Phonetics

A distinction may be provided between Spoken and Written Forms by way of introduction.
Students should therefore be able to understand that English exists in spoken and written forms.
The spoken form of the language is what we study in secondary schools as ‘Oral English’. Yet, it
is studied in some cases under the name – “speech work” or “phonology” for higher institutions.
At this level of study, sounds are considered rather than letters (A-Z) which characterize the
written form that deals with the spelling of words. When as an instance, you are required to spell
or write the word “car”, what you see is the combination of letters c+a+r. In pronunciation (the
spoken form) however, what you hear is just a combination of two sounds which are /k/ and /a:/,
realised in sequence as /ka:/.
The implication in the above presentation is that we use sounds to speak while letters are
used for the purpose of writing. It is also that there is no one -to-one correspondence between the
sounds and letters. Put in another way, sounds are not matched in an exact way with letters. It is
only a few letters like, ‘m’, ‘p’, ‘b’, ‘t’, ‘d’, etc. that may have the same appearance as the
sounds, some of which can even be changed into different pronunciations in different
phonological contexts.
Moreover, the English orthography has only 26 letters ranging from A-Z and these are
not enough to account for the entire pronunciation. Rather, about 44 sounds (excluding the so
called triphthongs) have been ascertained to be commensurate with the different ways of
pronouncing English words.
Segmental Vs Pluri-Segmental Aspects
There is a division between segmental and pluri-segmental features or oral English. The
segmental aspect is concerned with sound segments i.e. the smallest speech sounds that a word is
divided into. Individual sounds (vowels and consonants) are the main issue here. Attention is
sometimes paid to the combination of these sounds to produce chains or divided units (segments)
of pronunciation, as in = com+fort = comfort /kʌmfǝt/. The divided segments are what we refer
to as syllables (see chapter four for further knowledge).
The term “pluri-segmental” is alternatively and widely referred to as “supra-segmental”.
The aspect(s) so described may as well be identified as non-segmental category. The concern
here is not on the sound segments, but on the characteristics of speech that go beyond single
segments: they extend their function over longer combinations like words, phrases and sentences.
The supra-segmental feature of the oral English features stress, rhythm and intonation. These are
also known as prosodic features, and as I have already mentioned, they take care of how
pronunciation operates at word and sentential levels. Chapters 5-7 have an answer on the
function of these features.

Vowels
Certain sounds are discovered to have no obstructions throughout the various processes
involved in their formation. This is to say (in other words) that there is always an open space
from the lungs to the mouth for the articulation and production of such sounds. No organ in the
body obstructs or blocks the passage of the sounds in anyway. You will understand more of this
when you pronounce the following sounds:
/e/ /i/
/a:/ /u:/
/ai/ /au/
/ei/ /iǝ/
Those sounds that are produced without blockage of the air are referred to as “vowels”.
We can simply and conveniently define the vowel as a sound unit that is pronounced with free
flow of the air movement as it begins from the lungs. Vowels basically exist in two groups:
monothong (also known as pure vowels), and diphthongs.
Monothongs
A monothong as indicated above is a pure vowel. It is the type that is pronounced without
change in quality. There is no glide or movement from one point into another as we see in other
kinds of vowels. To understand simply is that there is always a single element from the pure
vowels e.g. /i/, /e/, /æ/, /u/, /ɒ/, etc. It is when some of these elements are combined to form
particular sound units that we think of diphthongs. So, a monothong is a kind of vowel that is
represented by a single element with an unchanging quality. Some of the monthongs are
extended by two dots, simply to indicate that they require a longer pronunciation. It is with this
particular instance that we talk of the difference between short and long vowels.
The /i/ (sound): This is a short pure vowel that is realised in words of different spelling symbols
as it is seen in the following examples:
‘i' e.g. pit /pit/, sit, it, privacy, tilde, pin, fish
‘e’ e.g. pretty /priti/, cement, impetus, market, trumpet, hunted, English, executive,
basket, decided, excise, exclude, women, etc.
‘a’ e.g. village /viliʤ/ courage, senate, spinach, usage, etc.
‘ui’ e.g. guilt /gilt/, build, guild, guillotine, Guinness, guitar, etc.
‘y’ e.g. symbol /simbl/ lady, pyx, happy, dirty, pimpy, simply, etc.
‘ay’ as in Sunday, /sʌndi/, birthday, etc.
‘u’ as in minute /minit/ business, etc.
‘o’ as in women /wimin/

The /i:/ (sound): This is a long pure vowel, pronounced with spread lips. The two dots besides
the /i/ have a clear indication of its lengthy pronunciation. The /i:/ is contained in words under
the following spelling symbols.
‘e’ as in be /bi:/, gene, mete, scene, veto, thesis, theme, specie, etc.
‘i' as in police /pǝli:s/, machine, ski, vita, quinine, gabardine, etc.
‘ee’ as in need /ni:d/, sleep, tree, bee, see, speed, sweep, squeeze, sweet, wheel, feel, eel, fee,
peel, peep, etc.
‘ea’ as in read /ri:d/, heat, seat, leap, bead, speak, mean, squeal, breathe, treat, weak, tease,
weal, wean, zeal, etc.
‘ei’ as in seize /si:z/ etc.
‘ie’ as in mien /mi:n/, wield, yield, etc.
‘eo’ as in people /pi:pl/, etc.
‘oe’ as in foetus /fi:ǝs/, foetal, subpoena, etc.
‘ey’ as in key /ki:/, etc.
‘uay’ as in quay /ki:

