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Module 13: Human Nutrition
Processes involved in human nutrition
Absorption
Most digested molecules of food, as well as water and minerals = absorbed through
the small intestine.
The mucosa of the small intestine contains many folds that are covered
with tiny finger-like projections called villi. The villi are covered with microscopic
projections called microvilli.
These structures create a vast surface area through which nutrients can be
absorbed.
Specialised cells allow absorbed materials to cross the mucosa into the blood, where
they are carried off in the bloodstream to other parts of the body for storage or
further chemical change.
The small intestine is impeccably designed for its role in the absorption of nutrients.
Recap of the macro structure of the tract.
Firstly, food is swallowed. It travels down the oesophagus via peristalsis and enters
the stomach.
The stomach continues the process of mechanical and chemical digestion and then
chyme enters the small intestine.
In the duodenum, chemical digestion continues, aided by important digestive juices
produced in the liver and the pancreas.
As it travels through the small intestine, the digestive nutrients become available to
the body and are absorbed through the intestinal villi of the small intestine.
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Lining of the small intestine
Villi, that line the walls of the small intestine, absorb nutrients into capillaries of the
circulatory system and lacteals of the lymphatic system. Villi contain capillary beds as
well as lymphatic vessels called lacteals.
Fatty acids, absorbed from broken down chyme, pass into the lacteals. Other
absorbed nutrients enter the bloodstream, through the capillary beds and are taken
directly to the liver via the hepatic vein for processing.
Other absorbed nutrients enter the bloodstream, through the capillary beds and are
taken directly to the liver via the hepatic vein for processing
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Intestinal villus
Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close
to its surface.
The epithelial cells of the villus transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine
into these capillaries. Mainly amino acids and carbohydrates, and into the lacteals in
the case of lipids.
Villi move in swaying contracting motions. These movements are believed to increase
the flow of blood and lymph and to enhance absorption.
The villi of the small intestine absorb about seven and a half litres of fluid per day.
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Enterocyte cells of the villus
Blue/green part – Nucleus
Microvilli brush border
Covering the core of the villus is the surface mucus membrane layer.
Mainly composed of two cell types:
1) Tall, narrow, columnar cells that absorb the substances passed into the blood and
lymphatic vessels.
2) Goblet cells, rounded at the end, secrete mucus into the intestinal cavity to aid in
peristalsis.
On the surface of each columnar cell, there are about 600 very fine projections called
microvilli that further increase the absorption area of each individual villus.
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Processes involved in human nutrition – assimilation and
egestion
Assimilation and egestion
Assimilation - The process where nutrients are taken from the blood and moved into the
cells.
Hepatic Portal System
The alimentary canal is richly supplied with an extensive network of capillary blood
vessels.
Glucose, amino acids, vitamins, mineral salts and water are absorbed through the
blood capillaries in the villi.
The capillaries join to form venules. The venules join with venules from the stomach
to become the hepatic portal vein, which transports the absorbed nutrients to the
liver. This system is known as the hepatic portal system.
In the liver, most of the glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in this form.
Excess amino acids undergo deamination to form urea and glucose. The urea is
transported to the kidneys where it is excreted as part of urine.
The remaining glucose and amino acids leave the liver via the hepatic veins and are
transported in the inferior vena cava to the heart and to the rest of the body.
In the heart, the blood is oxygenated and then pumped to all parts of the body,
distributing digested food molecules throughout the body.
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The assimilation of nutrients via the liver and the heart.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process where nutrients are taken from the
blood and transported into the cells.
Absorbed nutrients are transported from the liver to the heart by the hepatic vein.
From the heart, the nutrients move to all parts of the body.
A large proportion of glucose is transported to the tissues (especially muscle tissues),
where it is broken down by cellular respiration into CO2 and water with the release of
energy.
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Table 1: Nutrient assimilation.
Nutrient Assimilation process
Amino acids are built up into protein molecules included
in enzymes, cell membranes, hormones and blood plasma.
In the liver: Excess amino acids go through a process of deamination in
Amino acids which the nitrogen is removed, and ammonia is formed.
The ammonia is moved to the kidneys, which convert it into urea.
Urea is excreted in the urine.
Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and
water during cellular respiration, releasing energy for chemical
processes taking place in the cell.
Glucose In the liver: Excess glucose is converted into glycogen.
