Chapter 6 Structural Steel Contents

6.0 Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

6.0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.0.2 Special Requirements for Steel Bridge Rehabilitation or Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.0.3 Retrofit of Low Vertical Clearance Truss Portal and Sway Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.1 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.1.1 Codes, Specification, and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.1.2 WSDOT Steel Bridge Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
6.1.3 Preliminary Girder Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.1.4 Estimating Structural Steel Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.1.5 Bridge Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.1.6 Plate Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.1.7 Girder Segment Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.1.8 Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
6.1.9 Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
6.1.9.A ASTM F 3125 GR A325 & GR F1852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.1.9.B ASTM A449 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.1.9.C F1554 – Grade 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.1.9.D ASTM F 3125 GR A490 & GR F2280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.1.9.E A354–Grade BD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.1.10 Bending Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.2 Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
6.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
6.2.2 I-Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
6.2.3 Tub or Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
6.2.4 Nonredundant Steel Tension Members, Redundancy, and Fracture Control . . . . . . 6-17
6.3 Design of I-Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.3.1 Limit States for AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.3.2 Composite Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.3.3 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
6.3.4 Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
6.3.5 Transverse Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
6.3.6 Longitudinal Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
6.3.7 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
6.3.8 Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
6.3.9 Bottom Laterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
6.3.10 Bolted Field Splice for Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-26
6.3.11 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-27
6.3.12 Bridge Deck Placement Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29

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6.3.13 Bridge Bearings for Steel Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29

6.3.14 Surface Roughness and Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30
6.3.15 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-31
6.3.16 Shop Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32
6.4 Plan Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-34
6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-34
6.4.2 Structural Steel Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-34
6.4.3 Framing Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-34
6.4.4 Girder Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-34
6.4.5 Typical Girder Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-35
6.4.6 Cross Frame Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-35
6.4.7 Camber Diagram and Bearing Stiffener Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-36
6.4.8 Bridge Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-36
6.4.9 Handrail Details, Inspection Lighting, and Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-36
6.4.10 Box Girder Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-37
6.5 Shop Plan Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-39
6.6 Painting of Existing Steel Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-40
6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-40
6.6.2 Vertical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-41
6.6.3 Horizontal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-42
6.6.4 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-44
6.6.4.A Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-44
6.6.4.B Moveable Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-44
6.6.4.C Traffic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-45
6.6.4.D Review of Construction Submittals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-45
6.6.4.E Structural Steel Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-45
6.6.5 Quantities and Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-46
6.7 Corrosion of Steel Foundations and Buried Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-47
6.7.1 Corrosion of Steel Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-47
6.7.2 Corrosion and Abrasion of Metal Buried Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48
6.7.2.A Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-49
6.7.2.B Steel Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-49
6.7.2.C Aluminum Alloy Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-50
6.7.2.D Alternative Coatings and Mitigation for De-icing Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52
6.7.2.E Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52
6.8 Bridge Standard Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-54
6.99 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-55

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

6.0 Structural Steel

6.0.1 Introduction
This chapter primarily covers design and construction of steel plate and box girder bridge
superstructures. Because of their limited application, other types of steel superstructures
(truss, arch, cable stayed, suspension, etc.) are not addressed except as it relates to retrofit
of truss sway and portal frames and for painting of existing steel trusses.
Plate girder bridges are commonly used for river crossings and curved interchange
ramps. Typical span lengths range from 150 to 300 feet. Steel girders are also being used
where limited vertical clearance requires shallow superstructure depth. They may be set
over busy highway lanes with a minimum of disruption and falsework, similar to precast
concrete elements. Longitudinal launching of steel framing and transverse rolling of
completed steel structures has been done successfully.
English units are the current standard for detailing. Widening or rehabilitation plan units
should be consistent with the original.

6.0.2 Special Requirements for Steel Bridge Rehabilitation or Modification

As part of steel bridge rehabilitation or modification, calculations shall be made to
demonstrate the adequacy of existing members and connections, with special attention
given to nonredundant steel tension members (NSTMs - previously known as fracture
critical) or components such as truss gusset plates. When structural modifications or
other alterations result in significant changes in stress level, deficiencies shall also be
corrected. A thorough survey of impacted components shall be made to determine
section loss due to corrosion or prior modification.

6.0.3 Retrofit of Low Vertical Clearance Truss Portal and Sway Members
A WSDOT internal study and subsequent report titled “Low Vertical Clearance Truss
Bridges: Risk Assessment and Retrofit Mitigation Study” completed in November, 2017
identifies all the trusses on the WSDOT inventory with vertical clearances less than the
current minimum of 16’-6”. The report prioritizes the over 60 trusses with substandard
vertical clearance for potential retrofit and provides scoping level project cost estimates.
These estimates should be reviewed by a Specification and Estimate Engineer to account
for increased costs since the date the report was completed. The goal is to eventually
procure a funding source to gradually begin to retrofit the most vulnerable structures that
have the highest risk of being struck with an over-height vehicle causing damage to the
structure. Previous over-height vehicle impacts have caused damage ranging from minor
distortion of members to as severe as a total collapse similar to the SR 5/712 Skagit River
Bridge in 2013.
When through-truss type structures are programed for maintenance, painting,
structural retrofit, or barrier/railing rehabilitation projects, the designer should reference
the previously mentioned report to determine if the structure is a high priority for
consideration of a portal and/or sway raising retrofit. If the structure is in the Priority
Group 1 or 2 categories, inquiries should be made with the Region Project Office, the
Bridge Asset Management Engineer, and the Steel Specialist to determine if a portal and/
or sway retrofit should be added to the project.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

Most existing through-truss structures have portal and sway members that form a
parabolic shape, where the vertical clearance at the centerline of the bridge is higher
than at the left and right truss lines where the portals and sways connect to the main
truss members. When a portal and/or sway retrofit is to be performed, a typical retrofit
is to remove the entire parabolic portal or sway member, modify the secondary members
attached to the portal or sway, and install a new beam with a straight horizontal profile.
Alternatively, and because the portal or sway members often have sufficient clearance for
a portion of the length, the members can be cut at the 16’-6” height and a short member
added to each side in a straight horizontal profile. Examples of each one of these retrofit
schemes is shown in Figures 6.0.3-1 and 6.0.3-2, respectively.

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

Figure 6.0.3-1 Complete Portal Replacement

¢ BRIDGE

MODIFY EXISTING
BRACING (TYP.)

DEFICIENT REMOVE EXISTING SWAY OR

VERTICAL PORTAL FRAME LOWER MEMBER
CLEARANCE TOP OF CONCRETE DECK

EXISTING CONDTION

¢ BRIDGE

NEW BRACE
CONNECTIONS
(TYP.)
VERT. CLR.

NEW SWAY OR PORTAL

16'-6" MIN.

FRAME LOWER MEMBER

TOP OF CONCRETE DECK

RETROFIT CONDITION

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

Figure 6.0.3-2 Partial Portal Replacement

¢ BRIDGE
EXISTING PORTAL
OR SWAY BEAM

MIN. VERT. CLR.

16'-6"
REMOVE PARTIAL REMOVE PARTIAL
PORTAL OR SWAY PORTAL OR SWAY

TOP OF CONCRETE DECK

EXISTING CONDITION

¢ BRIDGE
EXISTING PORTAL
OR SWAY BEAM
MIN. VERT. CLR.

MODIFIED PORTAL
16'-6"

OR SWAY MEMBER

TOP OF CONCRETE DECK

RETROFIT CONDITION

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

When a portal raising retrofit is being performed, the designer will need to check the
end posts on the truss to determine if strengthening of these highly loaded compression
members is required. The horizontal portal member acts as a brace point for the end post.
The capacity of the member is reduced due to an increase in the unbraced length. When
the portal is raised, the distance from the bottom chord connection point to the portal
horizontal connection to the end post is increased, thus increasing the unbraced length.
In most instances, the end posts are strengthened by adding side plates to the member.
These are typically bolted on, but have also been field welded in the past.
A relatively straight forward analysis method for determining the end post retrofit needs
is to analyze the existing portal frame with a 2-D model in its existing condition. A unit
load can be applied to the upper panel point of the portal frame and a displacement
determined. The same analysis is then performed with the portal horizontal member
in its raised condition. The section of the end post can be increased by adding steel
plate until the deflections for the applied load are the same. The applied load can be
the actual calculated lateral wind or seismic load or just a nominal load. This is a relative
stiffness comparison analysis so the exact load is not critical. In most cases the boundary
conditions for the bottom of the end post can be considered pinned. A more rigorous 3-D
analysis with actual wind and seismic loads can always be performed, especially if 3-D
models are available due to other retrofit needs. In addition to the lateral analysis of the
end posts, the compressive capacity shall also be analyzed and verified to be sufficient
in the final condition and during any construction conditions. The construction condition
is particularly important if live load will remain on the structure while the existing portal
is removed. In this case the unbraced length will be at its longest length (panel point to
panel point) and needs to be analyzed to be structurally sufficient during the interim
construction conditions. Temporary horizontal bracing has been utilized in the past to
provide a temporary brace point on the end post after the existing portal is removed and
prior to installation of the new.
The designer should also consider how many portal and/or sway members can be worked
on at the same time during construction. In most cases, traffic will still be on the structure
during the retrofit project. The stability of the truss must be maintained at all times.
Previous retrofit projects determined that requiring every other sway member to remain
in place during a retrofit project was sufficient. A 3-D model will likely be required to
determine the number of portal and sway members that can be removed at one time.
The State Bridge and Structures Architect and the Region Project Office shall also be
consulted during any portal and sway raising projects. Many of the existing trusses are old
enough to be on the historic register and changing any visual appearance of the structure
may require additional permits or approvals.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

6.1 Design Considerations

6.1.1 Codes, Specification, and Standards
Steel highway bridges shall be designed to the following codes and specifications:
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (LRFD-BDS), latest edition
• AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design (LRFD-SGS)
• ANSI/AWS A2.4-98 Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and
Nondestructive Examination
The following codes and specifications shall govern steel bridge construction:
• WSDOT Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction (Standard
Specifications), latest edition
• AASHTO/AWS D1.5M/D1.5: Bridge Welding Code, latest edition
The following AASHTO/National Steel Bridge Alliance (NSBA) Steel Bridge Collaboration
publications are available to aid in the design and fabrication of steel bridges. These
publications can be downloaded from the AASHTO website or a copy can be obtained
from the Steel Specialist:
• G1.2-2003, Design Drawing Presentation Guidelines
• G12.1-2020, Guidelines to Design for Constructability and Fabrication
• G1.3-2002, Shop Detail Drawing Presentation Guidelines
• S2.1-2018, Steel Bridge Fabrication Guide Specification
• S4.1-2019, Steel Bridge Fabrication QC QA Guidelines
• G4.2-2024, Guidelines for the Qualification of Structural Bolting Inspectors
• G4.4-2006, Sample Owners Quality Assurance Manual
• S8.1-2014, Guide Specification for Application of Coating Systems with Zinc-Rich Primers
to Steel Bridges
• S8.2-2017, Specification for Application of Thermal Spray Coating Systems to Steel Bridges
• G13.1-2019, Guidelines for Steel Girder Bridge Analysis
• G9.1-2022, Steel Bridge Bearing Guidelines
• S10.1-2023, Steel Bridge Erection Guide Specification
• G1.4-2006, Guidelines for Design Details
• G1.1-2020, Shop Detail Drawing Review/Approval Guidelines
• G2.2-2016, Guidelines for Resolution of Steel Bridge Fabrication Errors
• G14.1-2021, Addressing Fatigue Cracking and Details at Risk of Constraint-Induced
Fracture
• G14.2-2023, Guidelines for Field Repairs and Retrofits of Steel Members
• S8.3-2022, Hot-Dip Galvanizing Specification
• Navigating Routine Steel Bridge Design (AASHTO 9th Edition), 2021
The Steel Bridge Design Handbook, which includes 19 volumes of steel bridge design
aids and 6 design examples, was originally produced by US Steel in the 1970s and had
previously been maintained by the FHWA. The document has now been taken over by
the NSBA and was recently updated in 2021. The update was completed by the FHWA,
NSBA, and HDR Engineering. The newly updated documents are also available as design
aids and can be downloaded from the NSBA website at the following link: Steel Bridge

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

Design Handbook | American Institute of Steel Construction ([Link]). These documents

are current with the AASTHO Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition.
Copies of these publications can be obtained from the Steel Specialist.
• Bridge Steels and Their Mechanical Properties–Volume 1
• Steel Bridge Fabrication–Volume 2
• Structural Steel Bridge Shop Drawings–Volume 3
• Structural Behavior and Design of Steel–Volume 4
• Selecting the Right Bridge Type–Volume 5
• Stringer Bridges and Making the Right Choices–Volume 6
• Loads and Load Combinations–Volume 7
• Structural Analysis–Volume 8
• Redundancy–Volume 9
• Limit States–Volume 10
• Design for Constructability–Volume 11
• Design for Fatigue–Volume 12
• Bracing System Design–Volume 13
• Splice Design–Volume 14
• Bearing Design–Volume 15
• Substructure Design–Volume 16
• Bridge Deck Design–Volume 17
• Load Rating of Steel Bridges–Volume 18
• Corrosion Protection of Steel Bridges–Volume 19
• Design Example: Three-span Continuous Straight Composite Steel I-Girder Bridge
• Design Example: Two-span Continuous Straight Composite Steel I-Girder Bridge
• Design Example: Two-span Continuous Straight Composite Steel Wide-Flange Beam Bridge
• Design Example: Three-span Continuous Curved Composite Steel I-Girder Beam Bridge
• Design Example: Three-span Continuous Straight Composite Steel Tub-Girder Bridge
• Design Example: Three-span Continuous Curved Composite Steel Tub-Girder Bridge

6.1.2 WSDOT Steel Bridge Practice

Unshored, composite construction is used for most plate girder and box girder bridges.
Shear connectors are placed throughout positive and negative moment regions, for full
composite behavior. A minimum of one percent longitudinal deck steel, in accordance
with LRFD-BDS Article [Link], shall be placed in negative moment regions to ensure
adequate deck performance. Additionally, due to cracking observed in some positive
moment regions on some recent steel girder structures, the one percent longitudinal
deck steel is required to be placed the full length of the bridge. For service level stiffness
analysis, such as calculating live load moment envelopes, the bridge deck shall be
considered composite and uncracked for the entire bridge length, provided the above
methods are used.
For negative moment at strength limit states, the bridge deck shall be ignored while
reinforcing steel is included for stress and section property calculations. Where span
arrangement is not well balanced, these assumptions may not apply.
Plastic design may be utilized as permitted in the LRFD-BDS.

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Currently, economical design requires simplified fabrication with less emphasis on

weight reduction. The number of plate thicknesses and splices should be minimized.
Also, the use of fewer girder lines, spaced at a maximum of about 14 to 16 feet, saves
on fabrication, shipping, painting, and future inspection. Widely spaced girders will have
heavier flanges, hence, greater stability during construction. Normally, eliminating a girder
line will not require thickening remaining webs or increasing girder depth. The increased
shear requirement can be met with a modest addition of web stiffeners or slightly thicker
webs at interior piers.
For moderate to long spans, partially stiffened web design is the most economical. This
method is a compromise between slender webs requiring transverse stiffening throughout
and thicker, unstiffened webs. Stiffeners used to connect cross frames shall be welded to
top and bottom flanges. Jacking stiffeners shall be used adjacent to bearing stiffeners, on
girder or diaphragm webs, in order to accommodate future bearing replacement. If solid
diaphragms (I-sections) are used at piers and designed for jacking, sufficient access shall
be provided for form removal behind the diaphragm. For plate girders, the diaphragm shall
be at least 0.75 of the girder depth.
Coordinate jack placement in substructure and girder details. Verify bearing stiffener
locations are placed such that jacks can be installed, girders raised, and bearings removed.
Proper access should be provided to permit the bearings to be removed and replaced in
the future.
Steel framing shall consist of main girders and cross frames. Bottom lateral systems shall
only be used when temporary bracing is not practical. Where lateral systems are needed,
they shall be detailed carefully for adequate fatigue life. Permanent top laterals may be
required to resist wind loading during construction.
Standard corrosion protection for steel bridges is the Standard Specifications four-coat
paint system west of the Cascades and where paint is required for appearance. Unpainted
weathering steel shall only be used east of the Cascades. WSDOT does not allow the use
of steel stay-in-place deck forms.