The /e/ (sound): This is a short pure vowel. Like in the above, this sound is produced with spread
lips. The /e/ is commonly realised in the following spelling symbols:
‘a’ e.g. any /eni/, many, anybody, anyhow, anyway, etc.
‘e’ e.g. bell /bel/, bet, pet, pen, rent, belt, ten, men, leg, shell, then, fed, vex, etc.
‘ea’ e.g. breath /breθ/, breast, deaf, head, feather, leaven, meant, treasure, wealth, weapon,
weather, etc.
‘ai’ as in said /sed/, etc.
‘ay’ as in says /sez/
‘ie’ as in friend /frend/
‘ur’ as in bury /beri/
‘eo’ as in Geoffrey /ʤefri/, jeopardy /ʤepǝdi/, leopard /lepǝd/, etc.

The /æ/ (sound): This is also a pure vowel. It takes a short pronunciation and the lips are usually
spread in the process. The common spelling symbols for the /æ/ sound are:
‘a’ as in bank /bæŋk/, bat, hat, man, fad, wrap, shall, than, pan, ram, campus, action, fat, rat,
black, scan, rank, apple, random, battle, cap, fathom, /fæðǝm/, etc.
‘ai’ as in plait /plæt/, etc.

The /a:/ (sound): this seems to be the long version of the /æ/ as described above. In pronouncing
the sound, the lips are usually found in neutral position with fully opened jaw. It can be realised
in words with the following spelling symbols:
‘a’ as in bath /ba:θ/, pass, fast, ask, after, plant, rather, ranch, vase, answer, finale /fia:li/, etc.
‘ar’ as in car /ka:/, bark /ba:k/, carry /ka:ri/, arch /a:ʧ/, arm, ark, carton, carve, hard, yard,
farther /fa:ðǝ/
‘al’ as in palm /pa:m/, calm /ka:m/, calf /ka:f/, etc.
‘er’ as in clerk /kla:k/,etc.
‘ear’ as in heart /ha:t/, etc.
‘au’ as in laugh /la:f/, etc.

The /ɒ/ (sound): This is one of the monothongs, given a short pronunciation with rounded lips. It
is realized commonly in spelling symbols like the following:
‘a’ e.g. wash /wɒʃ/, want, quality, was, what, Watford, watt, wasp, watch /wɒʧ /, etc.
‘o’ as in dog /dɒg/, boss, bob, bottom, body, bond, bottle, cotton, cloth, clock, god, got, hot,
epoch, hollow, modern, modest, mock, mob, bother, honest, not, knock, pot, rock, shock,
sorry, off, prompt, provost, often, stop, swop, swat, lorry, doctor /dɒktǝ/, etc.
‘e’ as in rendezvous /rɒndivu:/ and rentier,
‘au’ as in because /bikɒz/
‘ou’ as in cough /kɒf/

The /ɔ:/ (sound): This is a long pure vowel, pronounced by setting the jaw between ‘half-close’
and ‘half-open’ position with rounded lips. Below are the noted common spelling symbols for
this sound:
‘al’ e.g. chalk/ ʧɔ:k/ balky /bɔ:ki/, ball, call, talk, walk-about, /wɔ:kǝbaut/, etc.
‘ar’ e.g. war /wɔ:/, warble, ward, warden, warfare, war-game, warhouse, war-like, warn,
warp, warship, wart, etc.

The /ʊ/ (sound): The /ʊ/ is one of the short vowels. In its pronunciation, the lips are rounded with
jaw in ‘close’ position. The following are the common spelling symbols for the sound segment:
‘o’ e.g. woman /wʊmǝn/, wolf wʊlf/, bosom,
‘u’ e.g. push /pʊʃ/, put, full, puss, butcher /bʊʧǝ/
‘oo’ e.g. good, /gʊd/, foot, look, book, hood, wood, soot, stood, cook /kʊk/, etc.
‘oul’, e.g. should /ʃʊd/, could, etc.
‘ou’ e.g. courier /kʊriǝ/
The /u:/ (Sound): This is the long version of the short /ʊ/. In its pronunciation also, are rounded
lips. The /u:/ is realised in different spellings as seen in the following:
‘o’ as in do /du:/ move, who, womb, lose, etc.
‘u’ as in rude /ru:d/, rule, nude, tube, cute, acute, flute, tune, plume, recluse, exclude,
refuse /rifju:z/, etc.
‘oo’ as in choose /ʧu:z/, food, fool, pool, hoot, cooled, too, roof, smooth, loose, boot, soothe,
woo, woof, whoop, zoo, booth, school /sku:l/ etc.
‘ou’ as in coup /ku:/, you, would, coupon /ku:pɒn/.
‘ue’ as in due /dju:/, rue, sue, venue, true /tru:/, blue /blu:/, etc.
‘ew’ as in chew /ʧu:/, few /fju:/, shrew /ʃru:/, hew /hju:/, etc.

