Q1. Explain the four basic topologies used in networks. List advantages and disadvantages of each of them.

Ans:

a. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The term dedicated
means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects.
Advantages:
1. Dedicated links guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic
problems.
2. Robust - If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
3. Advantage of privacy or security.
4. Fault identification and fault isolation is easy.
Disadvantages:
1. Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
2. Greater than the available space
3. Hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes:
1. node n must be connected to n – 1 nodes.
2. We need n (n – 1) physical links.
3. we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
4. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports

b. Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a
hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow
direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device
Advantages:
1. Less expensive than a mesh topology (one I/O port to connect
it to any number of others).
2. Far less cabling needs to be housed
3. Robust (If one link fails, only that link is affected.)

Disadvantages:
1. Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
2. More cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

c. Bus Topology
A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in
a network.

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device
and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
to create a contact with the metallic core.
Advantages:
1. Ease of installation.
2. Bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
Disadvantages:
1. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
2. Optimally efficient at installation, difficult to add new devices.
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission
 d. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either
side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along as shown in fig.

Advantages:
Easy to install & re-configure.
Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantages:
1. Break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.

Q2. What is meant by logical connection in TCP/IP. Explain with diagram how the identical objects interact.
Ans: Logical Connections
This means there is communication from one layer to the next. Imagine that Maria and Ann view each layer as
having a logical (or imaginary) connection that allows them to transmit objects created at that layer. Understanding
these logical connections will enhance your comprehension of layering in data communication and networking.
In a layered model, logical connections refer to virtual connections established between the same layers in different
devices. For example:
 The application layers of two computers communicate as though they are directly connected, even though
physical transmission occurs across multiple lower layers.
 Logical connections provide the abstraction necessary to hide the complexities of the underlying
transmission methods, giving the appearance that communication occurs at a single layer.
Logical connection between peer layers

Logical connections ensure that communication protocols at each layer, such as TCP (Transport Layer) or HTTP
(Application Layer), interact correctly without the user needing to understand the intricacies of network
transmission.

Understanding the Logical Connections Between Layers:

To grasp the role of each layer, it's helpful to visualize the logical connections between them. Figure illustrates these
connections in a simple internet model.
 Fig: Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite

End-to-End vs. Hop-to-Hop Duties:

 The application, transport, and network layers are responsible for end-to-end communication, meaning they
manage data from one end device to the other across the network.
 The data-link and physical layers, on the other hand, handle communication on a hop-to-hop basis, where
each "hop" refers to a host or router.
This distinction is key: the top three layers operate across the entire internet, while the lower two layers manage
communication on individual network segments or "links."

Data Units and Layer Responsibilities

Another important way to understand these connections is by considering the data units created at each layer.
 In the top three layers, the data units (referred to as packets) are not modified by routers or link-layer
switches.
 In the bottom two layers, however, the packet created by the host can be modified by routers but not by
link-layer switches.

Fig: Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

Figure shows a second principle of protocol layering: identical objects exist below each layer for connected devices.
 At the network layer, even though there's a logical connection between two hosts, a router might fragment
packets into smaller units.
 The link between two hops does not alter these packets.
 This layering approach allows for a structured, predictable method of managing data as it moves across the network.

Q3. What is data communication? Explain its characteristics and components.

Ans. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery,
accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case
of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they
are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio
or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

Five components of data communication:

 Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and
radio waves.
 Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices.

Q4. What are guided transmission media? Explain twisted pair cable in detail.

Ans. Guided transmission media: Guided media are the types of communication channels that provide a
specific path to travel from one device to another device. These include Twisted pair cable, Coaxial Cable,
Fiber Optic Cable.

 A twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper conductors twisted together.

 Each wire in the pair serves a different function: one carries the signal to the receiver, and the other acts as
a ground reference.

 The receiver processes the difference between the two wires to retrieve the signal.

 Twisted pair cables are designed to minimize the impact of interference (noise) and crosstalk.

 When the wires are parallel, noise or crosstalk can affect each wire differently due to their varying distances
from the sources of interference. By twisting the wires, the cable maintains a balance.
Shielded vs. Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cables
1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP): The most common type used in communications, UTP cables do not
have additional shielding. They are less expensive and less bulky but can be more susceptible to
interference.
2. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP): STP cables have an additional metal foil or braided mesh covering each
pair of conductors. This shielding reduces interference and improves signal quality but makes the cables
bulkier and more costly.

 The RJ45 (Registered Jack) connector is the most common connector for UTP cables.