6.1.3 Preliminary Girder Proportioning

The superstructure depth is initially determined during preliminary plan development and
is based upon the span/depth ratios provided in Chapter 2. The depth may be reduced to
gain vertical clearance, but the designer should verify live load deflection requirements
are met. See LRFD-BDS Table [Link].3-1. Live load deflections shall be limited in
accordance with the optional criteria of LRFD-BDS Articles [Link].2 and [Link].2.
The superstructure depth is typically shown as the distance from the top of the bridge
deck to the bottom of the web. Web depths are generally detailed in multiples of 6 inches.
On straight bridges, interior and exterior girders shall be detailed as identical. Spacing
should be such that the distribution of wheel loads on the exterior girder is close to that
of the interior girder. The number of girder lines should be minimized, with a maximum
spacing of 14–16 feet. Steel bridges shall be redundant, with three or more girders lines
for I-girders and two or more boxes for box girders, except as otherwise approved by the
Steel Specialist and Bridge Design Engineer.

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

6.1.4 Estimating Structural Steel Weights

For the preliminary quantities or preliminary girder design, an estimate of steel weights
for built-up plate composite I-girders can be obtained from Figure 6.1.4-1. This figure is
based upon previous designs with AASHTO HS-20 live loads with no distinction between
service load designs and load factor designs. This chart also provides a good double check
on final quantities.
The weights shown include webs, flanges, and all secondary members (web stiffeners,
diaphragms, cross frame, lateral systems, and gusset plates) plus a small allowance for
weld metal, bolts, and shear connectors.
Both straight and curved box girder quantities may be estimated with the chart, using
a 10 to 20 percent increase.
The chart should only be used for a lower bound estimate of curved I-girder weight.
Roadway width and curvature greatly influence girder weight, including cross frames. An
additional resource for estimating structural steel weights is the NSBA Steel Span Weight
Curves published by the NSBA which can be obtained off of their website.

Figure 6.1.4-1 Composite Welded Steel Plate “I” Girder

 





 





 
 
 





       


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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

6.1.5 Bridge Steels

Use AASHTO M 270/ASTM A 709 grades 50 or 50W for plate girders and box girders.
AASHTO M 270 grade HPS100W may only be used if allowed by the State Bridge Design
Engineer. HPS70W is permitted to be used and can be economical if used selectively in a
hybrid design. HPS 50W is no longer readily available and should be avoided.
For wide flange beams, use AASHTO M 270/ASTM A 709 Grade 50S or ASTM A 992. For
ancillary members such as expansion joint headers, utility brackets, bearing components
or small quantities of tees, channels, and angles, ASTM M 270/ASTM A 709 bridge steels
are acceptable but are not required. In these cases, equivalent ASTM designated steels
may be used.
The following table shows equivalent designations. Grades of steel are based on minimum
yield point.
ASTM ASTM A 709/AASHTO M 270
A 36 Grade 36
A 572 gr 50 Grade 50
A 992 (W and rolled sections) Grade 50S
A 588 Grade 50W
--- Grade HPS 70W
--- Grade HPS l00W*
*Minimum yield strength is 90 ksi for plate thickness greater than 2½″.

A 992 or 50S steel is most commonly available in W shapes but is also available in
other rolled sections including beams (S and M shapes), H-piles, and tees cut from
W-shapes. Channels and angles are not readily available in ASTM A992. Angles are
often more available in thicknesses that are not an increment of 1/16”. For example, if
a 5/16” thickness is required for design, it would be appropriate to increase to 3/8” for
availability considerations. All the materials in the table are prequalified under the Bridge
Welding Code.
All main load-carrying members or components subject to tensile stress shall be identified
in the plans and shall meet the minimum Charpy V-notch (CVN) fracture toughness values
as specified in LRFD-BDS Table C6.6.2.1-1, temperature zone 2. Refer to Section 6.2.4 for
more discussion on required member designations for tension members or components
without load path redundancy.
Availability of weathering steel can be a problem for some sections. For example, steel
suppliers do not stock angles or channels in weathering steel. Weathering steel wide
flange and tee sections are difficult to locate or require a mill order. A mill order is roughly
10,000 pounds. ASTM A 709 and AASHTO M 270 bridge steels are not typically stocked
by local service centers. The use of bridge steel should be restricted to large quantities
such as found in typical plate or box girder projects. The older ASTM specification steels,
such as A 36 or A 572, should be specified when a fabricator would be expected to
purchase from local service centers.

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

Structural tubes and pipes are covered by other specifications. See the latest edition of
the AISC Manual of Steel Construction for selection and availability. These materials are
not considered prequalified under the Bridge Welding Code. They are covered under the
Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1. Structural tubing ASTM A 500 shall not be used
for dynamic loading applications. ASTM A 1085 is a newer cold formed and welded HSS
section specification that is a Gr 50 steel. Supplements for heat treating and CVNs are
included and may also be specified. CVN tests are typically performed in the flats of the
HSS square or rectangular tube sections. CVN values in the bend radius of the tubes
may be lower than values obtained in the flats, however recent informational testing
has shown the CVN values in the corners meet or exceeds the requirements for FCM
steels in temperature zone 2. Heat treating of the sections can improve the values, but
no data is currently available. ASTM A 1085 should not be specified for dynamic loading
applications until further data is available. The designer should check with suppliers to
ensure the size and quantities are readily available. In some cases, minimum tonnage or
bundle quantities is required in order to obtain HSS sections in ASTM A 1085. Consult
with the Steel Specialist for more information.

6.1.6 Plate Sizes

Readily available lengths and thicknesses of steel plates should be used to minimize costs.
Tables of standard plate sizes have been published by various steel mills and should be
used for guidance. These tables are available through the Steel Specialist or online.
In general, an individual plate should not exceed 12′-6″ feet in width, including camber
requirements, or a length of about 60 feet. If either or both of these dimensions are
exceeded, a butt splice is required and should be shown or specified on the plans.
Some plates may be available in lengths over 90 feet, so web splice locations should be
considered optional. Quenched and tempered plates are limited to 50 feet, based on
oven size.
Plate thicknesses of less than 5/16 inches shall not be used for bridge applications.
Preferred plate thicknesses, English units, are as follows:
• 5/16″ to ⅞″ in 1/16″ increments
• ⅞″ to 1¼″ in ⅛″ increments
• 1¼″ to 4″ in ¼″ increments

6.1.7 Girder Segment Sizes

Locate bolted field splices so that individual girder segments can be handled, shipped, and
erected without imposing unreasonable requirements on the contractor. Crane limitations
need to be considered in congested areas near traffic or buildings. Transportation route
options between the girder fabricator and the bridge site can affect the size and weight
of girder sections allowed. Underpasses with restricted vertical clearance in sag vertical
curves can be obstructions to long, tall segments shipped upright. The Region Project
Office should help determine the possible routes, and the restrictions they impose, during
preliminary planning or early in the design phase. Local heavy haul trucking companies
can also be consulted to help determine girder shipping segment lengths and depths.
Contact the Steel Specialist for more information.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

Segment lengths should be limited to 150 feet, depending upon cross section. Long,
slender segments can be difficult to handle and ship due to their flexibility. Horizontal
curvature of girder segments may increase handling and shipping concerns. Out-to-out
width of curved segments, especially box girders, should not exceed 14 feet without
additional travel permits and requirements. Weight is seldom a controlling factor for
I-girders. However, 40 tons is a practical limit for some fabricators. Limit weight to a
maximum of 100 tons if delivery by truck is anticipated.
Consider the structure’s span length and the above factors when determining girder
segment lengths. In general, field splices should be located at dead load inflection points.
When spans are short enough, some field splices can be designated optional if resulting
segment lengths and weights meet the shipping criteria.

6.1.8 Computer Programs

The designer should consult the Steel Specialist to determine the computer program best
suited for a particular bridge type.
Office practice and good engineering principles require that the results of any computer
program or analysis be independently verified for accuracy. Also, programs with built-in
code checks must be checked for default settings. Default settings may reflect old code or
office practice may supersede the code that the program was written for.

6.1.9 Fasteners
All bolted connections shall be friction type (slip-critical). Assume Class B faying surfaces
where inorganic zinc primer is used. If steel will be given a full paint system in the shop,
the primed faying surfaces need to be masked to maintain the Class B surface.
Properties of High-Strength Bolts
Material Bolt Diameter Tensile Strength ksi Yield Strength ksi
ASTM F 3125 GR A325 ½–1½ inch 120 92
& GR F1852 Over 1½ Not Available
¼–1 inch 120 92
1⅛–1½ inch 105 81
ASTM A 449
1¾–3 inch 90 58
Over 3 Not Available
ASTM F 1554
Grade 105 ¼–3 inch 125-150 105
Grade 55 ¼–4 inch 75-95 55
Grade 36 ¼–4 inch 58-80 36
ASTM F 3125 GR A490 ½–1½ inch 150-173 (max) 130
& GR F2280 Over 1½ Not Available
¼–2½ inch 150 130
ASTM A 354 GR BD Over 2½–4 inch 140 115
Over 4 Not Available

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

General Guidelines for Steel Bolts

6.1.9.A ASTM F 3125 GR A325 & GR F1852

High strength steel, headed bolts for use in structural joints. These bolts may be hot-dip
galvanized in accordance with ASTM F2329 or mechanically galvanized in accordance
with ASTM B695 – Class 55. For painted structures, WSDOT’s current policy is to
require galvanized bolts for structures that are painted to avoid the need for blasting and
priming of black bolts after erection of the steel in the field. The Standard Specifications
provides requirements for surface preparation and painting of galvanized bolts. Do not
specify for anchor bolts. Galvanized GR F1852 “Twist-Off” style bolts are not permitted
on WSDOT structures. A recent change to the ASTM F3125 specification allows for
alternate dimensions such as modified head geometry or special thread lengths. The
modified head geometry would include countersunk heads, which previously needed to
be specified as ASTM A449. The engineer shall specify Supplement S2 when requiring
alternate dimensions.

6.1.9.B ASTM A449

High strength steel bolts and studs for general applications including anchor bolts.
Recommended for use where strengths equivalent to ASTM F 3125 GR A325 bolts are
desired but custom geometry or lengths are required. Strengths for ASTM A 449 bolts are
equivalent to GR A325 up to 1” diameter. If using bolts of larger diameter, a reduction in
strength as indicated in the previous table shall be accounted for. These bolts may be hot-
dip galvanized. Do not use these as anchor bolts for seismic applications due to low CVN
impact toughness.

6.1.9.C F1554 – Grade 105

Higher strength anchor bolts to be used for larger sizes (1½″ to 4″). When used in seismic
applications, such as bridge bearings that resist lateral loads, specify supplemental CVN
requirement S4 with a test temperature of -20°F. Lower grades may also be suitable
for sign structure foundations. This specification should also be considered for seismic
restrainer rods, and may be galvanized. The equivalent AASHTO M 314 shall not be
specified as it doesn’t include the CVN supplemental requirements.

6.1.9.D ASTM F 3125 GR A490 & GR F2280

High strength alloy steel, headed bolts for use in structural joints. These bolts should not
be hot dip galvanized, because of the high susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. In
lieu of galvanizing, the application of an approved zinc rich paint may be specified. Other
coating applications are available and are specified in ASTM F3125. The Steel Specialist
shall be consulted prior to specifying one of the alternative coatings. Do not specify
for anchor bolts. Only uncoated GR F2280 “Twist-Off” bolts are permitted on WSDOT
structures.

6.1.9.E A354–Grade BD
High strength alloy steel bolts and studs. These are suitable for anchor bolts where
strengths equal to ASTM F 3125 GR A490 bolts are desired. These bolts should not be
hot dip galvanized. If used in seismic applications, specify minimum CVN toughness of
25 ft-lb at 40°F.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

6.1.10 Bending Steel

It is often necessary to bend steel plate or members for use in the final configuration. This
is common for sign brackets or bridge and architectural railings. In researching bending
and rolling facilities, the minimum size bending radius for 2-inch to 6-inch diameter,
schedule 40 or 80 pipe is 3 times the diameter, 3D. The measurement is taken to the
centerline of the pipe. Some facilities may not be able to bend to this tight of a radius so
specifying 4D or 5D is preferable.
When bending square tubes in the 2 to 4-inch range, a 12-inch inside radius should be
used as a minimum, with larger radius being preferred.
When bends to larger diameter members, square or rectangular tubes, or rolled shapes
(I-beams, angles and channels) is required, the designer should contact bend and roll
facilities to verify capabilities. Consult with the Steel Specialist for additional information.
Bending of AASTHO M270 (ASTM A709) bridge steel may be necessary for haunched
girders or the dapped ends of girders. Typically these plates can be cold bent (room
temperature) provided a minimum radius of 5 times the thickness of the plate is specified,
5t. This requirement is for bending plate perpendicular to direction of final rolling. If it is
necessary to bend parallel to the rolling direction, the minimum radius shall be increased
to 7.5t.
When bending other grades of steel and for ancillary components (connection plates
etc.) up to 3/4" thick the minimum bend radius may be taken as 1.5t, or as recommended
by the plate producer. Again, the larger the bend radius the finished part will permit
the better. Cracking can originate from the outside edges of bent plate, therefore it is
recommended to require the edges of bent plates to be ground to a chamfer or radius
prior to bending. Require the grinding to occur one-foot beyond the end of the bend.
Hot bending of bridge steels may be used with the approval of the WSDOT State Bridge
Design Engineer and Steel Specialist. The Contractor shall submit a heating and bending
plan for review. The plates shall be bent at a temperature above the "blue brittle"
temperature of 700F but not greater than 1200F, except for HPS 70W and HPS 100W
shall be limited to 1100F. Minimum radii shall be as previously specified.

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

6.2 Girder Bridges

6.2.1 General
Once the material of choice, structural steel has been eclipsed by prestressed concrete.
Fabrication, material and life cycle costs have contributed to steel’s relative cost
disadvantage. Costs may be minimized by simplifying fabrication details, optimizing the
number of girder lines, allowing for repetitive fabrication of components such as cross
frames and stiffeners, and ensuring ease of shipping and erecting.
The specifications allow a combination of plastic design in positive moment regions and
elastic design in negative moment regions. Plate girders, of the depths typically built in
this state, have traditionally been designed to elastic limits or lower. High performance
and weathering steel can be used to save weight and life cycle painting costs, thereby
minimizing the cost gap between steel and concrete bridges.
I-girders may require accommodation for bridge security. Security fences may be installed
within the confines of the superstructure to deter inappropriate access. Coordinate with
the State Bridge and Structures Architect during final design where required.