Less often, the /u:/ sound can be pronounced in words like: shoe /ʃu:/, feud /fju:d/,
feudal /fju:dǝl/, view /vju:/ beauty/ bju:ti/.
The /ʌ/ (sound): This is also a short vowel. For its articulation, the top of the tongue is raised in
the central space within the mouth while the jaw is open with neutrally shaped lips. The /ʌ/ is
realised in many words containing the following spelling symbols:
‘o’ e.g. come /kʌm/, cover, done, Monday, some, brother, mother /mʌðǝ/, etc.
‘u’ e.g. cut /kʌt/, cup, gut, hut, just, hug, us, up /ʌp/
‘ou’ e.g. country /kʌntri/, cousin, young, couple, and double /dʌbl/, etc.
‘oo’ e.g. as in blood /blʌd/ and flood /flʌd/
‘oe’ e.g. as in does /dʌz/
The /ɜ:/ (sound): This is one of the monthongs, given a long pronunciation with lips in neutral
shape. It can be realised in words of different spelling symbols exemplified below:
‘er’ e.g. serve /sɜ:v/, servant, her, berserk, tertiary, merge, verse, berk, berth, universal,
university /ju:nivɜ:sǝti/, etc.
‘ir’ e.g. girl /gɜ:l/ , irk, circle, sir, shirt, stir, whirl, shirk, stirring, irksome, / ɜ:ksǝm/.
‘or’ e.g. work /wɜ:k/, word, world, worm, worth, worship, whorl, whortleberry /wɜ:tlberi/.
‘ur’ as in church /ʧɜ:ʧ/, curb, blur, burn, curse, diurnal, curtain, hurt, burble, bursar, murder,
murmur, nurse, nurture, purge, purse, purpose, surname, surplus, urn, urge, surface,
murk, turmoil, turn, Thursday /θɜ:zdei/, etc.
‘ear’ as in heard /hɜ:d/, earth, earn, early, yearn, year, search /sɜ:ʧ/, etc.
‘our’ e.g. journey, /ʤɜ:ni/, scourge, adjourn, courteous, courtesy, journalism / ʤɜ:nǝlizǝm/,
etc.

The /ǝ/ (sound): This is a short vowel, realised in different spelling symbols, in its pronunciation,
the top of the tongue is a bit taken backwards with the lips in neutral shape. The schwa, as the
vowel is called, is often referred to as the weak type: this is because, where it appears in a word,
the syllable that contains it is usually unstressed and in which case, its pronunciation takes a
reduced form. Consider the following words for example:
‘a’ e.g. about /ǝbaut/, again, above, apart, agenda, award, away, apostle, etc.
‘ar’ e.g. jeopardy /ʤepǝdi/, particular, bursar, dollar, vicar, regular, vinegar, steward,
familiar, peculiar, etc.
‘o’ e.g. object /ǝbʤekt/, occur, oppress, obstruct, occasion, tonight, welcome, posses,
weapon, contest, today, police, obedient, demon, havoc, etc.
‘or’ as in doctor /dɒktǝ/, terror, mirror, debtor, equator, author, monitor, factor, etc.
‘er’ e.g. father /fa:ðǝ/, mother, brother, sister, water, waiter, baker, perform, weather, etc.
‘re’ as in centre /sentǝ/ and metre /mitǝ/
‘ur’ as in Saturday /sætǝdei/ and surprise /sǝpraiz/
‘u’ as in campus /kæmpǝs/
‘y’ as in pyjamas /pǝʤa:mǝz/
‘el’ as in jewel /ʤu:ǝl/

Diphthongs
A diphthong is simply defined as a combination of two pure vowels. It is a sound
segment which is formed by two different sound units. In English, like any other language, it is
possible for a word to contain two distinct sounds in a position. Consider for instance the word –
sky /skai/. What appears after the ‘sk’ is a union of a & i which provides the /ai/ (sound).

Other such combinations are seen in the following arrangements:

e+i = /ei/ as in day /dei/
a+ʊ = /aʊ/ as in cow /kaʊ/
ǝ+ʊ = /ǝʊ/ as in goat /gǝʊt/
ɔ+i = /ɔi/ as in boy /bɔi/

ʊ+ǝ = /ʊǝ/ as in poor /pʊǝ/

i+ǝ = /iǝ/ as in hear /hiǝ/
e+ǝ = /eǝ/ as in hair /heǝ/

The /ai/ (sound): This diphthong is realised in words of different spelling symbols as is given
below:
‘i’ e.g. idle /aidl/, fine, ice, rise, file, stipend, cite, pipe, crime, dime, mine, time, white, write
/rait/, etc.
‘y’ e.g. fly /flai/, apply, awry, type, dry, tyrant, cry /krai/ etc.
‘ie’ e.g. vie /vai/, tie, tried, die, pie, cried /kraid/, etc.
‘igh’ e.g. fight /fait/, high, bright, fright, light, might, night, right /rait/, etc.
‘ei’ as in either /aiðǝ/ and neither /naiðǝ/
‘uy’ as in buy /bai/ and guy /gai/
‘ye’ as in bye /bai/
‘is’ as in isle /ail/ and Island /ailænd/
‘eigh’ as in height /hait/

The /ei/ (sound): The common spelling symbols for this are:
‘a’ e.g. page, /peiʤ/, age, basic, basin, cake, tale, date, case, tame, whale, trade, lame, shave,
alien, taste, apex, fatal, cage, comrade, ache, gave, hale, ale, same, tape, shake /ʃeik /, etc.
‘e’ e.g. regime /reiƷi:m/ and cliché /kliʃei/
‘ei’ e.g. rein /rein/
‘ee’ e.g. toupee /tu:pei/ an puree /pjʊǝrei/
‘ay’ e.g. clay /klei/, pay, tray, bay, spray, stray, sway /swei/, etc.
‘ey’ e.g. they /ðei/, okey, prey /prei/
‘ea’ e.g. break /breik/ and great /greit/
‘eigh’ e.g. neighbour /neibǝ/, weight, neigh /nei/
‘et’ e.g. ballet, /bælei/ and chalet /ʃælei/
‘au’ e.g. gauge /geiʤ/