 It is a keyed connector, meaning it can only be inserted in one direction, which ensures a proper connection.

 The performance of twisted-pair cables is often assessed by measuring attenuation (signal loss) in relation to
frequency and distance.

 Although twisted-pair cables can handle a broad range of frequencies, attenuation increases significantly at
frequencies above 100 kHz.

 Applications: Telephone Lines, DSL Lines, LANs

Q5. Describe each layer of the TCP/IP and its responsibility.

Ans:

Physical Layer:
Role of the Physical Layer:
 The physical layer focuses on transmitting the bits from the data-link layer as electrical or optical signals
over a physical medium (such as cables or wireless channels).
 It converts bits from the data-link layer into signals that can travel through the medium connecting the
devices.
Data-link Layer:
In an internet, multiple links (LANs and WANs) are connected by routers. There are often multiple paths that a
datagram can take from the host to its destination. Routers are responsible for determining the most efficient route.
Once the next link is chosen by a router, the data-link layer manages the process of transmitting the datagram
across that link.

Network Layer:
The network layer is crucial for establishing communication between the source and destination computers. It
 manages host-to-host communication across multiple devices (routers) in the path. Each router ensures that packets
are directed along the most efficient route. The main role of the network layer is to enable communication between
hosts and determine the best path for data transmission.

Transport Layer:
The Transport Layer plays a crucial role in ensuring end-to-end communication between hosts in a network. It
handles the transfer of data between the application layer on one device and the corresponding application layer on
another device, making sure that messages are transmitted reliably and efficiently.

Application Layer:
The application layer in a network facilitates end-to-end communication between two application layers. It appears
as though a direct bridge exists between them, but in reality, communication passes through all layers of the
networking model.
At this layer, the communication happens between two processes (programs running on separate machines).
One process sends a request, and the other process responds. This process-to-process communication is the core
responsibility of the application layer. While many predefined protocols exist at this level, users can also create their
own custom processes to communicate across hosts.

Q6. Compare OSI and TCP/IP Models. What are the reasons for OSI model to fail?
Ans:
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Open System interconnection model Transmission control protocol / Internet Protocol.
Developed by ISO Developed by U.S department of defense
Number of layers are 7 Number of layers are 7
Top Down approach Bottom up approach
Independent of protocols Protocol dependent
Conceptual/ Reference model Practical model
More detailed error handling Simplified error handling

The reason for OSI model to fail:

 First, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined
 Second, when OSI was implemented by an organization in different applications it did not show a high
enough level of performance.
 Q7. Explain Coaxial cable and fiber optic cable.
Ans: Coaxial cable:

Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax, is designed to carry high-frequency signals, unlike twisted-pair cables. It
consists of the following parts:
 Central Core Conductor: A solid or stranded copper wire, responsible for carrying the signal.
 Insulating Sheath: Surrounds the core conductor, separating it from the outer conductor.
 Outer Conductor: Made of metal foil, braid, or both, which serves two purposes:
1. Acts as a shield against external noise.
2. Functions as the second conductor to complete the circuit.
 Additional Insulation: Encases the outer conductor for further protection.
 Plastic Cover: Provides external protection for the entire cable.
This design helps coaxial cables transmit signals with less interference and at higher frequencies compared to
twisted-pair cables.

The most common connector type is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector. There are different variations
of this connector:
 BNC Connector: Used to connect the cable to a device (e.g., a TV).
 BNC T Connector: Often used in Ethernet networks to split the signal to multiple devices.
 BNC Terminator: Placed at the end of the cable to prevent signal reflection and ensure stable
transmission.

Applications: Analog and Digital Telephone Networks.

Today, fiber optic cables have largely replaced coaxial cables in telephone networks due to their superior performance.

Fiber-Optic Cable:
A fiber-optic cable is a medium made of glass or plastic that transmits signals as light.

Optical fibers guide light through internal reflection.

The core (made of glass or plastic) is surrounded by a cladding with lower density.
This ensures that light reflecting off the core- cladding boundary remains in the core.

Optical fibers use two main modes for light propagation:

 1. Multimode: Multiple light beams travel through the core along different paths.
a. Step-Index Fiber: The core has uniform density, and light changes direction abruptly at the
core-cladding interface.
b. Graded-Index Fiber: The core's density gradually decreases from the center, reducing signal
distortion.