6.2.2 I-Girders
Welded plate I-girders constitute the majority of steel girders designed by WSDOT. The
I-girder represents an efficient use of material for maximizing stiffness. Its shortcoming is
inefficiency in resisting shear. Office practice is to maintain constant web thickness and
depth for short to medium span girders. Weight savings is achieved by minimizing the
number of webs used for a given bridge. This also helps minimize fabrication, handling,
and painting costs. Current office practice is to use a minimum of three girders to provide
redundant load path structures. Girder spacing for three girder structures shall be limited
to 16’-0”. Two girder superstructures are considered non-redundant and require additional
fracture control measures, either by designating as NSTMs, or providing system or
internal redundancy. Refer to Section 6.2.4 for more discussion on redundancy.
Buckling behavior of relatively slender elements complicates steel plate girder design.
Most strength calculations involve checks on buckling in some form. Local buckling can be
a problem in flanges, webs, and stiffeners if compression is present. Also, overall stability
shall be ensured throughout all stages of construction, with or without a bridge deck.
The art of designing steel girders is to minimize material and fabrication expense while
ensuring adequate strength, stiffness, and stability.
I-girders are an excellent shape for welding. All welds for the main components are
easily accessible and visible for welding and inspection. The plates are oriented in the
rolling direction to make good use of strength, ductility, and toughness of the structural
steel. The web is attached to the top and bottom flanges with continuous fillet welds.
Usually, they are made with automatic submerged arc welders (SAW). These welds are
loaded parallel to the longitudinal axis and resist horizontal shear between the flanges
and web. Minimum size welds based on plate thickness will satisfy strength and fatigue
requirements in most cases. The flanges and webs are fabricated to full segment
length with full penetration groove welds. These welds are inspected by ultrasound
(UT) 100 percent. Tension welds, as designated in the plans, are also radiographed (RT)
100 percent. Office practice is to have flanges and webs fabricated full length before
they are welded into the “I” shape. Weld splicing built-up sections results in poor fatigue
strength and zones that are difficult to inspect. Quality welding and inspection requires
good access for both.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

6.2.3 Tub or Box Girders

Typical steel box girders for WSDOT are trapezoidal tub sections. Using single top flange
plates to create true box sections is very uncommon when reinforced concrete decks are
used. Tub girders will be referred to herein as box girders, as in LRFD-BDS Article 6.11.
The top lateral system placed inside the girder is treated as an equivalent plate, closing
the open section, to increase torsional stiffness before bridge deck curing. Although not
required by the code, it helps ensure stability that may be overlooked during construction.
Partial or temporary bracing may be used provided it is properly designed and installed.
Dramatic construction failures have occurred due to insufficient bracing of box girders.
Stability of the shape shall be ensured for all stages of construction in accordance
with LRFD-BDS Article 6.11.3. The cured bridge deck serves to close the section for
torsional stiffness. Internal cross frames or diaphragms are used to maintain the shape
and minimize distortion loading on individual plates and welds making up the box. Box
segments will have considerable torsional stiffness when top lateral bracing is provided.
This may make fit-up in the field difficult.
The ability to make box girders with high torsional stiffness makes them a popular choice
for short radius curved structures. Curved box girders, because of inherent torsional
stiffness, behave differently than curved I-girders. Curved box girder behavior can be
easily modeled with modern finite element software. See curved girder references listed
at the end of this chapter for complete description.
Straight box girders, when proportioned in accordance with LRFD-BDS Article 6.11.2 may
be designed without consideration of distortional stresses. The range of applicability for
live load distribution is based on:
ͲǤͷ൑ܰ௅ ോ ܰ௕ ൑ ͳǤͷ (6.2.3-1)

Which limits the number of lanes loading each box. Wide box girder spacing, outside this
range, will require additional live load analysis. Consideration must be given to differential
deflection between boxes when designing the bridge deck. Generally, use of cross frames
between boxes is limited to long spans with curvature.
Box girders shall have a single bearing per box for bridges with multiple box girders, not
bearings under each web. If bearings are located under each web, distribution of loads
is uncertain. For single box girder bridges, two bearings per box shall be used. Generally,
plate diaphragms with access holes are used in place of pier cross frames.
With the exception of effects from inclined webs, top flanges and webs are designed as if
they were part of individual I-girders.
The combined bottom flange is unique to box girders. In order to maximize web spacing
while minimizing bottom flange width, place webs out of plumb on a slope of 1 in 4. Wide
plates present two difficulties: excessive material between shop splices and buckling
behavior in compression zones (interior piers). To keep weight and plate thickness within
reason, it is often necessary to stiffen the bottom flange in compression with longitudinal
stiffeners. Office practice is to use tee sections for longitudinal stiffeners and channel
bracing at cross frame locations (transverse stiffeners). If possible, bottom flange
stiffeners are terminated at field splices. Otherwise, carefully ground weld terminations
are needed in tension regions with high stress range. Due to the transverse flexibility
of thin wide plates, stiffener plates are welded across the bottom flange at cross frame
locations, combined with web vertical stiffeners. For the design of the bottom flange in
compression, see LRFD-BDS Articles [Link] and [Link].
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Structural Steel Chapter 6

6.2.4 Nonredundant Steel Tension Members, Redundancy, and Fracture Control

The recently released 10th Edition of the AASHTO BDS establish new terms that govern the
classification of steel bridge members subjected to tension, specifically how redundancy
is achieved and discontinues the use of the term “fracture critical” and “fracture
critical member.”
There are new terms that define different forms of redundancy that can be achieved for a
steel bridge with members subjected to tension. These terms are as follows:
1. Load Path Redundant Member (LPRM): A redundancy exists based on the number
of primary load-carrying members such that fracture of one location of a member or
cross-section will not cause a portion of or the entire bridge to collapse. Bridges with
three or more primary load-carrying members is considered load path redundant. For
I-girder structures, 3-girder sections are limited to a maximum spacing of 16 feet.
2. System Redundant Member (SRM): A redundancy that exists in a bridge system
without load path redundancy, such that fracture of a member or cross-section at
one location of a primary member will not cause a portion of or the entire bridge
to collapse. To designate a member or portion of a member as a SRM, owners
must develop, and submit for approval from FHWA, the method of analysis used
to determine the system redundancy. The method must be a nationally recognized
approach. Once the procedure(s) have been reviewed and approved by FHWA, they
can be used on additional projects without resubmittal to FHWA. An example of
system redundancy is a cross section with two box girders. Other State owners have
shown through analysis a fracture in one cross-section of a system redundant tub
girder will not cause collapse.
3. Internal Redundant Member (IRM): A redundancy that exists within a primary
member cross-section without load path redundancy, such that the fracture of one
component will not propagate through the entire member, is discoverable during
applicable inspection procedures, and will not cause a portion of or the entire bridge
to collapse. Like system redundancy a procedure is required to be submitted to FHWA
for approval. An example of an IRM is a truss chord member that is built up of angles,
plates, or channels and is bolted or riveted together.
When none of the three forms of redundancy can be identified by the engineer and the
member is a primary steel member fully or partially in tension whose failure may cause a
portion of or the entire bridge to collapse, must now be designated a Nonredundant Steel
Tension Member (NSTM). This term replaces and is synonymous with the previous Fracture
Critical Member (FCM). The same rules, procedures, and required in-service inspection
requirements apply to both NSTMs and FCMs. Therefore, unless an existing member
designated as FCM is reanalyzed and determined to be an SRM or IRM, it will remain as a
FCM which is equivalent to an NSTM.
Fabrication and the provisions for fracture control in Chapter 12 of the AWS D1.5 Bridge
Welding Code will apply for all members designated as NSTM, SRM, or IRM. Therefore,
from a fabricator’s perspective NSTM=SRM=IRM=FCM and all fabrication and material
requirements remain the same.
For further guidance on design and analysis for SRMs and IRMs, refer to the AASHTO
Guide Specifications for Analysis and Identification of Fracture Critical Members and System
Redundant Members and the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Internal Redundancy of
Mechanically-fastened Built-up Steel Members.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

Non-redundant Steel Tension Members consisting of single tub superstructures, and

twin I-girder systems, may sometimes be justified as an acceptable solution to a bridge
structure. In these cases, the designer should consult with the WSDOT Steel Specialist
and shall obtain approval from the WSDOT State Bridge Design Engineer. Conditions that
favor this option are narrow one lane ramps, especially with tightly curved alignments,
at locations within existing mainline interchanges. Flyover ramps often fall into these
constraints. The box section allows in- depth inspection access without significant
disruption to mainline traffic. UBIT access over urban interstate lanes is becoming
increasingly difficult to obtain.
Where curvature is significant, the box section is a stiffer, more efficient load carrying
system than a twin I-girder system. When considering a twin I-girder structure over
mainline traffic that will be difficult to close for UBIT access, consideration should be
given to providing some form of permanent false decking or other inspection access. This
access needs to be appropriate for NSTM inspections. If curvature is not severe, the twin
I-girder system may prove to be more economical than a single box.
The maximum roadway width for either a single box or twin I-girder superstructure is
27 feet. Where roadway width exceeds this, additional girders shall be used. Mainline
structures, usually exceeding 38 feet in width, will require a minimum of three webs, with
four webs being the preferred minimum.
Increased vertical clearance from mainline traffic should be obtained for either of
these bridge types. The desired minimum is 20 feet. Box sections tend to offer greater
stiffness than equal depth I-girders, especially on curved alignment. The web depth may
be reduced below LRFD-BDS Table [Link].3-1 minimums provided live load deflection
criteria are met. However, avoid web depth less than 5′-0″ so that inspection access is
within reason. The desirable minimum web depth for boxes is 6′-6″. Box sections with
web depth of 6′- 6″ should be capable of interior spans up to 250 feet. Main spans
of 150 feet should be considered the low end of this girder type’s economical range.
Because of the proximity of flyover ramps to high numbers of observers, attempt to
streamline their superstructure depths where economical and deflection criteria can
be achieved.
The limit state load modifier relating to redundancy, ηr = 1.05, as specified in LRFD-BDS
Article 1.3.4 shall be used in the design of NSTMs. However, for load rating NSTMs, a
system factor of 0.85 is currently required in the AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation
(MBE) on the capacity of the girders, which is not consistent with the redundancy load
modifier used in design. The designer shall design some reserve capacity in the girders so
the load rating value for HL93 Inventory is greater than or equal to 1.0.
The LRFD-BDS approximate live load distribution factors are not applicable to these
girder types. The level rule or preferably a refined analysis shall be used. Where highly
curved, only a refined analysis shall be used.
NSTMs, IRMs, and SRMs shall be designed for infinite fatigue life, which requires design
using the Fatigue I load combination specified In Table 3.4.1-1 and the nominal fatigue
resistance specified In Article [Link].5.

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

6.3 Design of I-Girders

6.3.1 Limit States for AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
Structural components shall be proportioned to satisfy the requirements of strength,
extreme event, service, and fatigue limit states as outlined in LRFD-BDS Articles
1.3.2 and 6.5.
Service limit states are included in Service I and Service II load combinations. Service I
load combination is used to check the live load deflection limitations of LRFD-BDS Article
[Link]. Service II places limits on permanent deflection, no yielding, slenderness of the
web in compression, and slip of bolted connections.
The fatigue live load specified in LRFD-BDS Article [Link] shall be used for checking
girder details in accordance with Article 6.6. A single fatigue truck, without lane loading
or variable axle spacing, is placed for maximum and minimum effect to a detail under
investigation. The impact is 15 percent, regardless of span length. The load factor is
1.75 for Fatigue I Limit State. It is generally possible to meet the constant amplitude
fatigue limit (CAFL) requirement for details with good fatigue performance. Limiting the
calculated fatigue range to the CAFL ensures infinite fatigue life. Webs shall be checked
for fatigue loading in accordance with LRFD-BDS Article [Link], using the calculated
fatigue stress range for flexure or shear. Shear connector spacing shall be according to
LRFD-BDS Article 6.10.10. Generally, the fatigue resistance (Zr) for ⅞″ diameter shear
connectors can be taken as 4.2 kips for an infinite number of cycles (CAFL = 4.2 kips).
Flanges and webs shall meet strength limit state requirements for both construction
and final phases. Constructability requirements for flanges and webs are covered in
LRFD-BDS Article 6.10.3. Flexure resistance is specified in LRFD-BDS Articles 6.10.7 and
6.10.8; shear resistance is specified in LRFD-BDS Article 6.10.9
In addition to Strength, Service, and Fatigue Limit States, pier cross frames shall be
designed for seismic loading, extreme event load combination. Bolts are treated as
bearing type connections with LRFD-BDS Article [Link] resistance factors. The
resistance factor for all other members is 1.0 at extreme limit state.

6.3.2 Composite Section

Live load plus impact shall be applied to the transformed composite section using Es/Ec,
commonly denoted n. Long-term loading (dead load of barriers, signs, luminaries, overlays,
etc.) is applied to the transformed composite section using 3n. Positive moments are
applied to these composite sections accordingly; both for service and strength limit
states. The bridge deck may be considered effective in negative moment regions provided
tensile stresses in the deck are below the modulus of rupture. This is generally possible
for Service I load combination and fatigue analysis. For strength limit state loadings, the
composite section includes longitudinal reinforcing while the bridge deck is ignored.

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6.3.3 Flanges
Flange thickness is limited to 4″ maximum in typical bridge plate, but the desirable
maximum is 3″. Structural Steel Notes on contract plans shall require all plates for flange
material 2” or less to be purchased such that the ratio of reduction of thickness from a
slab to plate shall be at least 3.0:1. This requirement helps ensure the plate material has
limited inclusions and micro-porosity that can create problems during cutting and welding.
Plates for flange material greater than 2” thick shall be supplied based on acceptable
ultrasonic testing (UT) inspection in accordance with ASTM A 578. UT scanning and
acceptance shall be as follows:
• The entire plate shall be scanned in accordance with ASTM A 578 and shall meet
Acceptance Standard C, and
• Plate material within 12-inches of flange complete joint penetration splice welds
shall be scanned in accordance with ASTM A 578 Supplementary S1 and shall meet
Acceptance Standard C
The number of plate thicknesses used for a given project should be kept to a minimum.
Flange width changes should be made at bolted field splices. Thickness transitions are
best done at welded splices. LRFD-BDS Article [Link].4 requires fill plates at bolted
splices to be developed, if thicker than ¼″. Since this requires a significant increase in
the number of bolts for thick fill plates, keeping the thickness transition ¼″ or less by
widening pier segment flanges can be a better solution. Between field splices, flange
width should be kept constant.

6.3.4 Webs
Maintain constant web thickness throughout the structure. If different web thickness is
needed, the transition shall be at a welded splice. Horizontal web splices are not needed
unless web height exceeds 12'-6". Vertical web splices for girders should be shown on the
plans in an elevation view with additional splices made optional to the fabricator.
All welded web splices on exterior faces of exterior shall be ground smooth. Web splices
of interior girders need not be ground if the weld reinforcement is 1/16” or less. If greater
than 1/16”, the weld shall be ground.

6.3.5 Transverse Stiffeners

Transverse stiffeners shall be used in pairs at cross frame locations on interior girders
and on the inside of webs of exterior girders. They shall be welded to the top flange,
bottom flange and web at these locations. This detail is considered fatigue category C’ for
longitudinal flange stress. Stiffeners used between cross frames shall be located on one
side of the web, welded to the compression flange, and cut short of the tension flange.
Stiffeners located between cross frames in regions of stress reversal shall be welded to
one side of the web and cut short of both flanges. Alternatively, they may be welded
to both flanges if fatigue Category C’ is checked. Transverse stiffeners may be dropped
when not needed for strength. If cross frame spacing is less than 3 times the web depth,
additional stiffeners may only be necessary near piers.
Stiffened webs require end panels to anchor the first tension field. The jacking stiffener
to bearing stiffeners space shall not be used as the anchor panel. The first transverse
stiffener is to be placed at no greater spacing than 1.5 times the web depth from the
bearing or jacking stiffener.