The /au/ (sound): This diphthong is pronounced in the following words:

‘ou’ e.g. house /haʊs/, about, foul, counsel, aloud, announce, proud, round, found, voucher,
bounce, sound, mount, mouth, trousers, count, account /ǝkaʊnt/, etc.
‘ow’ e.g. vow /vaʊ/ now, bowel, dowry, fowl, growl, how, row, power, down, tower, cow
/kaʊ/, etc.
‘ough’ e.g. plough /plaʊ/

The /ɔi/ (sound): The following provides the spelling symbols for this sound:
‘oi’ e.g. join, /ʤɔin/ boil, poison, anoint, toil, foil, moist, loiter, point, adjoin, turmoil, soil,
void, devoid. Voice /vɔis/, etc.
‘oy’ e.g. boy, /bɔi/ joy, enjoy, coy, doyen, voyage, annoy, toy /tɔi/.
The / ǝʊ/ (sound): This is contained in words with the following letters:
‘o’ e.g. go /gǝʊ/, home /hǝʊm/, old, fold, open, no, bonus, focus, both, broke, bolt, host,
local, locate, robe, notion, prone, stone, stole, hold, total, hole, okay, etc.
‘oa’ e.g. oath /ǝʊθ/, boast, boat, foam, goal, goat, load, moan, road, soak, soap, toad, etc.
‘oe; e.g. hoe /hǝʊ/, toe /tǝʊ/ and woe
‘ou’ e.g. soul,
‘ough’ e.g. dough. /dǝʊ/ and though /ðǝʊ/
‘ow’ e.g. bow /bǝʊ/ (weapon), borrow /bɒrǝʊ/, throw, hollow, grow, low, and know, etc.

The /ʊǝ/ (sound): The common letters that represent this sound are:
‘u’ as it is contained in fury /fjʊǝri/. Jury, /ʤʊǝri/, bureau, during, curious, mural, extra-
mural, insurance, security, purist, purity, etc.
‘ur’ like in: sure /ʃʊǝ/, cure /kjʊǝ/, pure, immure, inure, tenure, lure, etc.
‘our’ as in tour /tʊǝ/, bourgeois /bʊǝƷwa:/ and goured /gʊǝd/, etc.
‘oor’ like in moor, /mʊǝ/ also transcribe as /mɔ:/ and poor /pʊǝ/ (pronounced also as /pɔ:/, etc.

The /iǝ/ (sound): Just like in the other cases, this sound is orthographically represented in
different ways as it is presented below:
‘ea’ as in idea /aidiǝ/ and real /riǝl/
‘ear’ e.g ear /iǝ/, hear /hiǝ/, bearded, clear, fear, dear, near, rear, tear, sear, shear, spear, etc.
‘ere’ as in here /hiǝ/, mere /miǝ/, sphere /sfiǝ/.
‘eer’ like in cheer /ʧiǝ/, sheer /ʃiǝ/, steer, jeer, peer, and deer, etc.
‘eir’ as in weir /wiǝ/ weird /wiǝd/, and weirdo /wiǝdǝʊ/
‘io’ as in idiom /idiǝm/, scorpion /skɔ:piǝn/ and ameliorate, etc.
‘e’ like in experience /ikspiǝriǝns/, serious /siǝriǝs/ and series /siǝriz/. Consider also words
like:
Junior /ʤu:niǝ/, trivial /triviǝl/, and courtiers /kɜtiǝs/.

The /eǝ/(sound): This diphthong is contained in many words as exemplified in the following:
‘air’ as in Air /eǝ/, hair /heǝ/, chair /ʧeǝ/, etc.
‘ear’ as in bear /beǝ/, wear, tear (verb), care, fare, scare, dare, pare, rare, share, snare, ware,
etc.
‘ere’ as in there /ðeǝ/, where /weǝ/, etc.
‘a’ as in parent /peǝrǝnt/, vary, mayor, etc.
‘ar’ as in scarce /skeǝs/, etc.

Consonants
These are different kinds of sound units. Unlike the vowels, consonants are pronounced
without free flow of air. A consonantal sound as it moves from lungs must encounter some
obstructions, either partially or completely, before its final realisation in the bucal cavity.
Attempt for instance, the pronunciation of /f/, /b/, /k/, /s/, and /t/. In the correct pronunciation of
these consonants, one must experience some stops, which may be absolute or half-way. A
consonant can be defined therefore, as a unit of sound that is produced with a blockage in the air
movement.
Twenty-four (24) consonants exist and they are divided into voiced and unvoiced or
voiceless units. This clearly means that some consonants are voiceless while some are voiced. In
the following arrangements, the sounds are well separated in line with the two divisions:

Unvoiced voiced
/k/ /g/
/p/ /b/
/t/ /d/
/f/ /v/
/s/ /z/
/ʃ/ /Ʒ/
/θ/ /ð/
/ʧ/ /ʤ/
/m/
/n/
/ŋ/
/l/
/r/
/j/
 /w/
/h/
The so-called unvoiced sounds are produced without vibration of the vocal cords. In the
pronunciation of the sounds, the thin narrow parts of tissue in the throat do not shake to produce
heavy utterances like in the voiced sounds. In very simple terms, the voiceless sounds are light in
pronunciation, while the voiced sound are pronounced with a heavy voice; the type that is
commonly talked of as being produced with vibration of the vocal cords.

