Unit_1_Photographic Imaging

Radiographic Film
•Radiographic film displays the radiographic image. It is made up of several layers.
The emulsion layer is the layer that produces the latent image. The latent image later
developed into a visible film during film processing.

A latent image
A latent image is an image that has been created on the detector due to the
interaction of radiation with the material making up the detector. This latent image
is not visible to the naked eye until further processing has taken place. To make
the latent image visible, x-ray film is processed by exposure to chemicals similar to
that of photographic film. In digital detectors, x-ray photons are tallied in the array of
pixels to form the image.
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 Radiographic Film
•Radiographic film is made up of several layers.

Layers
base: cellulose triacetate or polyester for support
substratum: an adhesive layer containing gelatin and solvents that bind emulsion and
base
emulsion: silver halide and gelatin. Gelatin is used to support the silver halide crystals .
Some hardening agents is the main layer where latent images are stored
protective layer: gelatin, protects emulsion from damage.
The total thickness of the film is about 0.25 mm. 3
 Radiographic Film

The base
All radiographic film Radiographic Film consists of a base for which the other
materials are applied. The film base is usually made from a clear, flexible plastic such
as cellulose acetate. This plastic is similar to what you might find in a wallet for
holding pictures. The principle function of the base is to provide support for the
emulsion. It is not sensitive to radiation, nor can it record an image.
The clarity or transparency of the film base is an important feature. Radiographic film
must be capable of transmitting light. Once a film has been processed chemically, it is
subject to interpretation. This is commonly done by using a film illuminating device,
which is usually a high intensity light source

The emulsion
The film emulsion and protective coating comprise the other two components and
are essentially made from the same material. They are applied to the film during
manufacturing and usually take on a pale yellow color with a glassy appearance.
Although they are made from the same material, they offer two distinct features to
the film. These features are separated into the image layer of the emulsion, and the
protective layer.
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 Radiographic Film

The protective layer

The protective layer has the important function of protecting the softer emulsion
layers below. It is simply a very thin skin of gelatin protecting the film from scratches
during handling. It offers very important properties to film manufacturers, which
include shrinkage (during drying that forms glassy protective layers) and dissolving in
warm water. It will absorb the water and swell if it is dissolved in cold water.

The softer layers of the gelatin coating are technically known as the emulsion. An
emulsion holds something in suspension. It is this material in suspension
that is sensitive to radiation and forms the latent image on the film.

During manufacturing of the film, silver bromide is added to the solution of dissolved
gelatin. When the gelatin hardens the silver bromide crystals are held in suspension
throughout the emulsion. Upon exposure of the film to radiation, the silver bromide
crystals become ionized in varying degrees forming the latent image.

Each grain or crystal of silver bromide that has become ionized can be reduced or
developed to form a grain of black metallic silver. This is what forms the visible image
on the radiograph. This visible image is made up of an extremely large number of silver
crystals each is individually exposed to radiation but working together as a unit to form
the image. 5
 Radiographic Film

The protective layer

Once a film has been exposed to radiation and possesses the latent image, it requires
chemical development. The purpose of developing the film is to bring the latent
image out so that it can be seen visibly. There are three processing solutions that must
be used to convert an exposed film to a useful radiograph. These are the developer
, stop bath, and the fixer. Each of these solutions is important in processing the image
so that it may be viewed and stored over a period of time.

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 Radiographic Film
When a beam of photons exits an object and exposes an x-ray film (either direct-
exposure film or screen film exposed by light photons), it chemically changes the
photosensitive silver halide crystals in the film emulsion. These chemically altered
silver bromide crystals constitute the latent (invisible) image on the film.

Before exposure, film emulsion consists of photosensitive crystals containing

primarily silver bromide. These silver halide crystals also contain a few free silver
ions (interstitial silver ions) and trace amounts of sulfur compounds bound to the
surface of the crystals.

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 Latent image formation

•Invisible image produced on the film after exposure prior to development.

•Latent image can only be visible through the development process.
•The production of latent image is the first step of the photochemical process.

In unexposed silver halide crystal the

bromine ions usually occupy the surface of
the crystal and the silver ions the center of
the crystal. And somewhere in the crystal
there are electrons traps (sensitivity speck)
caused by gelatin.

The following is the Gurney-Mott theory.

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 Latent image formation
Effect of exposure
•Photons interact through photoelectric and Compton
interaction.

•Interactions usually occur at the bromine ions since they

are located at the surface of the crystal.

•Both interaction releases high energy electrons

•Bromine ions becomes neutral and they migrate out of

the crystal into the gelatin.

•The process disrupted the crystal lattice formation.

•Ions in the crystal are now free to migrate and move

around.

•Bromide migrate out of the crystal leaving the silver ion,

free electron and electron trap in the crystal

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Latent image formation

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 Radiographic Film
The process of developing film.

To begin the process of converting the latent image on the radiograph to a useful
image we first expose the film to the developer solution. The developer’s purpose is to
develop, and to make the latent image visible.

A special chemical within the developer solution acts on the film by reducing the
exposed silver bromide crystals to black metallic silver. This process of developing is
actually a multi-step process.

Recall the characteristics of the film manufacturing mentioned earlier, they become
important in the development process. Before the developer can change the silver
crystals it must penetrate the protective coating of the film.

Keep in mind that the protective coating of the film is made of gelatin and is sensitive
to temperature and water.

The developer solution is comprised of a combination of chemicals, consisting of

alkali and metol or hydroquinone mixed with water. The purpose of the alkali is to
penetrate the protective coating allowing the metol to reduce the exposed silver
bromide to black metallic oxide.
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 Radiographic Film
The process of developing film

The second step in the development process is the stop bath. This bath is comprised
of a glacial acetic acid and water. It is important to recognize that alkali’s and acid’s
neutralize each other. The function of the stop bath is to quickly neutralize any
excessive development of the silver crystals. Over development of the silver crystals
results in a radiographic image that is virtually impossible to interpret.

The third step in development is the fixer. Its function is to permanently fix the image
on the film. This is also a multi-step process. The fixer must first remove any
unexposed silver crystals and then harden the remaining crystals in the emulsion. It is
this process that is used to preserve the radiographic image over time.

Once the film has been properly developed, it is then rinsed in water and dried so that
it may be visually examined.

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