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Transverse stiffeners shall be designed and detailed to meet LRFD-BDS Article [Link].
Where they are used to connect cross frames, they should be a minimum width of 8″ to
accommodate two bolt rows.

6.3.6 Longitudinal Stiffeners

On long spans where web depths exceed 10 feet, comparative cost evaluations shall be
made to determine whether the use of longitudinal stiffeners will be economical. The
use of longitudinal stiffeners may be economical on webs 10 feet deep or greater. Weld
terminations for longitudinal stiffeners are fatigue prone details. Longitudinal stiffener
plates shall be continuous, splices being made with full penetration welds before being
attached to webs. Transverse stiffeners should be pieced to allow passage of longitudinal
stiffeners.
Design of longitudinal stiffeners is covered by LRFD-BDS Article [Link].

6.3.7 Bearing Stiffeners

Stiffeners are required at all bearings to enable the reaction to be transmitted from
the web to the bearing. These stiffeners are designated as columns, therefore, must be
vertical under total dead load. The connection of the bearing stiffener to flanges consists
of partial penetration groove welds reinforced with fillet welds, of sufficient size to
transmit design loads.
Pier cross frames may transfer large seismic lateral loads through top and bottom
connections. Weld size must be designed to ensure adequate load path from deck and
cross frames into bearings.
Design of bearing stiffeners is covered by LRFD-BDS Article [Link].

6.3.8 Cross Frames

The primary function of intermediate cross frames is to provide stability to individual
girders or flanges. Cross frames or diaphragms are required at each support to brace
girders; they should be as near to full-depth as practical and are required to be a minimum
of 0.80 of the web depth for plate girders and 0.5 of the web depth for rolled sections.
On curved bridges, the cross frames also resist torsional twisting of the superstructure
and are considered primary members. Pier cross frames are subjected to lateral loads
from wind, earthquake, and curvature. These forces are transmitted from the roadway
slab to the bearings by way of the pier cross frames. Intermediate cross frames also resist
wind load to the lower half of the girders. The primary load path for wind is the concrete
deck and pier diaphragms. Wind load on the bottom flange is shed incrementally to the
deck through intermediate cross frames. The essential function, however, is to brace the
compression flanges for all stages of construction and service life. As such, continuous
span girders require bottom flange bracing near interior supports. Office practice requires
intermediate cross frames at spacing consistent with design assumptions. The 25-foot
maximum spacing of older specifications is not maintained in the LRFD-BDS code.
A rectangular grid of girders and cross frames with 3 or less girders may not be sufficiently
stiff laterally before the deck is cured. Both wind and deck placement can cause
noticeable deflections. In the case of deck placement, permanent sideway and rotation
of the steel framing may result in a system buckling mode and should be checked per
AASHTO section [Link].2. For wind loading on structures during construction, refer
to the AASHTO Guide Specification for Wind Loads on Bridges During Construction
(AASHTO-Wind).
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Per the AASHTO-Wind, steel structures shall be analyzed using a modal analysis with the
structure in the fully erected but prior to deck placement condition. If the structure has a
fundamental vertical or translational period greater than 1-second, it shall be considered
wind sensitive during construction. If wind sensitive, the structure shall be analyzed for
wind during construction per the AASHTO-Wind. Normally, the following assumptions
can be used as part of the analysis:
1. Assume an Inactive Work Zone (IWZ)
2. Ground Surface Roughness and Wind Exposure Categories shall be assumed to be
“C”
Lateral deflection of the superstructure shall be checked and if greater than L/150,
additional bracing shall be added. The L/150 limit is not specified in the AASHTO-Wind;
however, it has been a value accepted in the industry. The additional bracing could consist
of external temporary bracing or permanent/temporary lateral bracing. Note: it is not
necessary to take measures to stiffen the entire structure so the fundamental period(s) in
the vertical or translational directions are less than or equal to 1-second.
Temporary external bracing could consist of posting to an existing structure or
counterweight on the ground. Permanent or temporary lateral bracing is typically installed
at the top flange and can be bolted directly to the flange. In most cases the bracing is
only required in one or two bays near piers. Shims shall be provided between the bracing
member and bottom of the top flange to provide room for deck forming. Once the deck
is cast, the bracing could be removed but is often left in place. The permanent bracing
is commonly a WT section. Spans 200 feet or greater will typically need some type of
additional bracing.
When widening a steel girder bridge or a bridge constructed in stages, the designer
should consider requiring top and bottom struts of the cross frames to be installed
and connected to the existing (or stage I) bridge with one bolt at each connection. This
provides lateral stability but allows vertical deflections. The remaining connection bolts
can be installed after the deck is cast. With long span structures and significant dead load
deflections, this method may not be feasible with the permanent cross frame struts, and
other methods to stabilize the girders may need to be employed.
Cross frames and connections should be detailed for repetitive fabrication and openness
for inspection and painting. Cross frames consisting of back-to-back angles separated by
gusset plates are not permitted. These are difficult to repaint. Cross frames are generally
patterned as K-frames or as X-frames. Typically, the configuration selected is based on
the most efficient geometry. The diagonals should closely approach a slope of 1:1 or 45°.
Some rules of thumb for selecting either X or K-frames are as follows:
• If S/D is less than or equal to 1.0, use X-frames
• If S/D is greater than or equal to 1.5, use K-frames
• If 1 < S/D < 1.5, OK to use either
Where,
S = girder spacing
D = total depth of web

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WSDOT standard practice when using K-frame configured cross frames is to orient the
frame where the diagonals meet at the center of the bottom horizontal strut. For pier
cross frames, it may be advantageous to flip the K-frame so the diagonals help to transfer
lateral loads from the deck directly into the girder bearings.
Avoid conflicts with utilities passing between the girders. Detailing of cross frames should
follow guidelines of economical steel bridge details promoted by the National Steel Bridge
Alliance. Office practice is to bolt rather than weld individual cross frames units to girder
stiffeners. Welding of individual pieces to make up a cross-frame unit is acceptable.
Oversize holes are not allowed in cross frame connections if girders are curved and
should be avoided for straight and skewed bridges unless approved by the Steel Specialist.
Intermediate cross frames for straight girders with little or no skew should be designed
as secondary members. Choose members that meet minimum slenderness requirements
and design connections only for anticipated loads, not for 75 percent strength of member.
Cross frames should also be sized to meet the stability bracing requirements in the
AASTHO BDS, which is also discussed in Chapter 13 of the Feb. 2022 Steel Bridge Design
Handbook. The stability bracing forces should be added to the loads obtained from the
first-order analysis loads such as dead load, wind etc.
In general, cross frames should be installed parallel to piers for skew angles of 0° to 20°.
For greater skew angles, other arrangements may be used. Recent research has provided
guidance, much of which is included in AASTHO, for cross frame arrangements for
skews greater than 20°, especially near intermediate piers and abutments. The key is to
avoid a cross frame spanning from one girder that is supported by a pier or abutment
to an adjacent girder point away from the support. This creates large cross frame
forces due to differential deflections of the girders. Consult with the Steel Specialist for
recommendations on cross frame arrangements.
Intermediate cross frames for curved I-girders require special consideration. Cross frames
for curved girder bridges are main load carrying members and tension components should
be so designated in the plans. In no case shall they be designated as a NSTM. For highly
curved systems, it is more efficient to keep members and connections concentric, as live
loads can be significant. Welded connections should be carefully evaluated for fatigue.
The 10th Edition of AASHTO BDS provides reductions in the fatigue demands in cross
frames. Currently the load factors for Fatigue I (infinite) and Fatigue II (finite) are 1.75
and 0.80, respectively. These have been found to be overly conservative for cross frame
design. The 10th Edition AASHTO BDS allows the current Fatigue I and II load factors to
be multiplied by a cross frame design factor of 0.65.
For design and detailing of cross frames, the following are additional items to consider:
1. When using a refined analysis, such as a 3D model, member stiffness for equal
leg single angles, unequal leg single angles connected by the long leg, and flange
connected WT members may use an effective member stiffness equal to 0.65AE. This
approach will reduce the force demands by accounting for connection stiffness and
second-order stiffness softening. It is recommended to create a new steel material
property within the analysis model with a reduced modulus, E, versus reducing the
area, A, of the section.

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2. When modeling cross frames in 3D models, the ends of the members should be
considered pinned and the point of the connection to the girder web modeled as
close to the true location as possible. Connecting the cross frame member directly
into the intersection of the web and flanges can often produce higher demands than
the members will actually experience.
3. When obtaining fatigue demands on cross frames, the maximum and minimum
forces shall be obtained with the fatigue truck confined to one critical transverse
position per each longitudinal position throughout the length of the bridge. In other
words, the max/min forces on a cross frame shall be obtained from the truck loading
from one lane. For a specific cross frame, it is too conservative to use the max force
from a truck positioned in lane 1 while taking the minimum force obtained from and
adjacent lane. For typical FEA model software, such as CSI Bridge, consisting of a
model with multiple lanes, the normal output is to provide an envelope of max and
min forces considering all the lanes. Fatigue truck loading will need to be carefully
obtained from FEA models and should be limited to demands produced from one
lane of loading at a time.
4. Cross frames can be one of the most expensive items to fabricate for a steel bridge.
Economy of repetition should be considered in the design and detailing. If the loads
on the cross frames vary along the length of the bridge, the cross frame designs can
be grouped into 2-3 types based on demands. For example, one design for highly
loaded frames, one for intermediate, and one for lightly loaded. It can be expensive
to design one cross frame for the maximum demands and use them at all locations.
Designers should also consider the use of single pass fillet welds for connections
of cross frames to gussets, which are then bolted to the girder stiffeners. It is more
economical to provide a larger gusset plate to accommodate a single pass weld, than
to increase weld sizes, which requires multiple weld passes. Single pass welds can
easily be achieved for ¼” and 5/16” fillet welds.
5. Detailing of cross frames have historically identified work points (WP) on the plans
at the intersections of cross frame centerlines and the centerline of the girder web.
Consider using the center of a bolt hole at cross frame gusset connections as a
defined WP. This enables the fabricators in the shop to physically layout the WP in
their fabrication jigs versus having it be “off in space” beyond the limits of the actual
cross frame. Additionally, distances or clearances from girder flanges to bottom of
cross frame gussets or WP can be called out with +/- tolerances, especially when
there are variations in girder framing geometry. If there are tolerances allowed in the
actual location of the cross frame, it provides opportunity for the fabricator to detail
and fabricate cross frames that are exactly the same.
6. When obtaining cross frame loads, consider the actual stiffness of the supports and
allowable movements in the bearings. A true pin or fixed bearing in a model can
produce high demands on the pier cross frames. Including flexibility of the support
or slight movements in bearings, say 1/8” to ¼”, can greatly reduce demands. This will
depend on the bearing type.

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7. For straight or slightly skewed I-girder bridges, consider lean on bracing for the
cross frames. Lean on bracing has not been codified by AASHTO but several states
have used them successfully in steel bridges. The general concept is to minimize the
number of complete cross frames between girder lines. For example, in a 4-girder
system labeled A through D, a complete K or X cross frame would be used between
girders A and B while only top and bottom struts are installed between girders B-C
and between C-D. The positions of the complete cross frame would vary along the
length of the bridge and in some bays, complete cross frames would be used between
all girders. See Figure 6.3.8-1 for a general illustration. The construction sequence will
need to be carefully considered so stability is provided during girder erection. See the
Steel Specialist for more guidance on design and detailing of lean on bracing.
8. Single angles members for cross frames are generally preferred by fabricators. These
are the easiest to fabricate. WT sections require a W-beam to be cut in half, adding
an additional step to fabrication. The LRFD-BDS provides equations for design of
single angles that account for the eccentricity of the angle and the connection point,
allowing the angle to be designed for just axial demands. When checking slenderness
minimum requirements L/r or KL/r, use the radius of gyration, r, from the Z-Z axis.
Web stiffeners at cross frames shall be welded to top and bottom flanges. This practice
minimizes out-of-plane bending of the girder web.

Figure 6.3.8-1 Lean on Bracing Example

144'-0"
24'-0" 24'-0" 24'-0" 24'-0" 24'-0" 24'-0"

C A A C B B C

6.3.9 Bottom Laterals

Figure 6.3.8-1 - Lean on Bracing Example
Bottom lateral systems are expensive to install permanently. If possible, they should
be avoided in favor of alternative bracing methods. They are seldom required in the
completed structure, but may contribute to nuisance fatigue cracking or fracture in the
main girders.
The primary function of a bottom lateral system is to stabilize the girders against lateral
loads and translation before the bridge deck hardens. The layout pattern is based on
number of girder lines, girder spacing, and cross frame spacing. Cost considerations
should include geometry, repetition, number, and size of connections. If used, limit
bottom laterals to one or two bays.

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For both straight and curved structures, bottom laterals carry dead and live loads, in
proportion to distance from the neutral axis. They should be modeled in the structure to
determine the actual forces the member's experience. Since they carry slab dead load,
they should be accounted for when calculating camber.
Where lateral gusset plates are fillet welded to girder webs, the fatigue stress range in
the girder is limited to Category E without transition radius, or Category D with carefully
made transition radius. The gusset plates should be bolted to the girder web in regions of
high tension stress range.
For widening projects, bottom laterals are not needed since the new structure can be
braced against the existing structure during construction. Framing which is adequately
braced should not require bottom laterals.

6.3.10 Bolted Field Splice for Girders

Field splices shall be bolted. Splices are usually located at the dead load inflection point
to minimize the design bending moment. See LRFD-BDS Articles 6.13.2 and [Link]
for bolted splice design requirements. The design methodology is simplified and requires
top and bottom flange splice plates and bolts to be sized to develop the capacity of the
smaller flange. Designing web splices is outlined in LRFD-BDS Article [Link].3c. Web
splices are sized to develop the shear capacity of the web, with a check on moments.
Only 2 rows of web bolts will typically be required on each side of the splice plate. Bolted
web splices should not involve thin fill material. Thickness transitions for webs, if needed,
should be done with welded shop splices. The NSBA has developed a bolted splice EXCEL
spreadsheet, which can be downloaded from their website to assist in splice design.
Flange splice design is outlined in LRFD-BDS Article [Link].3b. For splice plates at
least ⅜″ thick and ⅞″ diameter bolts, threads may be excluded from all shear planes for a
25 percent increase in strength, per LRFD-BDS Article [Link]. Generally, bolts in girder
field splices may be designed for double shear.
A requirement has been added for developing fillers used in bolted splices, LRFD-BDS
Article [Link].4. When fill plates are greater than ¼″, the splice or filler needs to be
extended for additional bolts. As filler thickness increases, the shear resistance of bolts
decreases. A way of minimizing filler thickness is to transition flange width for pier
segments. Using equal plate thickness by this method has the added benefit of reducing
the number of plate sizes in a project.
Splice bolts shall be checked for Strength load combinations and slip at Service II load
combination. When faying surfaces are blasted and primed with inorganic zinc paint, a
Class B surface condition is assumed.
Fabrication of girder splices is covered by Standard Specifications Sections 6-03.3(27)
and 6-03.3(28). Method of field assembly is covered by Section 6-03.3(32) and bolting
inspection and installation by Section 6-03.3(33). Since bolted joints have some play due
to differences in bolt diameter and hole size, field splices are drilled while segments are
set in proper alignment in the shop. The joint is pinned (pin diameter equals hole size to
prohibit movement) for shop assembly and also during initial field fit-up. Normally, this
ensures repeatability of joint alignment from shop to field.