The Consonants in Words

It is not unimportant for the students to identify the sound units in isolation. It is however
more important for them to identify and be able to pronounce the sounds correctly as they are
contained in words. Each of the sounds is well described therefore, in the following arrangement
by providing a number of words as examples with common spelling symbols.

The /p/ (sound): This is referred to as a bilabial plosive. It is so called because its articulation
involves both the lower and upper lips (bilabial), and it is formed and pronounced in a manner
that the lips are held together, accompanied by a sudden release of the air. Usually, the /p/ is
pronounced where letter ‘p’ appears. E.g. play /plei/, point, park, peep, tap, cap /kæp/, etc. the
letter ‘p’ can be double to produce the same sound as in appear /ǝpiǝ/, applaud /ǝplɔ:d/ and
application /æplikeiʃn/. Unusually, words like hiccup /hikʌp/ and shepherd /ʃepǝd/ can be seen.
It is important to keep in mind that the /p/ is not pronounced in many case when letter /p/
is followed by ‘s’, ‘n’, or ‘t’ especially at the starting position of words. Consider the following
for example:

Psalm, pronounced as /sa:m/

Pseudo, realised as /su:dǝʊ/
Psychology, realised as /saikɒlǝʤi/
Corps as /kɔ:/
Pneumonia /nju:mǝʊniǝ/
Pneumatic /nju:mætik/
Ptarmigan /ta:migǝn/
Pterodactyl /terǝdæktil/
Receipt /risi:t/, etc.

The /b/ (sound): This is also called a bilabial plosive, owing to the reason I have given in the
description of /p/. Just as I have indicated in a simple table above, the /p/ is different from the /b/
for while the former is voiceless, the latter is voiced.
The /b/ sound is simply represented by letter ‘b’ as in book /bʊk/ and bag /bæg/. The
sound is however, not to be pronounced in many cases where the letter ‘b’ appears after a
bilabial nasal /m/ especially at the end position of a word. This is clearly exemplified in the
following words as they appear along with their correct pronunciation:
Aplomb /ǝplɒm/
Bomb /bɒm/
Comb /kǝʊm/
Dumb /dʌm/
Limb /lim/
Plumb /plʌm/
Plumber /plʌmǝ/
Tomb /tu:m/
When the letter ‘b’ is immediately followed by ‘t’, it is also required in most cases to be
silent. The following words are good examples:
Debt /det/
Debtor /detǝ/
Doubtful /daʊfl/
Subtle /sʌtl/
Doubt /daʊt/
Subtlety /sʌtlti/

The /t/: The /t/ (sound) is represented by a number of spelling symbols as it is found in the
following examples:
Letter ‘t’ is represented in tea /ti:/, tin /tin/, time /taim/, take /teik/, rat /ræt/, eat /i:t/, etc.
‘tt’ as in letter /letǝ/, lettuce /letis/, matter /mætǝ/ and platter /plætǝ/, etc.
‘d’ e.g. kicked /kikt/, looked /lʊkt/, kissed /kist/, washed /wɒʃt/ watched /wɒʧt/, stopped
/stɒpt/, etc.
‘th’ as in thali /ta:li/ and thyme /taim/.
Keep in mind that /t/ is not pronounced in words which end in ‘ften’, ‘stle’, and ‘sten’.
Consider for instance, the correct pronunciation of these words:
Often /ɒfn/
Soften /sɒfn/
Apostle /ǝpɒsl/
Bustle /bʌsl/
Castle /ka:sl/
Epistle /ipisl/
Nestle /nesl/
Chasten /ʧeisn/
Christen /krisn/
Fasten /fa:sn/
Hasten /heisn/
Listen /lisn/
See also the silent /t/ in Christmas /krismǝs/

The /d/ (sound): This sound is articulated in the same manner and place as the /t/ (sound). The
difference between the two is just identified in state of the glottis, where /d/ is contrarily
described as a voiced sound. The voiced alveolar stop /d/ is simply represented by letter ‘d’ as in
dip /dip/, deep /di:p/, down /daʊn/, mad /mæd/ dog /dɒg/, wound, /wu:nd/, god /gɒd/, etc. except
in a word like handkerchief /hæŋkǝʧif/, or handsome /hænsǝm/ where the /d/ remains
unpronounced. At best, the /d/ can be changed into /ʤ/ in a few words like individual
/indiviʤʊǝl/, and procedure /prǝsi:ʤǝ/.

The /k/: The /k/ sound is contained in many words of different spellings as it is shown below:
‘c’ or ‘cc’ e.g. cap /kæp/, cup /kʌp/, come /kʌm/ economics /i:kǝnɒmiks/, account /ǝkaʊnt/,
occasion /ǝkeiƷn/, accustom /ǝkʌstǝm/, etc.
‘k’ e.g. keep /ki:p/, king /kiŋ/, think /θiŋk/, kinky /kiŋki/, kind /kaind/, skull /skʌl/,
etc.
‘q’ queen /kwi:n/, unique /jʊni:k/, sequel /si:kwǝl/, sequence /si:kwǝns/, quick /kwik/,
question /kwestʃn/, etc.
‘ch’ chameleon /kǝmi:liǝn/, orchestra /ɒkistrǝ/, character /kærǝktǝ/, orchid /ɒkid/,
chemistry /kemistri/, epoch /i:pɒk/, etc.
‘ck’ quick /kwik/, attack /ǝtæk/, back /bæk/, pick /pik/, clock /klɒk/, clockwork
/klɒkwɜ:k/, etc.