The liver stores the glycogen, which can be converted back into
glucose when needed.
This process aids in the regulation of blood glucose levels.
In the liver: The detoxification process changes alcohol and drugs from
harmful substances into harmless substances.
Alcohol and Excess alcohol over time causes the liver to work too hard and this
drugs leads to some parts of the liver not working, which can then cause
liver disease.
Once the hormones have fulfilled their functions in the body, the
Hormones liver breaks them down.
Examples include insulin, testosterone and oestrogen.
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Egestion
After assimilation, any indigestible or non-absorbed chyme passes into the large
intestine, known as the colon.
Excess water and salts are absorbed, and the remaining chyme is converted
into faeces.
Faeces are stored in the rectum until this is excreted through the anal canal/anus.
Through the process of defecation, the muscle contractions of the rectum and
circulatory muscles of the anus work antagonistically and cause faeces to be expelled
from the body.
Cellulose cannot be digested by the human body. However, it is still necessary for the
human body to consume cellulose to prevent constipation and the blocking of the
large intestine.
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The importance of a balanced diet
A balanced diet and nutritional requirements
A balanced diet
To maintain good health, a balanced diet must be followed.
A balanced diet contains all the necessary nutrients in the correct quantities.
It should include the following:
Energy foods such as carbohydrates and lipids (fats), provide the body with energy.
Body-building foods such as proteins, are used for building and repairing cells.
Protective foods that are rich in nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, for
maintaining the immune system and bodily processes.
South African Food-based Dietary Guidelines
The South African Food-based Dietary Guidelines (SAFBDG) were developed to
create public health awareness of healthy eating.
The intention was to ensure the guidelines were universally relevant to all cultures
and religions in South Africa.
1. Enjoy a variety of foods.
2. Be active!
3. Make starchy foods part of most meals.
4. Eat plenty of vegetables and fruits every day.
5. Eat dry beans, split peas, lentils and soya regularly.
6. Have milk, maas or yoghurt every day.
7. Fish, chicken, lean meat or eggs can be eaten daily.
8. Drink lots of clean, safe water.
9. Use fats sparingly. Choose vegetable oils rather than hard fats.
10. Use sugar and foods and drinks high in sugar sparingly.
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11. Use salt and food high in salt sparingly.
Nutritional requirements
An adult's daily intake should consist of approximately:
45%–65% carbohydrates
10%–35% protein
20%–35% fats/lipids
Numerous factors can affect an individual’s nutritional requirements:
Growth: Growing children and teenagers need more energy and protein than
adults who need to meet maintenance requirements rather than growth
requirements.
Sex: Men need more food than women. This is because of the naturally higher
muscle mass in men than women. Women naturally have a high body fat
percentage and muscle mass is more energy 'expensive' than body fat mass.
Activity levels: Physically active people such as construction workers, landscapers
and athletes need more high-energy food to meet their nutritional
requirements.
Pregnancy: Pregnant women need more calcium, iron, protein and energy to
facilitate growing a foetus.
Age: Older people generally need less food because of the naturally occurring
decline in muscle mass that happens with increased age. The reduced muscle
mass reduces total energy requirements.
Reading food labels
Dietary choices
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Factors influencing dietary choices
1) Culture
2) Religion
Halal – Followers of the Islamic faith does not consume pork, alcohol, carnivorous animals or
any food that encounters carnivorous animals.
Kosher – Followers of the Jewish faith does not eat pork, shellfish, fish without fins or scales,
or predatory birds, to name a few.
3) Beliefs or Preferences
Vegan – Vegans don't eat any animal products or foods that contain any ingredients of
animal origin. Vegans often refer to their lifestyle and dietary choices as being 100% 'plant-
based'.
Vegetarian – Although vegetarians don't eat any meat, they do include animal products in
their diet, such as eggs and milk. Vegetarians refrain from any products that are produced
because of the death of an animal. Eggs and dairy products, although of animal origin, don't
require the animal to die for the product to be produced. There are, however, a variety of
vegetarians who eliminate products of animal origin to a greater or lesser degree.
4) Health status
The status of an individual's health can also affect their dietary choices. Encouraged = Good
food + Not encourage bad food (yk)
Chronic disease
Hypertension (high blood pressure) requires a low-salt diet.