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6.3.11 Camber
Camber shall include effects of profile grade, superelevation, anticipated dead load
deflections, and bridge deck shrinkage (if measurable). Historically, camber effects due
to profile grade was accounted for by the fabricator. However, WSDOT policy is to now
include the effects of camber in the plans. This is to ensure these effects are not missed,
and helps during bid period for fabricators to estimate plate sizes for webs without having
to run supplemental calculations. Permanent girder deflections shall be shown in the plans
in the form of camber diagrams and tables. Dead load deflections are due to steel self-
weight, bridge deck dead load, and superimposed dead loads such as overlay, sidewalks,
and barriers. Since fabricated camber and girder erection have inherent variability, bridge
deck form height is adjusted after steel has been set. Although a constant distance from
top of web to top of deck is assumed, this will vary along the girders. Bridge deck forms
without adjustment for height are not allowed. Girders shall be profiled once fully erected,
and before bridge deck forms are installed. See Standard Specifications Section 6-03.3(39).
Girder camber is established at three stages of construction. First, girder webs are cut
from plates so that the completed girder segment will assume the shape of reverse dead
load deflections superimposed on profile grade. Only minor heat corrections may be made
in the shop to meet the camber tolerance of the Bridge Welding Code AWS D1.5 Chapter
3.5. Camber for plate girders is not induced by mechanical force. The fabricated girder
segment will incorporate the as-cut web shape and minor amounts of welding distortion.
Next, the girder segments are brought together for shop assembly. Field splices are drilled
as the segments are placed in position to fit profile grade plus total dead load deflection
(no load condition). Finally, the segments are erected, sometimes with supports at field
splices. There may be slight angle changes at field splices, resulting in altered girder
profiles. Errors at mid-span can be between one to two inches at this stage.
The following is a general outline for calculating camber and is based on girders having
shear studs the full length of the bridge.
Four camber curves are required. See Appendix 6.4-A6 for an example:
1. Total Camber – this is the Total Dead Load Camber plus any profile effects.
2. Total Dead Load Camber – camber due to all dead loads on the structure.
3. Deflection Due to Steel Weight - the third camber curve represents the deflection
due to steel self-weight only.
4. Deflection Due to Deck Formwork and Reinforcement – the 4th curve represents the
deflection due to application of formwork and deck reinforcement. This curve also
represents Dim “C”, which is remaining camber at time of concrete placement.
Girder dead load deflection is determined by using various computer programs. Many
steel girder design programs incorporate camber calculation. Girder self-weight shall
include the basic section plus stiffeners, cross frames, welds, shear studs, etc. These
items may be accounted for by adding an appropriate percentage of basic section weight
(15 percent is a good rule of thumb). Total dead load camber shall consist of deflection
due to:

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Steel weight, applied to steel section. Include 5 psf bridge deck formwork allowance in
the total dead load camber, but not in the steel weight camber. The effect of removing
formwork is small in relation to first placement, due to composite action between girders
and bridge deck. It isn’t necessary to account for the removal.
1. Bridge deck weight, applied to steel section. This should be the majority of dead load
deflection.
2. Traffic barriers, sidewalks, and overlays, applied to long-term composite section using
3n. Do not include weight of future overlays in the camber calculations.
3. Bridge deck shrinkage (if ≥ ¾″).
Bridge deck dead load deflection will require the designer to exercise some judgment
concerning degree of analysis. A two or three span bridge of regular proportions, for
example, may not require a rigorous analysis. The bridge deck could be assumed to be
placed instantaneously on the steel section only. Generally, due to creep, deflections and
stresses slowly assume a state consistent with instantaneous bridge deck placement.
However, with the modern analysis tools available, it is recommended a rigorous
analysis be performed for all steel bridge designs. An analysis coupled with a bridge deck
placement sequence should be used. This requires an incremental analysis where previous
bridge deck placement is treated as composite sections (using a modulus of elasticity for
concrete based on age at time of second pour) and successive bridge deck placements
are added on non-composite sections. Each bridge deck placement requires a separate
deflection analysis. The total effect of bridge deck construction is the superposition
of each bridge deck placement. This analysis can also be accomplished using staged
construction features in most finite element analysis software.
Traffic barriers, sidewalks, overlays, and other items constructed after the bridge deck
placement should be analyzed as if applied to the long-term composite section full length
of the bridge. The modulus of elasticity of the slab concrete shall be reduced to one third
of its short-term value. For example, if f′c = 4000 psi, then use a value of n = 24.
Bridge deck shrinkage has a varying degree of effect on superstructure deflections.
The designer shall use some judgment in evaluating this effect on camber. Bridge deck
shrinkage should be the smallest portion of the total camber. It has greater influence
on shallower girder sections, say rolled beams. Simple spans will see more effect than
continuous spans. For medium to long span continuous girders (spans over 200 feet
without any in-span hinges), bridge deck shrinkage deflection can be ignored. For
simple span girders between 150 and 250 feet, the deflection should not exceed 1″.
For calculation, apply a shrinkage strain of 0.0002 to the long-term composite section
using 3n.
Camber tolerance is governed by the Bridge Welding Code AWS D1.5, chapter 5.5. A
note of clarification is added to the plan camber diagram: “For the purpose of measuring
camber tolerance during shop assembly, assume top flanges are embedded in concrete
without a designed haunch.” This allows a high or low deviation from the theoretical
curve, otherwise no negative camber tolerance is allowed.

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The 4th camber curve represents the screed adjustment diagram and shall be included
with the camber diagram. This diagram, with dimension table, shall be the remaining
calculated deflection just prior to bridge deck placement, taking into account the
estimated weight of deck formwork and deck reinforcing. The weight of bridge deck
formwork may be taken equal to 5 psf, or the assumed formwork weight used to calculate
total camber. The weight of reinforcing may be taken as the span average distributed
uniformly. The screed adjustment shall be shown at each girder line. This will indicate
how much twisting is anticipated during bridge deck placement, primarily due to span
curvature and/or skew. These adjustments shall be applied to theoretical profile grades,
regardless of actual steel framing elevations. The adjustments shall be designated “C”.
The diagram shall be designated as “Screed Setting Adjustment Diagram.” The table of
dimensions shall be kept separate from the girder camber, but at consistent locations
along girders. That is, at 1/10th points or panel points. A cross section view shall be
included with curved span bridges, showing effects of twisting. See Appendix 6.4-A6.
For the purpose of setting bridge deck soffit elevations, a correction shall be made to the
plan haunch dimension based on the difference between theoretical flange locations and
actual profiled elevations. The presence of bridge deck formwork shall be noted at the
time of the survey. The presence of false decking need not be accounted for in design or
the survey.

6.3.12 Bridge Deck Placement Sequence

The bridge deck shall be placed in a prescribed sequence allowing the concrete in each
segment to shrink with minor influence on other segments. Negative moment regions
(segments over interior piers) must be placed after positive moment regions have had
time to cure. This helps minimize shrinkage cracking and provides manageable volumes of
concrete for a work shift.
Positive moment regions should be placed first, while negative moment regions are
placed last. Successive segments should not be placed until previous segments attain
sufficient strength, typically about 2000 psi or cure of 3 to 7 days. This general guideline
is sufficient for typical, well balanced span, however the designer should check slab
tensile stresses imposed on adjoining span segments. Required concrete strength can be
increased, but needless delays waiting for higher strengths should be avoided. Also, the
contractor should be given the option of placing positive moment segments with little
influence on each other at a convenient rate, regardless of curing time. That is, segments
separated by a span could be placed the same or next day without any harm. These can
be lumped in the same pour sequence.

6.3.13 Bridge Bearings for Steel Girders

Make bearing selection consistent with required motions and capacities. The following
order is the general preference, high to low, however the designer should consider
economics and constructability when selecting bearings. In some cases where an
elastomeric bearing could handle vertical loads and rotations, additional girder stops
and/or hold downs may be needed, which could make a disc bearing a smarter and more
economical choice.
• No bearings (integral abutments • Fabric pad bearings
or piers) • Disc bearings
• Elastomeric bearings • Spherical bearings

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6.3.14 Surface Roughness and Hardness

The standard measure of surface roughness is the microinch value. This can be measured
in a number of scales but typically in the USA, the Ra scale is assumed. Surface roughness
shall be shown on the plans for all surfaces for which machining is required unless
covered by the Standard Specifications or Special Provisions. Consult the Machinery’s
Handbook for common machining practice. Edge finishing for steel girders is covered in
Standard Specifications Section 6-03.3(14). Surface hardness of thermal cut girder flanges
is also controlled.
Following is a brief description of some finishes:
1000A surface produced by thermal cutting
500A rough surface finish typical of “as rolled” sections. Suitable for surfaces that do not
contact other parts and for bearing plates on grout.
250A fairly smooth surface. Suitable for connections and surfaces not in moving contact
with other surfaces. This finish is typical of ground edges in tension zones of flanges.
125A fine machine finish resulting from careful machine work using high speeds and
taking light cuts. It may be produced by all methods of direct machining under proper
conditions. Suitable for steel to steel bearing or rotational surfaces including rockers
and pins.
63A smooth machine finish suitable for high stress steel to steel bearing surfaces
including roller bearings on bed plates.
32An extremely fine machine finish suitable for steel sliding parts. This surface
is generally produced by grinding.
16A very smooth, very fine surface only used on high stress sliding bearings. This surface
is generally produced by polishing.
For examples, see Figure 6.3.14-1.
For stainless steel sliding surfaces, specify a #8 mirror finish. This is a different method
of measurement and reflects USA industry standards for finish on stainless steel sheet,
strip, and plate. A #1 finish is basically "as rolled" and the scale goes up to a #8 finish,
which is the mirror finish. No units are implied. See the Steel Specialist for examples of
these finishes.

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Figure 6.3.14-1 Surface Finish Examples

6.3.15 Welding
All structural steel and rebar welding shall be in accordance with the Standard
Specifications, amendments thereto and the special provisions. The Standard Specifications
currently calls for welding structural steel according to the AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge
Welding Code (BWC), latest edition and the latest edition of the AWS D1.1 Structural
Weld Code.
Exceptions to both codes and additional requirements are shown in the Standard
Specifications and the special provisions.
Standard symbols for welding, brazing, and nondestructive examination can be found
in the ANSI/AWS A 2.4 by that name. This publication is a very good reference for
definitions of abbreviations and acronyms related to welding.
The designer shall consider the limits of allowable fatigue stress, specified for the
various welds used to connect the main load carrying members of a steel structure. See
LRFD-BDS Article 6.6. Most plate girder framing can be detailed in a way that provides
fatigue category C or better.

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The minimum fillet weld size shall be as shown in the following table. Weld size is
determined by the thicker of the two parts joined unless a larger size is required by
calculated stress. The weld size need not exceed the thickness of the thinner part joined.
Base Metal Thickness of Minimum Size
Thicker Part Joined of Fillet Weld
To ¾″ inclusive ¼″
Over ¾″ 5/16″

In general, the maximum size fillet weld which may be made with a single pass is 5/16 inch
for submerged arc (SAW), gas metal arc (GMAW), and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
processes. The maximum size fillet weld made in a single pass is ¼ inch for the shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) process.
The major difference between AWS D1.1 and D1.5 is the welding process qualification.
The only process deemed prequalified in D1.5 is shielded metal arc (SMAW). All others
must be qualified by test.
All bridge welding procedure specifications (WPS) submitted for approval shall be
accompanied by a procedure qualification record (PQR), a record of test specimens
examination and approval except for SMAW is prequalified.
Notes: Electrogas and electroslag welding processes are not allowed in WSDOT work.
Narrow gap improved electroslag welding is allowed on a case-by-case basis.
Often in the rehabilitation of existing steel structures, it is desirable to weld, in some
form, to the in-place structural steel. Often it is not possible to determine from the
original contract documents whether or not the existing steel contains high or low
carbon content and carbon equivalence. Small coupons from the steel can be taken for
a chemical analysis. Labs are available in the Seattle and Portland areas that will do this
service quickly. Suitable weld procedures can be prepared once the chemical content
is measured.

6.3.16 Shop Assembly

In most cases, a simple progressive longitudinal shop assembly is sufficient to ensure
proper fit of subsections, field splices, and cross frame connections, etc., in the field.
Due to geometric complexity of some structures, progressive transverse assembly, in
combination with progressive longitudinal assembly may be desirable. The designer shall
consult with the Design Unit Manager and the Steel Specialist to determine the extent
of shop assembly and clarification of Standard Specifications Section 6-03.3(28)A. If other
than line girder progressive assembly is required, the method must be included by special
provision. High skews or curved girders should be done with some form of transverse and
longitudinal assembly. Complex curved and skewed box girder framing should be done
with full transverse progressive assembly. For transverse assembly, specify cross frame
and pier diaphragm connections to be completed while assembled.
During shop assembly, girder segments are blocked or supported in the no-load condition
(no gravity effects). Simple line girder assembly is often done in the horizontal position.
The primary reason for shop assembly is to ensure correct alignment for girder field
splices. For straight bridges, cross frame connections are normally done by numerically
controlled (NC) drilling (no trial shop assembly). This is generally of sufficient accuracy to
allow cross frame installation in the field without corrective action such as reaming.

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For curved I-girders, cross frames are to be fabricated to fit the no-load or steel dead
load only condition. During field erection, girder segments will need to be adjusted or
supported to make fit-up possible. This is not unreasonable since curved girders are not
self-supporting before cross frames are in place. However, the method results in out-of-
plumb girders. For most cases, making theoretical compensation to arrive at plumb in final
condition is not justified.
Highly skewed girders present difficult fit-up conditions. Setting screeds is also
complicated because of differential deflections between neighboring girders. Design of
cross frames and pier diaphragms must take into account twist and rotations of webs
during construction. This situation should be carefully studied by finite element analysis
to determine amount and type of movement anticipated during construction. Details
should be consistent. Unlike curved girders rotating away from plumb at midspan, girder
webs for skewed construction should be kept plumb at piers. The National Steel Bridge
Association (NSBA) has published Skewed and Curved Steel I-girder Bridge Fit, which is a
good reference on how to deal with fit-up of skewed and curved girders. Consult with
the Steel Specialist on what fit-up to specify in the plans for curved and skewed bridges.
Straight bridges, fit of girders is not an issue because the webs will remain vertical in all
conditions, no-load, steel dead load only, and total dead load.

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6.4 Plan Details

6.4.1 General
Detailing practice shall follow industry standards. Previous plans are a good reference for
detailing practices. Detailing should also conform to national unified guidelines published
by AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration listed in Section 6.1.1.
Details for plate girders are continually being revised or improved to keep up with
changing fabrication practice, labor and material costs, and understanding of fatigue
behavior. Uses and demands for steel girder bridges are also changing. Cost benefits for
individual details vary from shop to shop and even from time to time. For these reasons,
previous plan details can be guides but should not be considered standards. Options
should be made available to accommodate all prospective fabricators. For example, small
shops prefer shorter, lighter girder segments. Some shops are able to purchase and handle
plates over 90 feet long. Large shop assembly may be prohibitive for fabricators without
adequate space.
WSDOT practice shall be to use field bolted connections. Cross frame members may
be shop bolted or welded assemblies and shall be shipped to the field in one unit.
Connections of bolted cross frame assemblies shall be fully tensioned prior to shipping.
Cross frame assemblies shall be field bolted to girders during erection.

6.4.2 Structural Steel Notes

Structural steel notes are dynamic in nature and often change due to changes in design,
materials and industry practice. A starting point for Structural Steel Notes can be found
in the Standard Design Drawings on the WSDOT Bridge and Structures website and as
standards in the drafting system. Since each project has unique requirements, these notes
should be edited accordingly. Material specifications are constantly changing. Separate
sets of notes are available for bridges to be painted and for weathering steel bridges.
Amendments to each are available for box girders. Contact the Steel Specialist for specific
questions related to steel notes.