Students should always remember that the /k/ is not pronounced when it is immediately
followed by an ‘n’ as in the cases of:
Know /nǝʊ/
Knowledge /nɒliʤ/
Knife /naif/
Kneel /ni:l/
Knit /nit/
Knot /nɒt/
Knock /nɒk/, etc.

The /g/ (sound): The manner and place of articulation for this sound is the same as /k/, hence, it
is also referred to as a velar plosive (stop). The /g/ is however a voiced sound; a feature that
distinguishes it from the /k/, which is well described as unvoiced.
The spelling symbols for the /g/ sound are:
‘g’ e.g. go /gǝʊ/, goat /gǝʊt/, gigot /ʤigǝt/, gigolo, ignore, etc.
‘gg’ e.g. giggle /gigl/, egg, begged, bagged, etc.
‘gh’ e.g. ghagra /gʌgra:/, gharial /gæria:l/, ghat, ghee, gherkin, ghetto, ghost, ghoul, aghast,
etc.

The ‘g’ remains silent when it appears before an ‘n’ especially at the beginning or end of
words, and in a few cases before ‘h’ and ‘m’. The following words are good examples:
Sign /sain/
Reign /rein/
Gnash /næʃ/
Gnarly /na:li/
Gnomic /nǝʊmik/
Gnocchi /njɒki/
Sigh /sai/
High /hai/
Paradigm /pærǝdaim/
Diaphragm /daiǝfræm/

The /f/ (sound): Letters ‘f’ and ‘ph’ are the common and well known symbols for the sound. In a
few cases, ‘gh’ can also produce /f/ (sound). The following arrangement provides good
examples:
‘gh’ ‘ph’ ‘f’ or ‘ff’
Cough /kɒf/ phone /fǝʊn/ food /fu:d/
Enough /inʌf/ phase /feiz/ file /fail/
Laugh /la:f/ phrase /freiz/ office /ɒfis/
Rough, /rʌf/ emphasis /emfǝsis/ off /ɒf/
Roughage /rʌfiʤ/ euphemism /ju:fǝmizǝm/ roof /ru:f/
Tough, /tʌf/ graph /gra:f/ prefer /prifɜ:/

The /v/ (sound): Letter ‘v’ stands for the /v/ sound, except in the word ‘of’ (pronounced as /ɒv/,
where letter ‘f’ represents the /v/. Not contained in English dictionary though, the word
‘Stephen’ is commonly used also with ‘ph’ producing the /v/ sound.

The /θ/ (sound): It is the combination of letter ‘t’ and ‘h’ that brings out this sound. The sound is
realised in a good number of words as exemplified below:

Thank /θæŋk/ author /ɔ:θǝ/

Thin /θin/ healthful /heθfl/
Throw /θrǝʊ/ method /meθǝd/
Third /θɜ:d/ cloth /klɒθ/
Theory /θiǝri/ north /nɔ:θ/
Anthem /ænθǝm/ oath /ǝʊθ/
Athlete /æθli:t/ teeth /ti:θ/
Wealth /welθ/
and many other words.

The /ð/ (sound): The /ð/ is also represented by ‘th’ in spellings. It is a sound that many learners
of English mistake for /d/ which is only represented by letter ‘d’. The voiced dental fricative is
realised in many English words as it is found in the following examples:
This /ðis/
That /ðæt/
Those /ðǝʊz/
Without /wiðaʊt/
Father /fa:ðǝ/
Mother /mʌðǝ/
Brother /brʌðǝ/
Breathe /bri:ð/
Bathe /beið/
Clothe /klǝʊð, etc.

The /s/ (sound): Letters ‘s’, ‘sc’, ‘x’, and ‘c’ produce this sound as in the following examples:
‘s’ ‘c’
See /si:/ face /feis/
Seat /si:t/ circle /sɜ:kl/
Sister /sistǝ/ process / /
Decision / /
‘sc’
Science / /
Scissors / /
Scent / /
and many other words.

The /z/ (sound): The spelling symbols for this sound are ‘x’, ‘s’, and ‘z’ as it is seen in the
following examples:
Exaggeration /igzæʤǝreiʃn/
Examination /igzæmineiʃn/
Exalt /igzɔ:lt/
Example /igzæmpl/
Position /pǝziʃn/
President /prezidǝnt/
Reason /ri:zn/
News /nju:z/
Amaze /ǝmeiz/
Zeal /zi:l/
Zoo /zu:/
Amazon /æmǝzǝn/
Students are advised to note the phonological rule that says, if ‘s’ immediately follows a
voiced sound, the ‘s’ produces the /z/ (sound). Considering the following words for example,
keeping on mind that apart from the voiced consonants, all voiced are said to be voiced.
Cabs /kæbz/
Cards /ka:dz/
Dogs /dɒgz/
Moves /mu:vz/
Is /iz/
Has /hæz/
Boys /bɔiz/
Hens /henz/
Pigs /pigz/
Kings /kiŋz/
The /ʃ/ (sound): A number of letters produce the /ʃ/ sound as it is exemplified in the following
arrangement:
‘sh’ ‘ch’
e.g. shirt /ʃɜ:t/ chef /ʃef/
shoe /ʃu:/ chagrin /ʃa:grin/
shock /ʃɒk/ chalet /ʃa:lei/
rush brochure
fashion charlatan
polish cloche
dish douche
cash chauvinism
wish parachute
wash machine
fish