Coronary heart disease.
Diabetes: The homeostasis of blood glucose and related illnesses such as diabetes
will be examined more closely in forthcoming lessons.
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Obesity: A diet too high in energy foods such as sugars and fats can result in
excessive deposits of body fat, and increased risk of heart disease, Type 2 diabetes,
hypertension and arthritis.
5) Tooth decay
Tooth decay occurs when the outer tooth layer or tooth enamel is damaged.
Plaque, consisting of a sticky film of bacteria, forms on your teeth after eating. When
you eat or drink foods containing a high percentage of sugars, the bacteria in plaque
produce acids that attack tooth enamel.
Fluoride helps to make teeth stronger and prevent cavities. Fluoride can be added to
drinking water, salt and toothpaste to reduce tooth decay in a population.
6) Allergies
Some people have food allergies which are triggered when they consume or
encounter a particular food or group of food types.
The body considers the food item to be a pathogen (a bacterium, virus or other
microorganism that can cause disease) and the immune system attacks the
compounds of the food item. Symptoms of a food allergy usually include swelling,
itching, shortness of breath or wheezing. The eight foods responsible for 90% of food
allergies are eggs, milk, peanuts, wheat, tree nuts, soy, fish and shellfish.
A food intolerance or a food sensitivity occurs when a person has difficulty digesting
a particular food. This can lead to symptoms such as intestinal gas, abdominal pain or
diarrhoea. Food intolerances involve the digestive system but, although they can
cause extreme discomfort, they are not life-threatening.
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Table 1: A comparison of food allergies and food intolerances.
Food allergy Food intolerance
Immune-mediated response Digestive system response
Cause: Sensitivity to a specific food
Cause: Something 'irritates' the gut
protein
Mild to severe symptoms: nausea, May remain symptom-free in controlled
cramps, diarrhoea 'doses'
Itchy skin, rash, SOB (shortness of breath) Bloating, flatulence, heartburn, bloating,
Swelling, respiratory distress cramps, vomiting
Anaphylactic response – can be life- Gastrointestinal disturbances
threatening (constipation/diarrhoea)
Antihistamines will NOT relieve any
Antihistamine treatment brings relief
symptoms
Less than 2% of the population Up to 45% of the population
7) Emotions
When faced with a great deal of stress, some people tend to overeat, whereas others find it
hard to eat at all.
8) Economics
Cost of food is a significant factor that influences food choice. Lower-income
households generally eat a diet richer in grains such as rice, samp and maize meal,
and legumes, with less emphasis on meat and fresh produce such as fruits and
vegetables. This is because of both cost and storage requirements. The grains don't
need to be refrigerated and are less at risk of spoilage.
Accessibility to shops is an additional consideration, influenced by both transport and
geographical location.
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Dietary supplements
Nutrient deficiencies
When a person chooses to or is required to implement dietary restrictions, they become at
risk of developing specific nutrient deficiencies (not taking in enough of a specific nutrient).
Dietary supplementation
Additional supplements are often taken for health, sport or beauty reasons and should only
be taken on the advice of health professionals.
Calcium and Vitamin D are often added to the diet to maintain strong bones and to
prevent osteoporosis, particularly in pregnancy and old age.
Bodybuilders and extreme athletes often add protein supplements to their diets to
build and repair muscle tissue.
Dietary supplements don't compensate for a poor diet or unhealthy lifestyle habits.
Over the counter (OTC) supplements
Supplements can be a convenient way for consuming the required essential nutrients
generally not consumed in adequate amounts through food alone.
Many people take dietary supplements or multivitamins. These are only necessary
when or if your diet lacks a certain mineral or vitamin.
Excess minerals and water-soluble vitamins are usually excreted in the urine.
Risks
Many supplements contain active ingredients which have strong biological effects on the
body, which could make them unsafe in some situations or under certain circumstances and
could even hurt or complicate your health.
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The following actions could lead to harmful and potentially fatal consequences:
Combining supplements with one another.
Using supplements with other over the counter or prescription medication.
Substituting supplements for prescription medicines.
Taking too much of some supplements, such as vitamin A or vitamin D, which are
stored in fat cells and can become toxic in excess, or iron.
Some supplements can also have unwanted effects before, during and after surgery. Some
supplements can also have unwanted effects before, during and after pregnancy.