6.4.3 Framing Plan

The Framing Plan shall show plan locations of girders, cross frames, and attachments and
show ties between the survey line, girder lines, backs of pavement seats, and centerlines
of piers. Locate panel points (cross frame locations). Show general arrangement of bottom
laterals. Provide geometry, bearing lines, and transverse intermediate stiffener locations.
Show field splice locations. Map out different lateral connection details. See Bridge
Standard Drawing 6.4-A1.

6.4.4 Girder Elevation

The Girder Elevation is used to define flanges, webs, and their splice locations. Show
shear connector spacing, location, and number across the flange. Show shear connector
locations on flange splice plates or specifically call out when no connectors are required
on splice plates. Locate transverse stiffeners and show where they are cut short of
tension flanges. Show the tension regions of the girders for the purpose of ordering
plate material, inspection methods (NDE), and Bridge Welding Code acceptance criteria.
See Charpy V-notch testing requirements of the Standard Specifications. Identify tension
welded butt splices for which radiographic examination (RT) is required. See Standard
Specifications Section 6-03.3(25)A. V and X are also defined in the Structural Steel Notes.

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Permissible welded web splices should be shown, however, the optional welded web
splice shown on the Girder Details sheet permits the fabricator to add splices subject
to approval by the engineer. If there are Nonredundant Steel Tension Members, System
Redundant Members, or Internally Redundant Members, they must be clearly identified
as NSTM, SRM, or IRM on the Plans. If a member is identified as NSTM, SRM, or IRM,
it is not necessary to also call the plate or member with a “V” for Charpy-V-Notch
as this is covered with the NSTM, SRM, and IRM designations. See Bridge Standard
Drawing 6.4-A2.

6.4.5 Typical Girder Details

One or two plan sheets should be devoted to showing typical details to be used
throughout the girders. Such details include the weld details, various stiffener plates and
weld connections, locations of optional web splices, and drip plate details. Include field
splice details here if only one type of splice will suffice for the plans. An entire sheet may
be required for bridges with multiple field splice designs. See Bridge Standard Drawings
6.4-A3 and 6.4-A4. Note: Do not distinguish between field bolts and shop bolts. A solid
bolt symbol will suffice.
Field splices for flanges should accommodate web location tolerance of ± ¼″ per Bridge
Welding Code Section 5.5. Allow a minimum of ¼″ for out of position web plus ⅜″ for
fillet weld, or a total of ⅝″ minimum clear between theoretical face of web and edge of
splice plate. The bottom flange splice plate should be split to allow moisture to drain (use
4 equal bottom flange splice plates). The fill plate does not need to be split.
Vertical stiffeners used to connect cross frames are generally 8″ wide to accommodate
two bolt rows. They shall be welded to top and bottom flanges to reduce out-of-plane
bending of the web. All stiffeners shall be coped, clipped (or cut short in the case of
transverse stiffeners without cross frames) a distance between 4tw and 6tw to provide
web flexibility, per LRFD-BDS Article [Link].1.

6.4.6 Cross Frame Details

Show member sizes, geometrics (work lines and work points), and connection details.
Actual lengths of members and dimensions of connections will be determined by the shop
plan detailer. Details shall incorporate actual conditions such as skew and neighboring
members so that geometric conflicts can be avoided. Double angles shall not be used
for cross frames. Cross frames shall be complete subassemblies for field installation. For
highly loaded cross frames, such as at piers or between curved girders where single angles
or WT sections will not suffice, consider symmetric sections (HSS tubes) with little or no
eccentricity in the connections. Where possible, allow for repetitive use of cross frame
geometrics, especially hole patterns in stiffener connections, regardless of superelevation
transitions. See Bridge Standard Drawing 6.4-A5.
Internal cross frames and top lateral systems for box girders are shop welded, primarily.
All connection types should be closely examined for detail conflict and weld access.
Clearance between bridge deck forming and top lateral members must be considered.

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6.4.7 Camber Diagram and Bearing Stiffener Rotation

Camber curves shall be detailed using conventional practices. Dimensions shall be given
at tenth points. Dimensions may also be given at cross frame locations, which may be
more useful in the field.
Office practice is to show deflection camber and geometric camber for profile grade
and superelevation from highway alignment shown on the Layout sheets. See Appendix
6.4-A6 for an example.
A separate diagram and table, with bridge cross section, should be included to show how
elevations at edges of deck can be determined just before concrete placement. This will
give adjustments to add to profile grades, based on remaining dead load deflections, with
deck formwork and reinforcing being present.
The camber diagram is intended to be used by the bridge fabricator. The screed setting
adjustment diagram is intended to be used by the contractor and inspectors.

6.4.8 Bridge Deck

New bridge decks for steel I-girders or box girders shall use Deck Protection System 1.
The bridge deck slab is detailed in section and plan views. The current WSDOT policy
requires one percent minimum steel be provided for the entire length of the bridge so
typically only one section view is required for single or continuous spans.
The “pad” dimension for steel girders is treated somewhat differently than for prestressed
girders. The pad dimension is assumed to be constant throughout the span length.
Ideally, the girder is cambered to compensate for dead loads and vertical curves.
However, fabrication and erection tolerances result in considerable deviation from
theoretical elevations. The pad dimension is therefore considered only a nominal value
and is adjusted as needed along the span once the steel has been erected and profiled.
The screed for the slab is to be set to produce correct roadway profile. The plans should
reference this procedure contained in Standard Specifications Section 6-03.3(39). The pad
dimension is to be noted as nominal. As a general rule of thumb, use 11″ for short span
bridges (spans less than 150′), 12″ for short to medium span bridges (150′ to 180′), 13″
for medium spans (180′ to 220′) and 14″ to 15″ for long spans (over 220′). These figures
are only approximate. Use good engineering judgment when detailing this dimension.

6.4.9 Handrail Details, Inspection Lighting, and Access

If required, include handrails with typical girder details. Locations may be adjusted
to avoid conflicts with other details such as large gusset plates. Handrail use shall be
coordinated with the Bridge Preservation Office (BPO). Often, handrails are not needed
if access to all details is possible from under bridge inspection trucks (UBIT’s) although
recently the BPO inspection staff has requested handrails on both sides of interior girders
and the inside of exterior girders. Easy public access to girder ends and handrails may
represent a nuisance. Examine the bridge and site to determine the need for handrails.
Fences may be required to deny public access.
Box girders require special consideration for inspection access. Access holes or hatches
shall be detailed to exclude birds and the public. They shall be positioned where ladders,
as a minimum, are required to gain access. If possible locate hatches in girder webs at
abutments. Hatches through webs may reduce shear capacity but are easier to use.
Webs can be thickened to compensate for section loss. Provide for round trip access and

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penetrations at all intermediate diaphragms. Openings through girder ends are preferred
if space behind end walls permits. Bottom flange hatches are difficult to operate. Pier
diaphragms will require openings for easy passage. Access for removing bridge deck
formwork shall be planned for. Typically, block-outs in the deck large enough to remove
full size plywood are detailed. Block-outs require careful rebar splicing or coupling for
good long term performance. Box girders shall have electrical, inspection lighting, and
ventilation details for the aid of inspection and maintenance. Refer to the Design Manual
Chapter 1040 for bridge inspection lighting requirements. Coordinate with the Region
Design Office to include lighting with the electrical plans.
To facilitate inspection, interior paint shall be SAE AMS Standard 595 color number
17925 (white). One-way inspection of all interior spaces should be made possible
by round trip in adjoining girders. This requires some form of walkway between boxes and
hatch operation from both sides. If locks are needed, they must be keyed to one master.
Air vents shall be placed along girder webs to allow fresh air to circulate. Refer to previous
projects for details.

6.4.10 Box Girder Details

A few details unique to box girders will be presented here. Office practice has been
to include a top lateral system in each box, full length of a girder. There is a possibility of
reducing some bays of the top laterals in straight girders without sacrificing safety during
construction. However, most WSDOT box girders are built to some level of curvature, and
the practice of using a full length top lateral system should be adhered to unless a careful
stability analysis is undertaken. In the past, the top lateral system was detailed with 6″
to 8″ clearance between lateral work line and bottom of top flange. The intent was to
provide adequate clearance for removable deck forming. This requires the introduction of
gusset connecting plates with potentially poor fatigue behavior if welded to the web.
A cleaner method of attaching the top laterals is by bolting directly to the top flange or
intermediate bolted gusset plate (in which case, the lateral members may be welded to
the gusset plate). The flange bolting pattern shall be detailed to minimize loss of critical
material, especially at interior supports. In order to maximize the clearance for bridge deck
forms, all lateral connections should progress down from the bottom surface of the top
flange. The haunch distance between top of web and deck soffit shall be 6″ or greater to
allow deck forming to clear top lateral members. Supplemental blocking will be required
to support deck forms on the typical waler system. See example top lateral details Bridge
Standard Drawings 6.4-A11.
Ideal girder construction allows full length web and flange plates to be continuously
welded without interruption of the welder. This process is routinely accomplished
with I-girder shapes, where web stiffeners are attached after top and bottom flanges
are welded to the web. With box girders, however, due to handling constraints, most
fabrication shops need to progress from top flange-to-web welding, welding stiffeners
to webs, and then welding the top flange plus web assemblies to the bottom flange. This
introduces a start and stop position at each web stiffener, unless enough clearance is
provided for the welder. To achieve this, the stiffener should be held back and attached
to the bottom flange by a member brought in after the bottom longitudinal welds are
complete. See detail Bridge Standard Drawings 6.4-A11.

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Small tractor mounted welders are able to run a continuous pass on the bottom external
weld, provided there is adequate shelf width. The standard offset between center of
web and edge of bottom flange is now 2″. In the past, this weld was primarily performed
by hand.
The most significant design difference between I-girders and box girders occur in bottom
flange compression regions. Using thicker material to provide stability is not usually
economical, given the typically wide unsupported flange widths. The standard practice
has been to stiffen relatively thin compression plates with a system of longitudinal and
transverse stiffeners. WSDOT practice is to use tee shapes, either singly or in pairs
for the wider plates. Ideally, the stiffeners are terminated at bolted field splices. If the
stiffener is terminated in a region of live load tension cycles, careful attention needs to
be paid to design fatigue stresses and the termination detail. See details Bridge Standard
Drawings 6.4-A13.
Box girder inside clear height shall be 5 feet or more to provide reasonable inspection
access. Less than 5 feet inside clear height is not be permitted. Other girder types and
materials shall be investigated.
Drain holes shall be installed at all low points.
Geometrics for boxes are referenced to a single workline, unless box width tapers. The
box cross section remains tied to a centerline intersecting this workline and normal to the
bridge deck. The section rotates with superelevation transition rather than warping. See
box girder geometrics and proportions Bridge Standard Drawings 6.4-A10.
Box girders shall be supported by single centralized bearings when two or more boxes
make up the bridge section. This requires diaphragms between boxes for bracing. See pier
diaphragm details Bridge Standard Drawings 6.4-A12.

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6.5 Shop Plan Review

Shop plans shall be checked for agreement with the Contract Plans, Standard
Specifications, and the Special Provisions. The review procedure is described in Section
1.3.5. Material specifications shall be checked along with plate sizes.
Welding procedure specifications (WPS) and procedure qualification records (PQR), when
applicable, should be submitted with shop plans. If not, they should be requested so they
can be reviewed during the shop plan review process.
All the geometry in most shop plans is typically not reviewed in its entirety, however the
reviewer should verify that lengths, radii, material types, and sizes shown on shop plans
are in general agreement with the contract. The effects of profile grade and camber would
make exact verification difficult. Some differences in lengths, between top and bottom
flange plates for example, are to be expected.
Typically shop plans are submitted as Type 2 Working Drawings. See Standard
Specifications Section 1-05.3 for definitions of Working Drawings. Upon completion of
the review, the submittal shall be stamped in accordance with the WSDOT Construction
Manual Section SS 1-05.3 guidance. The status of the submittal is typically stamped as:
1. No exceptions taken
2. Make corrections noted
3. Revise and resubmit.
When stamping as “Make corrections noted” it is often worthwhile to note whether the
shop plan needs to be resubmitted or not.

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6.6 Painting of Existing Steel Bridges

6.6.1 General
With the aging of our existing steel bridge inventory, painting of these existing steel
bridges has become a common preservation project requiring PS&E development. The
majority of the painting projects are existing steel truss bridges and this section will focus
mainly on trusses, however most aspects of this section are also applicable to plate girder
and box girder type structures.
The existing truss bridges range in complexity from simple span through-truss bridges
to complex multi-span, arched deck trusses. As part of the PS&E development, the
structures need to be analyzed to ensure the bridge can support the construction loads
that will be imposed on the structure. In many instances, the structures will need to
remain open to all or partial live load traffic lanes.
The existing trusses may require both a vertical and horizontal analysis. The vertical
analysis is necessary to ensure the structure can withstand the additional dead and live
load from painting construction activities. The horizontal analysis is necessary to ensure
the structure can withstand the lateral wind loading imposed on the structure during
painting operations. Containment is required to collect all debris and creates a large “sail”
area with respect to the truss condition without containment. Wind load limitations must
be imposed as part of the Contract documents to ensure the structure is not overloaded
while the containment is in place. This will be covered in more detail in Section 6.6.3.
In most cases when painting a plate or box girder structure, only a vertical analysis will
be required. The containment necessary for plate or box girders will not be substantially
larger than the normal exposed wind area of the bridge without containment.
Most existing steel structures were originally constructed when lead paint was used as
a primer coat for protection of the steel elements. It began to phase out in the 1960’s
and was formally banned by the Federal government in 1978. However, lead paint was
not removed from WSDOT Standard Specifications until the early 1990s. Structures
constructed prior to these dates should be assumed to contain lead-based paint. For
many years, WSDOT’s practice was to overcoat existing steel structures, including
trusses. This involved removal of loose paint and debris, spot sandblasting and priming of
areas with visible rust, and then over coating with an intermediate and topcoat of paint.
WSDOT’s current policy is to require full paint removal on our existing steel structures
that have only received overcoat paint applications in the past. This entails full removal
of all existing paint, rust, mill scale etc. down to bare metal. Refer to Section 6-07 of
the Standard Specifications for more details on full paint removal procedures. Contract
Special Provisions should indicate the general paint history of a structure and note that
blasting to bare metal has not occurred in the past, several layers of paint may exist on
the structure, and no guarantee of total paint thickness can be made. Paint history forms
can be obtained from the Bridge Asset Engineer and can be include as “For Information
Only” documents.
WSDOT’s current policy requires full containment of all blasting and paint debris and
shall be in accordance with SSPC Technology Guide No. 6, Guide for Containing Surface
Preparation Debris Generated During Paint Removal Operations Class 1. Emissions from the
containment are limited to the Level A Acceptance Criteria – Option Level 0 Emissions
standard per SSPC Technology Update No. 7. This means no emissions (debris, old paint,
sand blast media, etc.) are permitted to escape the containment.