‘s’ ‘t’ ‘c’

Sugar /ʃʊgǝ/ nation /neiʃn/ ancient
Sure /ʃʊǝ/ ovation /ǝʊveiʃn/ special
Pension partial ocean
Censure essential voracious
Insurance
Surety

‘ss’ ‘sc’ ‘sch’

Mission /miʃn/ fascia schedule
Pressure fascism schlep
Passion conscious schlock
Luscious schmo
Schnapps
Schmuck
Schmook
 Schwa /ʃwa:/
‘x’ as in luxury /lʌkʃǝri/

The /Ʒ/ (sound): Letters ‘g’, ‘s’, and ‘z’ produce the /Ʒ/ (sound) in many words as it is seen
below:
‘g’ ‘s’ ‘z’
e.g garage /gæra:Ʒ/ conclusion /kǝnklu:Ʒn/ azure /æƷǝ/
beige confusion seizure
bourgeois decision
genre erosion
gigue leisure
gigolo occasion
prestige pleasure
regime casual
gilet measure
rouge provision
camouflage usual

The /h/ (sound): Letter ‘h’ produces the /h/ (sound). In addition to this, is a combination of ‘w’
and ‘h’ (i.e. wh) also represents this particular sound in some cases. Consider the following
words for example:

‘h’ ‘wh’
e.g. he /hi:/ who /hu:/
hides /haidz/ whole /hǝʊl/
here whom
behind whose
hurry whoring
ahead whore
inhabitants
The students of English should note the following about the voiced glottal fricative:
(a). The /h/ is not realised at the end of a word.
(b). the letter ‘h’ is silent (not pronounced with /h/) in many words like the following:
exhaustive /igzɔ:stiv/
exhibition /eksibiʃn/
ghost /gǝʊst/
aghast /ǝga:st/
honour /ɒnǝ/
hour /aʊǝ/
heir /eǝ/
vehicle /viǝkl/
The /ʧ/ (sound): It is the common knowledge that when letter ‘t’ is followed by ‘ure’ in a word,
the ‘t’ produces the /ʧ/ sound, just like when it is followed by ‘ual’ and ‘uate’. Below are words
as good examples:
Creature /kri:ʧǝ/
Culture /kʌlʧǝ/
Gesture
Mature
Nature
Actual
Perpetual
Punctual
Ritual
Habitual
Accentuate
Perpetuate
Punctuate
Situate
Pronounce those selected words, paying attention to the underlined letters. What they
give you is the /ʧ/ sound as has been indicated earlier. ‘t’ in the following words produce the
same sound:
Christian /krisʧǝn/
Question /kwesʧǝn/
Fortune
Virtue
Digestion
Righteous
Congratulation
Apart from letter ‘t’, ‘ch’ and ‘tch’ combinations can also produce the /ʧ/ (sound) as in the
following examples:
Church /ʧɜ:ʧ/ batch /bæʧ/
Chief catch
Chore hatch
Arch match
Attach fetch
Coach patch
March switch
Watch, etc.

The /ʤ/ (sound): The /ʤ/ sound is realised in different spelling symbols as it is illustrated below:

‘j’ ‘g’
e.g. just /ʤʌst/ gin /ʤin/
join margin
jest ginger
job general
enjoy gist
injury urgent
injection fragile
object forge
jump change
rejuvenate wage, etc.
 ‘d’ ‘dg’
e.g. gradual /græʤʊǝ/ judge /ʤʌʤ/
graduate badge
individual bodge
procedure edge
soldier bridge
education ridge
wedge, etc.
You may also consider the ‘dj’ in the words adjourn /ǝʤɜ:n/, adjust / /, and
adjudge and the variation in sandwich in which the ‘ch’ can also produce the /ʤ/ (sound).

The /l/ (sound): Attempt the pronunciation of the following words:

Lack, law, blame, claim, glad, ball, jail, fool, full, etc.
It is nothing to confuse you from the above examples that the letter ‘l’ represents the /l/
sound. It is important to note however, that the ‘l’ remains unpronounced in words like, calm
/ka:m/, palm /pa:m/, could /ku:d/ should /ʃu:d/, walk /wɔ:k/, yolk /jǝʊk/, etc.
Students are advised to make use of good dictionaries to get the correct pronunciation of
words.

The /r/ (sound): The /r/ is realised where letter ‘r’ or double ‘r’ appears as in the following
words:
Run /rʌn/
Arrest / /
Across / /
Robber / /
Road / /
Rush / /
Prison / /
Crime / /
Note that the /r/ is not usually pronounced at the end of words and in most cases where the letter
‘r’ is immediately followed by a consonant sound (except in American English) consider the
following words as example:
Car /ka:/
Card /ka:d/
Art /a:t/
After /a:ftǝ/
Father /fa:ðǝ/, etc.
It is very clear that in pronunciation of the above words, the /r/ is left unpronounced (see
their transcription and many other related words).

