh) and the
maximum power recorded (demand) for that period of time.
WHAT IS LOAD FACTOR? Consumption (kWh) during the period x 100 /Demand (kW) x
hours in that period
By analyzing your load profile and your needs, you may be able to improve your load factor by
doing the following:.
Demand Reduction Reduce demand by distributing your loads over different times or by
installing load management systems.
Increase Production Keeping the demand stable and increasing your consumption is often a
cost-effective way to increase production while maximizing the use of your power. In both
cases, the load factor will improve and therefore reduce your average unit cost per kWh.
The peak demand

The peak demand of an installation or a system is simply the highest demand that has occurred
over a specified time period (Gönen 2008). Peak demand is typically characterized as annual,
daily or seasonal and has the unit of power. Peak demand, peak load or on-peak are terms used
in energy demand management describing a period in which electrical power is expected to be
provided for a sustained period at a significantly higher than average supply level. Peak demand
fluctuations may occur on daily, monthly, seasonal and yearly cycles. For an electric
utility company, the actual point of peak demand is a single half-hour or hourly period which

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represents the highest point of customer consumption of electricity. At this time there is a
combination of office, domestic demand and at some times of the year, the fall of darkness.[1]

Some utilities will charge customers based on their individual peak demand. The highest
demand during each month or even a single 15 to 30 minute period of highest use in the
previous year may be used to calculate charges

Exhaust stem

These turbines receive steam from a boiler and exhaust it to a condenser. ... Non-condensing or
back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications.
The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the

process steam pressure.

Heat recovery steam generators: A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is a steam boiler
that uses hot exhaust gases from the gas turbines or reciprocating engines in a CHP plant to heat
up water and generate steam. The steam, in turn, drives a steam turbine or is used in industrial
processes that require heat. HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from
conventional steam generators by the following main features: The HRSG is designed based
upon the specific features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that it will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is accomplished mainly
through convection. The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down.
Thus, the transmission coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area. Since the
temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated (steam or water) is low,
and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are
designed with plate fin heat exchangers.

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