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6.6.2 Vertical Analysis

A vertical analysis is typically required when developing plans and specifications for a
steel bridge painting project. Cases where a vertical analysis may not be required are
when the structure will be closed to live load during construction or when enough lanes
will be closed to easily ensure the extra construction load will be less than the live load
from the closed lanes.
The vertical analysis consists of a load rating of the bridge with added loads for
construction dead and live load. The additional dead load is primarily due to containment,
access platforms, and equipment. The additional live load is for workers, and debris from
abrasive blasting. These are considered live loads because they vary and are not constant.
For the vertical analysis, a 25 psf load is typically assumed to account for both dead and
live loads. The width of the applied construction load is typically assumed to be the bridge
width plus 5 feet on each side. This is only a rule of thumb and can be adjusted, but the
assumptions used for the area of construction load must be clearly stated in the plans. If
the Contractor chooses to use a wider or narrower width of platform, then they can adjust
the allowable construction load proportionally. Construction load can also be increased
if the structure allows or decreased if 25 psf creates rating concerns. The minimum
reasonable construction load should be at least 20 psf.
The load rating analysis shall be performed for all rating vehicles per Chapter 13. Rating
results, with the addition of construction loads, shall not require the bridge to be posted
for legal loads. After obtaining the rating for OL2 with construction load, the WSDOT
Bridge Preservation office’s Load Rating Engineer shall be consulted to assess the impacts
to permit loads. The construction load is subtracted from the member capacity in the
numerator of the typical load rating equation. In most cases the LRFR rating method
should be used.
The designer should assume the construction load is applied to the entire length of the
structure. This allows the contractor the most flexibility in constructing the work access
and containment. In some cases, this may not be possible due to load rating limitations
and only specific zones will be permitted to be loaded with the additional construction
load. Again, these limitations need to be clearly stated on the contract plans.
As with a typical load rating, the rating should include the primary truss members, the
floor system and the primary member gusset plates. The designer should check with the
WSDOT Bridge Preservation office’s Load Rating Engineer to obtain the latest load rating
information. Load rating results of the construction conditions shall be based on the
engineer’s analysis.
In addition to the global analysis of the structure for the added construction load, analysis
of localized loads on individual members may be required. The number of support points
and maximum applied loads for individual stringers, floor beams or truss elements will
need to be outlined in the Contract plans. The most common approach is to provide
maximum loads and spacing of support points. The Contractor will need to analyze
the local attachment to the member based on his construction methods and particular
attachment detail. Alternatively, maximum additional shear or moment demands on
specific members can be provided, however maximum loads and support point spacing is
typically preferred by the Contractor.

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6.6.3 Horizontal Analysis

As discussed previously, and primarily with truss type structures, a horizontal wind
analysis will need to be performed to ensure the structure can resist wind loads while
the containment is in place, which creates a large wind or “sail” area on the bridge. As
part of the analysis, the amount of bridge to be contained needs to be determined and
at what maximum wind speed the containment side walls need to be removed to provide
an acceptable level of safety. This is particularly important with long span trusses and
trusses with varying depths such as arch deck trusses or camel back trusses. Currently
the Standard Specifications limit the amount of containment to one span unless otherwise
specified. In some cases more or less than one span can be contained. It is possible that a
Contractor may want to contain portions of multiple spans or they may want to maintain a
constant containment length, but progressively move the containment down the length of
the bridge. This can create many different loading conditions on the structure.
A full rigorous analysis can always be performed for the horizontal analysis taking
into account member capacities and demands; however a simplified method has been
successfully employed in the past and will be described herein. The following is a basic
outline of the process followed by a more detailed description for each step.
Basic Outline:
1. Compute the LRFD-BDS design wind pressure for the bridge elements based on the
existing site conditions.
2. Apply the wind pressure to the bridge elements and calculate total horizontal wind
shear at each support location.
3. Utilize the total design wind shear at each support as the allowable upper bound
horizontal wind loading.
Assume locations for containment. Back calculate a reduced wind speed that results in the
same or lower horizontal wind shear at each pier. Compute for the various containment
conditions. Determine allowable containment areas and associated maximum wind
speeds during construction. These maximum wind speeds will be the forecast wind speed
value that triggers the Contractor to remove or lower the containment side walls.
Detailed Discussion:
The following discussion provides more detail to the outlined steps above. In the past
Excel spreadsheets have been used for the analysis and have proven to be an efficient
tool for this simplified analysis.
Steps 1, 2 & 3:
Determining the design horizontal wind shear at each pier or support location requires
computing the exposed surface area of the existing truss members, floor system and
any barrier or rail. The design wind pressure, Pz, to apply to the surface area should be
computed based on the latest LRFD-BDS for the Strength III Limit State. The wind speed
to use in the calculation of wind pressure should be obtained from LRFD-BDS Figure
[Link].2-1. The Wind Exposure Category and Ground Surface Roughness Category
will need to be selected based on judgment of the existing site. The Drag Coefficients
will vary depending on the member and can be found in LRFD-BDS Table [Link].1-2.
Typically for truss members the sharp-edged member coefficient is used, whereas the
I-girder Superstructure coefficient is used for the floor system and barrier.

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The computed design wind pressure is applied to each member or bridge element to
compute a horizontal shear per member. For simplicity, the individual member horizontal
shear can be distributed to each pier or support by assuming simple span boundary
conditions for each span, regardless if the truss is continuous over the pier(s). The load
is assumed to be applied at the mid-length of the member when computing horizontal
distances to the pier. The summation of all member shear forces is calculated for each
pier and can be considered the maximum allowable shear force per pier or support. The
calculated maximum shears will be based on the latest AASHTO wind speeds and could
be higher than the original design. As a good check, the designer should review the
existing stress sheets as they often will have design wind shear for the bearings. These
forces will be Service level demands and should be compared with unfactored calculated
demands. If no data is available, old versions of the AASHTO code in the WSDOT Bridge
Office archives can be reviewed to determine design wind speeds and or pressures used
when the structure was originally constructed. Historically a wind pressure of 50psf was
used on trusses. The designer can then make a judgment as to what maximum shear
value should be used for comparison in the next steps. Regardless of which maximum
wind shear is to be used, a safety (or resistance) factor of 0.80 should be applied to the
maximum permissible shear forces.
Overturning stability of a bridge should be calculated at each pier, especially when the
truss has significant depth, has a variable depth, or the ratio of truss line horizontal
spacing to truss vertical depth is less than 1/5. Overturning forces have been computed on
previous projects and have been found to not be of concern and no uplift conditions on
the bearings were encountered.
Step 4:
Once the upper bound horizontal shear force per pier has been determined, analysis of
the containment areas can be computed.
Simple Spans Structures: For a simple span truss, it is recommended the designer start
by assuming the entire span is covered with containment. For the total containment
height, assume a vertical distance from 5 feet below the truss bottom chords to 5 feet
above the top of bridge superstructure. Using the total containment area, calculate the
associated wind pressure that results in the previously determined maximum shear at the
pier or support. From this wind pressure, back calculate the corresponding wind speed.
For containment areas use a drag coefficient for I-Girder Superstructures when back
calculating wind speed. This drag coefficient most closely represents a flat surface created
by the containment. This value is the maximum wind speed that can be allowed on the
structure before the Contractor will be required to remove or lower the containment
side walls. The Contract Specifications and Special Provisions require the Contractor to
monitor forecasted wind speeds and gusts and are required to act accordingly if speeds
over the maximum are expected. As a rule of thumb, 30 to 35 mph has been successfully
used as maximum wind speeds on several projects. However, removal of containment can
be time consuming and expensive for the Contractor. A more desirable maximum wind
speed is in the range of 45 to 50 mph. The Contractor may not necessarily be working in
these conditions, but will allow them to safely leave the containment in place.
Multi-span, Long-span, Variable Depth or Complex Geometry Structures: These types of
truss structures typically require more analysis due to the many containment scenarios
that could be employed on the structure. In many cases only portions of the span will
or can be contained. When computing shear forces at the piers or supports, the portion

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contained and the members not contained will need to be included in the analysis. This is
where an Excel spreadsheet can be a handy tool. In past analyses, each bay of the truss
has been set up with essentially an “on or off” switch. If on, the total area of the truss
bay or panel is assumed contained and the associated area and distances from the center
of the bay are used to calculate horizontal wind shear at the piers. If off, only the truss
members within the bay are assumed to be loaded with wind pressure. Shear forces are
combined and total shear at the pier is computed. This tool allows many containment
scenarios to be investigated at various wind pressures and speeds. As discussed earlier,
the Contractor will often want to contain a constant length of the bridge, but will move
the containment progressively along the length.
As discussed with the simple spans, a wind pressure and corresponding wind speed can
be back-calculated and used as the maximum allowable construction wind speed.
For further questions on the analysis methods, and what method may be appropriate for a
given structure, discuss with the Steel Specialist.

6.6.4 Special Considerations

6.6.4.A Coast Guard
Coast Guard permits will be required for any painting project over a navigable waterway.
The containment will typically extend below the structure thereby reducing the vertical
and/or horizontal clearance of the navigation channel. Temporary navigation lights may
also be required as part of the project as existing lights may be covered by containment.
The WSDOT Coast Guard Liaison should be contacted early in the design process so
there is sufficient time to procure the necessary permits. When a moveable span is
included in the project, such as a bascule, lift, or swing bridge, the operation of the
moveable span may need to be modified during the contract. This will require either a
deviation or rule change to the operation of the bridge. The deviation can be handled at
the local level and allows for changes up to 6 months. If changes to the operation of the
bridge are required for longer than 6 months, a temporary rule change will be required
and will need approval at the national level.

6.6.4.B Moveable Spans

When working with moveable spans, consideration for machinery and span balancing
must be considered. For most moveable bridges, counterweights are necessary to
balance the span while it is being lifted or swung open. This is to keep the span operating
smoothly and to reduce demand on the machinery and associated components. The
Bridge Preservation Office should be contacted to discuss the specifics of the project.
In some cases measurements of the bridge machinery must be taken prior to any work
starting and then again after painting is complete and prior to operating. Removing all
the existing paint can change the weight and balance of the span and adjustments to the
counterweights may be required. The machinery will also need to be protected during
painting operations, particularly sandblasting. Sandblasting can severely damage bearings,
gears, motors etc. if not protected. These elements are typically excluded from the project
painting limits.
Operation of the moveable spans with containment in place is typically not permitted.
This will need to be coordinated with the Coast Guard and durations where the span is
inoperable should be minimized to avoid impacts to the marine traffic.

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6.6.4.C Traffic Control

Traffic Control options will need to be discussed with the Region early in the project,
particularly with through-truss type bridges. Ideally the bridge can be closed during the
painting operation; however that is not the norm. In most cases all or partial lanes will
need to remain open during the painting project. This will control the amount and location
of containment the Contractor will be permitted to install. The trade-off is the overall
duration of the project. If several containment set-ups are required, the longer the project
duration and number of working days required.

6.6.4.D Review of Construction Submittals

The Standard Specifications requires a comprehensive painting plan be submitted by
the Contractor for all painting projects. Included in the submittal will be the engineered
containment plans. These will need to be reviewed carefully to ensure the limitations
outlined in the Contract have been followed. In many cases, attachments to existing
piers, bearings or walls are required as part of the containment support system to resist
horizontal forces. These attachment locations and associated calculations also need
careful review to ensure no damage will occur to existing elements.

6.6.4.E Structural Steel Repairs

The designer should review the existing inspection reports for the bridge(s) included
in the painting project to determine if structural repairs are required and would be
appropriate to add to the scope of work. In addition, the design engineer should consider
a site visit to review and inspect the existing structure during the design effort. The
designer should consult with the Bridge Preservation Office to coordinate the site visit
(traffic control, UBIT or other equipment needs). During the site visit the designer should
verify any repair areas identified in the inspection reports and look for additional areas
that may need repairs. An assessment of the condition of the existing rivets and amount
of existing pack rust should be made to help in estimating quantities for the project. In
most cases it will be difficult to inspect the entire bridge, but representative areas can be
inspected and evaluated and then extrapolated to the entire structure.
The Bridge Asset Management Engineer should be consulted as to available funding for
structural repairs. If known structural repairs are not required, all paint projects should
include a bid item for Misc. Steel Repairs to account for items that are discovered during
the painting operations. Typically, this bid item is included as a Force Account item
so that WSDOT can direct the work when needed repairs are identified. In addition,
existing rivets that are corroded or loose should be replaced during the contract. A detail
is provided in the plans that outlines in what condition a rivet should be removed and
replaced with a high strength bolt. All rivets being replaced with high strength bolts
should be replaced with galvanized bolts. Tension control “twist–off” bolts shall not be
permitted. Use of galvanized bolts avoids having to go back and sandblast the black
bolts in preparation for prime paint in areas that have already been blasted and primed.
Refer to Standard Drawing 6.4-A16 for details on evaluation and replacement of existing
rivets. Rivets shall be evaluated after blasting and priming operations. In many cases rivet
deterioration can't be evaluated until after blasting operations are completed. However,
to avoid flash rust on the newly blasted steel, the Contractor will need to prime the
existing surfaces prior to any evaluation inspection can occur. The rivet evaluation and
repair work shall be included in a separate per each bid item.

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The engineer should review the inspection reports to determine a reasonable estimate for
number of rivets in addition to any assessments made during a site visit. Consult with the
Steel Specialist if the inspection reports do not have an estimated quantity of deteriorated
rivets. The Misc. Steel Repair Force Account bid item should be included to cover any
unforeseen structural repairs. Known structural repairs are typically included as a Lump
Sum bid item based on estimated steel weight.

6.6.5 Quantities and Estimates

As part of the PS&E development, quantities of surface area will need to be calculated
for the entire bridge. This can be a time-consuming effort but is necessary to estimate
project costs and durations. On truss bridges, it is typically sufficient to compute the
surface areas of the members from panel point to panel point and ignore the gusset
plates. Detailed comparisons have been performed and when a member length between
panel points is used, the area of the gusset plates is typically accounted for. A factor for
miscellaneous area in the range of 5% to 15% can be added depending on the complexity
of the bridge to cover connections, bolt or rivet surfaces, and any miscellaneous items
not accounted for in the surface quantity take-off. Once the quantity of surface area is
computed, the Specification and Estimate Engineers should be consulted and can provide
estimates on cost.
When estimating schedules, experience from previous truss painting projects can be used
as a guide. A good rule of thumb is to assume one painting crew consisting of 6-8 people
can complete 250SF of surface area per 8-hour shift. This would include set-up and take-
down of containment, blasting and painting. From these initial estimates, durations can be
estimated for the entire project by adjusting number of crews on the project and number
of shifts worked per day. For plate girder projects, production rates may be higher. The
designer should consult with the S&E Engineer or the Steel Specialist for additional
information. The engineer/estimator must take into account the practical limitations of a
given project. For example, a simple span truss will have limited amount of access and/
or crews that can be working at one time. Alternatively, a large multi-span truss may have
several crews working or several shifts per day. Constraints at a particular site will also
need to be considered in the working day estimate. Limitations on night work may be
required due to noise concerns. The sandblasting operation is loud and often exceeds the
noise limits, particularly in populated areas.

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6.7 Corrosion of Steel Foundations and Buried Structures

6.7.1 Corrosion of Steel Foundations
The following section provides corrosion rates for the design of steel H-piling, pipe piling,
concrete filled steel tubes (CFSTs), and sheet piling. The design wall, flange, and web
thickness, as applicable, for structural steel sections shall be reduced for corrosion over a
75-year minimum design life. The remaining steel thickness at 75 years shall be sufficient
to resist the anticipated design loads. Minimum corrosion rates for section loss are
specified in Table 6.7-1 below.

Table 6.7-1 Section Loss (inch per year)

Marine or Non- Non-Marine:
Location Marine: Corrosive Non-Corrosive
Soil embedded zone (undisturbed soil) 0.001 0.0005
Soil embedded zone (fill or disturbed soils) 0.0015 0.00075
Immersed zone 0.003 0.0015
Tidal zone 0.004 ---
Splash zone 0.006 ---
Atmospheric 0.002 0.001
Definitions of the terms used in Table 6.7-1 are as follows:
• Marine – a site is considered a marine environment if the structure is less than 1000
feet measured from the surface or edge of salt or brackish water. Water shall be
considered brackish if the chloride concentration is measured at 500 ppm or greater
measured at mean tide level or higher.
• Non-Marine: Corrosive – a non-marine site is greater than 1000 feet from salt or
brackish water and is considered corrosive if one or more of the following conditions
exist based on representative soil and/or water samples:
1. The chloride concentration is 500 ppm or greater,
2. The sulfate concentration is 1500 ppm or greater,
3. The pH is 5.5 or less.