The Nasals
The word – ‘nasal’ is an adjective, which is used to describe anything that is connected
with the nose. The meaning in oral English is not different from this; sounds which are produced
through the nose are described as nasals. The dictionary simply defines nasal in respect of
phonetics as the speech sounds produced by sending a stream of air through the nose.
/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/ are the three nasal consonants in English. The first and second nasals are
simply represented by letter ‘m’ and ‘n’ respectively as it is found in the following examples:

/m/
Man /mæn/
Woman /wʊmæn/
Maid /meid/
Come /kʌm/
Home /hǝʊm/
Common /kɒmǝn/
/n/
Nose /nǝʊz/
Line /lain/
Tin /tin/
Account /ǝkaʊnt/
Name /neim/
Sense /sens/

Note that ‘n’ does not produce /n/ (i.e. it is silent) in the end of a word when it follows ‘m’. This
is exemplified in the words below:
Column /kɒlǝm/
Damn /dæm/
Hymn /him/
Condemn /kǝndem/, etc.
/ŋ/
This third nasal is not without a condition. It is the letter ‘n’ that usually produces the /ŋ/, but this
depends on the sound that follows immediately after the letter. Especially, it is noted that if the
‘n’ precedes a velar plosive (/k/ or /g/), the ‘n’ is usually realised as /ŋ/. Take the following
words as examples:
Bank /bæŋk/
Thank /θæŋk/
Think /θiŋk/
Trunk /trʌŋk/
Hang /hæŋ/
Hanger /hæŋǝ/
Tongue /tʌŋ/
King /kiŋ/
Kinky /kiŋki/
Concrete /kɒŋkri:t/
Concubine /kɒŋkju:bain/, etc.

Note that the letter ‘c’ in the last two words produced the /k/ sound, and that is why the
preceding ‘n’ turns out the /ŋ/ sound).
Note also that letter ‘g’ in many cases provides a different sound from the /g/, and the
preceding ‘n’ in such a case is /n/ and /ŋ/. See the difference in the following contras:
 /n/ /ŋ/
Change /ʧeinʤ/ gang /gæŋ/
Hinge /hinʤ/ diphthong /difθɒŋ/
Range /reinʤ/ congress /kɒŋgres/
Engine /enʤin/ wrong /rɒŋ/
Revenge /rivenʤ/ English /iŋgliʃ/

Semi-consonants
‘Semi’ is a morpheme that simply suggests ‘half’ or ‘partly’. It is attached to a noun to
show that such a noun does not exist in full; rather, it is half the name in existence. A semi-
consonant is therefore, partly known to have the quality of consonant. It sounds however, like a
vowel, which clearly indicates that it also possesses the qualities of a vowel sound. That this
particular sound unit shares the qualities of both vowel and consonant, it is either referred to as a
semi-vowel or semi-consonant.
Under this group are two sounds, identified as /w/ and /j/. The two phonemes are said to
function as consonants because, the flow of air in their pronunciation is not as free as in vowels:
yet there are no clear features of articulation in them: particularly, the manner in which they are
formed is not noticeable. What you will always observe is that the vowel that follows any of
these sounds determines the position of the tongue in pronouncing the given word. In
pronouncing the word ‘woman’ for instance, the /w/ sound takes the shape of /ʊ/ sound, since the
letter follows the former in sequence. Note the transcription of the word as /wʊmæn/. Many
more examples would be seen in the specific description of the semivowels.

The /w/ (sound): Apart from the above consideration, this sound segment is also known as a
‘voiced bilabial’. The word – bilabial, like has been explained in /p/ sound, indicates the coming
together of the two lips, and this seems to be position of the /w/ (sound). The lips-contact is
however not to be compared to the other bilabials (/p/, /b/, and /m/).
The /w/ resembles the /u:/ sound in that they are both pronounced with the lips in rounded
shape. The spelling symbols for this sound are ‘w’, ‘o’, ‘u’, and ‘wh’. See the underlined letters
in the following words:
Win /win/, wine /wain/, twice /twais/
Choir /kwaiǝ/ one /wʌn/ once /wʌns/
Quiet queen suite
Language suede question
What When Where
Whip White Why, etc.

The /j/ (sound): The /j/ is said to resemble /i:/ because the lips are usually spread in the
pronunciation of both.
‘y’ is the most famous symbol for the /j/ sound, but of course not when it occupies the
end position of a word. Specifically, when letter ‘y’ begins a word, it is pronounced as /j/.
Consider the following words for example:

You /ju:/
Youngish /jʌŋiʃ/
Year /jeǝ/
Yoke /jǝʊk/
Yes /jes/
and all other words with same beginning, except in:
Ylang-ylang /i:læŋi:læŋ/
Ytterbium /itɜ:biǝm/
Yttrium /itriǝm/
The letter ‘y’ may also produce the sound in the middle of a word as in: ‘lawyer’ transcribed as
/lɔ:jǝ/.
Other common spelling for the /j/ (sound) are ‘u’ and ‘ew’ as in the following examples:

Union /ju:niǝn/ few /fju:/

Unite hew
Refuse dew
Huge new
Human skew
University stew, etc.

Note also the marked letters in the following words:

Europe
Suit
Queue
Beauty
Feud
View
Argue

It is worth emphasising that the semi-consonants are never realised at the end of words.
This is simply to tell you that on no account should you think of /w/ or /j/ at the end of words.
Always remember that the sounds are not to be seen as letters ‘w’ and ‘j’.