If none of the following conditions exist, the site is considered non-marine: non-
corrosive. Refer to Section 6.7.2.A

for information on appropriate testing procedures.

• Immersed zone – portion of structural steel element which is continuously immersed
or submerged in water. Immersed non-marine: non-corrosive are environments
with fresh water or are tested and found not to meet the marine or non-marine:
corrosive values.
• Tidal zone – portion of structural steel element in a marine environment between
the Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) and the Mean High Water (MHW) based on the
MLLW Datum.
• Splash zone – portion of structural steel element in a marine environment located
above the MHW plus five additional feet or as otherwise determined for a
specific site.
• Atmospheric - portion of structural steel element above the splash zone or above
ground line as applicable.

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The section loss for H-piling and sheet piling shall be doubled to account for both
surfaces being exposed. For piling exposed on one face and against the soil on the
opposite, the appropriate exposure section loss values can be used per side and then
added for a total loss. The interior surface of pipe piling and CFSTs are assumed to
be sealed by concrete fill or a soil plug, which prevents sufficient oxygen to support
significant corrosion. A micro-pile is considered a subset of pipe piles.
The corrosion rates are based on information published in the CALTRANS March 2018,
Corrosion Guidelines, version 3.0, the FHWA NHI-16-009 Design and Construction of
Driven Pile Foundations - Volume I, and the Washington State Ferries Terminal Design
Manual, 2016.
A site-specific assessment should be performed to determine if a site is considered
marine, non-marine: corrosive, or non-corrosive. If a site investigation is not performed,
the values for a marine/non-marine: corrosive site shall be used unless otherwise
approved by the State Bridge Design Engineer. Sampling of a site for corrosion
assessment requires samples of the soil and/or water to be obtained from both the
surface and subsurface materials to ensure representation of the strata at the site. Water
samples in flowing streams and rivers shall not be taken when the water level is elevated
due to storm conditions as they may dilute the chemical concentrations.
The potential for scour need not be considered when choosing a design corrosion rate as
it relates to zones of exposure. It is assumed any significant scour would be repaired and
the applicable zone of a structural element would not be changed. However, if abrasion
on the section is a concern, additional wall thickness should be considered. Refer to the
discussion on abrasion in Section 6.7.2.E for more guidance.
A protective coating may be applied to the structural steel sections to increase
the corrosion protection. If a coating is utilized, then the section loss corrosion is
assumed to begin at the end of the effective life of the coating. Coating effective life is
generally assumed to be 15 years. An appropriate coating system shall be specified to
withstand damage from handling and driving. Contact the WSDOT Steel Specialist for
recommendations on paint systems and coating thicknesses for use on steel piling.
Coating requirements for steel piles in soldier pile walls (cantilever and tie-back) shall
consist of one coat of shop applied inorganic zinc primer from the top of the pile to 2 feet
below the top of the embedded portion. Refer also to Section 8.1.5.B and the Standard
Specifications Section 6-16.3(4). Any portion of the pile embedded in concrete or CDF
need not consider corrosion or section loss, but portions adjacent to the soil or exposed
to the atmosphere shall consider section loss for the design life of the structure.

6.7.2 Corrosion and Abrasion of Metal Buried Structures

Metal Buried Structures consist of steel or aluminum structural plate pipes, arches, and
boxes and shall be designed in conformance with Section 12 of the –LRFD-BDS. Once a
structural shape, size, material, and gage are selected, the designer shall perform a service
life analysis to ensure a minimum structure service life of 75 years is provided. Issues
affecting the service life include corrosive action of the exterior and interior environments
and abrasive action of the hydraulic flow adjacent to the structure. Metal Buried
Structures consisting of steel structural plate shall not be used in Marine and Non-Marine:
Corrosive environments as defined in Section 6.7.1.

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6.7.2.A Corrosion
The design service life analysis shall include a check on both the outside or backfill and
the inside or water side environments to determine which governs.
The characteristics of the soil and water in contact with the structure that can contribute
to corrosion include, but are not limited to, soluble salts, sulfates, soil and water
resistivity, soil and water pH, and the presence of oxygen.
During design, corrosion investigations of in-situ soils, fill material (native or imported) to
be used as backfill, soils/materials to be used inside the Buried Structure and any water
flowing into or around the structure shall be performed. Soils shall meet the requirements
of Standard Specification 6-20.3(6) and 6-20.3(9)A.
Soil and water sampling and testing procedures shall follow the requirements of the
following or other approved test protocol:
1. WSDOT T 417 (resistivity and pH of soil and water)
2. CALTRANS Test 643 (resistivity of soil and water)
3. AASHTO T 288 (resistivity of soil)
4. AASHTO T 289 (soil pH)
5. AASHTO T 290 (sulfate in soil)
6. AASHTO T 291 (chloride in soil)
7. ASTM D 1293 (water pH)
8. CALTRANS Test 417 (soil and water sulfate content)
9. CALTRANS Test 422 (soil and water chloride content)
Water samples shall not be taken when the water level is elevated due to storm
conditions as this may dilute chemical concentrations.

6.7.2.B Steel Structures

For galvanized steel Buried Structures, once the controlling pH and resistivity values
of the environment are determined, the designer shall utilize the chart in Figure 6.7-1
to determine the estimated service life of the structure. The chart is based on 18 gage
galvanized sheet steel. If a gage thicker than 18 is used, the thickness factor table within
the chart can be used as a multiplier on the estimated service life.
Note: CALTRANS developed thickness modification factors up to 8 gage, which were then
interpolated out to 1 gage by CONTECH Engineered Solutions. Thicknesses greater than
1 gage shall use the factors for 1 gage.
If the estimated service life is less than 75 years, additional thickness shall be added
beyond what is required for structural demands to achieve the 75 year service life.
For aluminized steel Buried Structures, using aluminum-coated (Type 2) sheet steel in
accordance with AASHTO M274, the service life and resistance to corrosion is generally
more than galvanized steel structures. A similar chart and methodology can be used for
aluminum coated structures and is found in Figure 6.7-2. The chart is based on 16 gage
aluminized sheet steel. If a gage thicker than 16 is used, the thickness factor table within
the chart can be used as a multiplier on the estimated service life. The service life is based
on years to first perforation.

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Aluminum-coated steel structures should generally only be used when environmental

conditions have a pH between 5 and 9 and a resistivity greater than 1500 ohm-cm.
Recent studies documented in the National Corrugated Steel Pipe Association (NCSPA)
Pipe Selection Guide indicated that 14 gage aluminum-coated structures can achieve over
75 year service life in these environmental conditions. The WSDOT Hydraulics Manual
also recommends aluminum-coated pipe only be used with pH between 5 and 8.5 and
soil resistivity greater than 1000 ohm-cm. These recommendations are based on assumed
50 year service life.

6.7.2.C Aluminum Alloy Structures

Aluminum alloy plate has been shown to be more resistant to corrosion than either
galvanized or aluminized steel. A chart for determining service life, similar to that for
galvanized and aluminized steel, is located in Figure 6.7-3. The chart is based on 16
gage aluminum alloy plate and as with the aluminum-coated chart, the service life is
based on years to first perforation. The chart was developed for aluminum pipe (Al-Clad
7072/3004) but is applicable to aluminum structural plate (5050 alloy).
Aluminum alloy plate structures should generally only be used when environmental
conditions have a pH between 4.5 and 9 and a resistivity greater than 500 ohm-cm. There
is no upper limit on resistivity as soft water is not a concern.

Figure 6.7-1 Chart for Estimating Average Invert Life for 18 Gage Plain Galvanized Buried
Structures (CALTRANS Highway Design Manual/CONTECH Structural Plate
Design Guide)

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Figure 6.7-2 Chart for Estimating Average Invert Life for 16 Gage Aluminized Steel Buried
Structures (Florida DOT Drainage Design Guide, 2019)

Figure 6.7-3 Chart for Estimating Average Invert Life for 16 Gage Aluminum Alloy Buried
Structures (Florida DOT Drainage Design Guide, 2019)

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6.7.2.D Alternative Coatings and Mitigation for De-icing Salts

Alternate coatings for buried metal structures, such as polymer, asphalt, concrete linings,
and others are also available but are not discussed in detail in this section. The designer
will need to evaluate the corrosion and abrasive potential and select the appropriate
coating to achieve a 75 year service design life. If a coating is utilized, then the section
loss corrosion and/or abrasion is assumed to begin at the end of the effective life of
the coating. Any alternative coating selected shall be approved by the WSDOT Bridge
Design Office.
When a metal Buried Structure supports a roadway, and the minimum Fill Depth, as
defined in Section 8.3, is less than 8 feet, a protection against roadway de-icing salts and
chlorides by one of the following methods shall be provided:
• Providing an impermeable geomembrane with welded seams in the backfill over the
Buried Structure that is sloped to drain water away from the Structure. The membrane
shall be a minimum 30 mil thick polyvinyl chloride, ethylene interpolymer alloy, or
polyurethane polymer, or a combination of these polymers.
• Preventing Roadway drainage from entering into the fill above the Buried Structure.
• Providing additional metal plate thickness.
Regional WSDOT Maintenance staff shall be consulted to determine the type and
frequency of de-icing salts used for the site specific location.

6.7.2.E Abrasion
In addition to service life analysis for corrosion, abrasion of the invert and side walls shall
be investigated. The designer shall consider the potential for lateral stream migration
when considering abrasion on side walls. Abrasion risk and mitigation shall be considered
the same for galvanized or aluminized steel and for aluminum plate structures. Three
factors that must combine to cause abrasion include:
1. Abrasive bed load
2. Sufficient stream velocity to carry the bed load
3. Flow duration and frequency
The WSDOT Hydraulics Manual M 23-03.06 (2019) provides guidelines for abrasion levels
and the general site characteristics, which are described below:
1. Level 1 - Nonabrasive: areas of little or no bed load and very low velocities of 3 feet
per second (fps) or less. Slopes are generally less than 1 percent. This condition can
be assumed for the soil side of the structure.
2. Level 2 - Low abrasive: areas of minor bed loads of sand, silts and clays with velocities
less than 6 fps and slopes generally range from 1 percent to 2 percent.
3. Level 3 - Moderate abrasive: areas of moderate bed loads of sand and gravel with
stone sizes up to approximately 3 inches and velocities between 6 and 15 fps. Slopes
generally range from 2 percent to 4 percent.
4. Level 4 - Severe abrasive: areas of heavy bed loads of sand, gravel, and rock with
stone sizes up to 12 inches and larger and velocities exceeding 15 fps. Slopes are
generally greater than 4 percent.

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Stream velocities shall be based upon typical flows and water surface elevations for a
2-year event, minimum.
For Abrasion Levels 1 and 2, no additional protection is required.
For Abrasion Level 3, the thickness of the material shall be increased by one or two gages
(approximately 1/64 inch) and/or a concrete lining shall be used. Alternatively, other
protection such as streambed material or stilling basins are acceptable with the approval
of the WSDOT Bridge Design Office.
For Abrasion Level 4, abrasion protection shall be provided such as increased gage
thickness, alternative materials, coatings, concrete linings, etc. and shall require approval
of the WSDOT Bridge Design Office.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

6.8 Bridge Standard Drawings

6.4-A1 Example Framing Plan (PDF 53KB) (DWG 38KB)
6.4-A2 Example Girder Elevation (PDF 61KB) (DWG 56KB)
6.4-A3 Example Girder Details (PDF 76KB) (DWG 75KB)
6.4-A4 Steel Plate Girder Example - Field Splice (PDF 75KB) (DWG 72KB)
6.4-A5 Example - Crossframe Details (PDF 66KB) (DWG 62KB)
6.4-A6 Example - Camber Diagram (PDF 73KB) (DWG 76KB)
6.4-A7 Steel Plate Girder Example - Roadway Section (PDF 71KB) (DWG 81KB)
6.4-A8 Steel Plate Girder Example - Slab Plan (PDF 71KB) (DWG 60KB)
6.4-A9 Example – Handrail(PDF 79KB) (DWG 89KB)
6.4-A10 Example - Box Girder Geometrics and Proportions
(PDF 83KB) (DWG 75KB)
6.4-A11 Example - Box Girder Details (PDF 77KB) (DWG 87KB)
6.4-A12 Example - Box Girder Pier Diaphragm Details (PDF 99KB) (DWG 75KB)
6.4-A13 Example - Box Girder Miscellaneous Details (PDF 79KB) (DWG 75KB)
6.4-A14 Example - Access Hatch Details (PDF 66KB) (DWG 96KB)
6.4-A15 NGI-ESW CVN Impact Test for Heat Affected Zone
(PDF 86KB) (DWG 85KB)
6.4-A16 Rivet Evaluation Detail (PDF 86KB) (DWG 85KB)
6.4-A17 Structural Steel Notes – Painted (PDF)
6.4-A18 Structural Steel Notes – Weathering Steel (PDF)
6.4-A19 Steel Girder Tension Regions (PDF)

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Structural Steel Chapter 6

6.99 References
The following publications can provide general guidance for the design of steel structures.
Some of this material may be dated and its application should be used with caution.
1. See Section 1.99.
2. Steel Bridge Design Handbook (February, 2022)
This includes 19 volumes of detailed design references for I-girders and box girders,
both straight and curved, utilizing LRFD design. This reference also has 6 detailed
design examples for I-girder and box girder bridges, straight and curved.
3. Composite Steel Plate Girder Superstructures, by US Steel
Example tables and charts for complete plate girders, standardized for 34 and 44 ft
roadways and HS-20 loading. Many span arrangements and lengths are presented.
4. Steel Structures, Design and Behavior by Salmon and Johnson
A textbook for steel design, formatted to AISC LRFD method. This is a good reference
for structural behavior of steel members or components, in detail that is not practical
for codes or other manuals.
5. Design of Welded Structures by Omer H. Blodgett.
This publication is quite helpful in the calculation of section properties and the design
of individual members. There are sections on bridge girders and many other welded
structures. The basics of torsion analysis are included.
6. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth Edition by Ronald D. Ziemian
7. AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration Publications
These publications include several guidelines for design, detailing, fabrication,
inspection and erection of steel structures.
8. A Fatigue Primer for Structural Engineers, by John Fisher, Geoffrey L Kulak, and Ian
F. C. Smith
9. Steel Construction Manual, Latest Edition, by American Institute of Steel Construction
The essential reference for rolled shape properties, design tables, and specifications
governing steel design and construction.
10. Machinery’s Handbook, Latest Edition by Industrial Press
A reference book for the machine shop practice; handy for thread types, machine
tolerances and fits, spring design, etc.
11. Painting of Steel Bridges and Other Structures, by Clive H. Hare
This is a good reference for paint systems, surface preparation, and relative costs, for
both bare and previously painted steel. Explanations of how each paint system works,
and comparisons of each on the basis of performance and cost are provided.

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Chapter 6 Structural Steel

12. NCHRP Report 314, Guidelines for the Use of Weathering Steel in Bridges
This reference contains detailing information if weathering steel will be used.
Protection of concrete surfaces from staining and techniques for providing uniform
appearance is provided.
13. Report No. WA-RD 876.1, Low Vertical Clearance Truss Bridges: Risk Assessment and
Retrofit Mitigation Study, November 2017, WSDOT Bridge and Structures Office.

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