2. Single-Mode: Uses step-index fiber but has a smaller core and tightly focused light. The beams travel nearly
parallel, minimizing delay and distortion

There are three types of connectors:

1. SC (Subscriber Channel): Push/pull

locking, used in cable TV.
2. ST (Straight Tip): Bayonet locking, used in
networking.
3. MT-RJ: Same size as RJ45, used for data
networks.

Applications: Backbone Networks, Hybrid Networks, LANs

Q8. Explain unguided media.

Ans: Unguided media refers to communication channels that use wireless signals to transmit data.

These signals travel through the air without any physical conductor.

Common types of wireless transmission include radio waves, microwaves, and infrared.

1. Radio waves:
 Frequency Range: Typically, from 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
 Radio waves are mostly omnidirectional, meaning they spread out in all directions from the
transmitting antenna.
 The sending and receiving antennas don’t need to be aligned for successful communication, as any
receiving antenna in range can pick up the signal.
 Radio waves, especially those that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances, making them
ideal for applications like AM radio broadcasting.
 Radio waves, particularly those with low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
 The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz. When divided into subbands, the limited
width of these subbands results in low data rates for digital communications.
 Application: AM and FM radio, Television broadcasting, cordless phones.

2. Micro waves:
 Frequency Range: From 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
 Microwaves require line-of-sight transmission, meaning the transmitter and receiver must be directly
visible to each other.
 They are less effective in penetrating obstacles like buildings.
 Applications: Satellite communication, radar system, microwave oven.

3. Infrared waves:
 Frequency Range: From 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 Infrared signals are used for short-range communication and do not penetrate walls, making them
suitable for indoor use.
 They are highly directional and require line-of-sight transmission.
  Applications: Remote controls, short-range data transmission, infrared sensors for detecting heat in
security systems or medical devices.

Q9. What is data flow? Explain simplex, half duplex and full duplex with diagram
Ans: The flow of data during the communication between devices is called data flow.

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional and use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Example: Keyboard,
Monitors etc.

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive (alternatively), but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Example: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios.

Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. This sharing can
occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the
other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions. Example:
Telephone networks.

Q.10 What is Network? Explain network criteria and types of connection.

Ans: A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. A device can be a host (or an end
system as it is sometimes called) such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance, reliability,
and security.

Performance:
 Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
 Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
 Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
 The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
 Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more
throughput and less delay.

Reliability:
Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Type of Connection:

a. Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends.

b. Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single
link.
The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Q.11 What is computer networking? Explain local area network and Wide area network in detail with neat diagrams.
Ans: Computer networking is the process of connecting two or more computing devices and allowing them to share and
exchange data.
Local Area Network:
 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a single office, building,
or campus.
 A LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it can extend throughout a
company and include audio and video devices.
 Past: All hosts in a network were connected through a common cable, which meant that a packet sent from
one host to another was received by all hosts. The intended recipient kept the packet; the others dropped the
packet.
 Today: Most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize the destination address of the
packet and guide the packet to its destination without sending it to all other hosts.

Fig: An isolated LAN in the past and today

Wide Area Network

 A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of communication on wider
geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world.
 Difference between LAN & WAN:
 A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or
 modems.
 A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it; a WAN is normally created and
run by communication companies and leased by an organization that uses it.
 Point-to-Point WAN:
 A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a transmission
media (cable or air).

 Switched WAN:
 A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs
that are connected by switches.

Q.12 Define a virtual-circuit network and describe the main phases involved in setting up, maintaining, and tearing
down a virtual circuit.
Ans: A virtual-circuit network (VCN) is a hybrid network model that combines features of both circuit- switched and
datagram networks. It provides a balance between connection-oriented and connectionless transmission methods.
Setup Phase:

In the setup phase, a virtual circuit is established between the source and destination by creating table entries at each
switch. This phase consists of two main steps:

Setup Request:

A setup request frame is sent from the source (A) to the destination (B). As the frame passes through each switch,
the switch creates an entry in its table.

For example, when the setup frame reaches switch 1, it identifies that the outgoing port for the connection is port 3
and assigns an incoming VCI (14) for the frame coming from port 1. At this point, the outgoing VCI remains
unknown.

Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

Acknowledgement:

Once the setup request reaches the destination, the destination assigns a VCI in outgoing column of table (e.g., 77)
for incoming frames from the source. The acknowledgment is sent back to the source, and each switch updates its
table to complete the missing outgoing VCI information.

Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

Data-Transfer Phase:
During data transfer, the key action is switching the frames between the source and destination. Each switch in the
path must have a table with entries corresponding to the virtual circuit. A table typically consists of four columns:
incoming port, incoming VCI, outgoing port, and outgoing VCI.

 When a frame arrives at a switch, the switch looks for the entry that matches the incoming port and VCI.

 After identifying the entry, the switch updates the VCI to the new value and forwards the frame to the next
switch via the outgoing port.

For example, if a frame arrives at switch 1 with VCI 14 on port 1, the switch finds this entry in its table, updates the
VCI to 22, and forwards the frame through port 3. This process repeats at each switch, ensuring the frame reaches
its destination.

Teardown Phase:

 When the communication is finished, the source and destination send a signal to the switches to remove the
corresponding table entries, thus ending the virtual circuit.
 This process frees up the resources for future virtual circuits.
 Q13. Explain the working of Datagram Networks.

Ans:

 In Figure, four packets are sent from station A to station X using the datagram approach.
 Although these four packets belong to the same message, they might take different paths to reach their
destination due to varying link capacities and network congestion.
 This can lead to packets arriving out of order, with differing delays, or even being lost or dropped due to
insufficient resources.
 Upper-layer protocols typically handle the reordering and retransmission of lost packets before delivering
them to the application.

Q.14 Explain delay in Datagram Networks

Ans:

 Despite their efficiency, datagram networks can experience higher delays compared to virtual-circuit
networks.
 Although there are no setup or teardown phases, each packet may encounter waiting times at switches.
Additionally, since packets from the same message may travel through different routes, delays are not
uniform.
 Figure, illustrates the delay for a packet traveling through two switches, including transmission times (3T),
propagation delays (3τ), and waiting times (w1 + w2).

The total delay is given by:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦=3𝑇+3𝜏+𝑤1+𝑤2

 Transmission Time: The time to send a packet from one point to another.

 Propagation Delay: The time it takes for the signal to travel through the medium.

 Waiting Time: Time spent at routers before being forwarded.

Q.15 Explain Encapsulation and Decapsulation concept in protocol layering.

Ans: Encapsulation at the Source Host

At the source host, the encapsulation process involves the following steps:
 Application Layer: The data generated by the application is called a message. This message typically
doesn't have a header or trailer, but if it does, the whole unit is still referred to as a message. This message
is passed to the transport layer.
 Transport Layer: The transport layer treats the message as a payload. It adds a transport layer header,
which includes details like the source and destination application program identifiers and information
necessary for tasks such as flow control, error control, or segment (in TCP) or a user datagram (in UDP).
This transport layer packet is then passed to the network layer.
 Network Layer: At this layer, the transport layer packet is treated as the payload. A network layer header
is added, which contains the source and destination IP addresses, as well as additional information for error
checking and fragmentation. The final packet is referred to as a datagram, which is then passed to the data-
link layer.

Encapsulation/Decapsulation

 Data-Link Layer: The network layer packet is encapsulated in a data-link layer frame. A header is added
here, which includes the addresses of the sending host and the next hop (e.g., a router). The frame is then
passed to the physical layer for transmission over the network.

Encapsulation and Decapsulation at the Router

Routers perform both encapsulation and decapsulation, as they are connected to multiple network links. Here's how
this works:
 Decapsulation at Data-Link Layer: When the router receives a frame, the data-link layer extracts the
datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
 Network Layer Processing: The router's network layer examines the source and destination addresses
within the datagram header. Using its forwarding table, the router determines the next hop for the datagram.
The content of the datagram is not altered unless it requires fragmentation to pass through the next link.
Once processed, the datagram is passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
 Encapsulation at Data-Link Layer: The datagram is encapsulated into a new frame suitable for the next
link, and the frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation at the Destination Host
At the destination host, the reverse process of encapsulation—decapsulation—occurs:
 Data-Link Layer: The frame is received, and the data-link layer removes its header to extract the
network layer datagram.
 Network Layer: The network layer removes its header to extract the transport layer segment or
user datagram.
 Transport Layer: The transport layer removes its header to deliver the original message to the
application layer.

Q.16 Explain 5 components of data communication with diagram and explain data representation.
Ans:

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
2. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
3. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.
4. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices.
Data Representation:
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols called as codes.
Unicode – 32 bits/symbol.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII): 7 bit/symbol - 127 characters in
Unicode

Numbers: Represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the
number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.

Images: are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
1bit – Binary image
8 bits – Gray image
24/32 bits – Colour image (RGB or YCM/CMYK)

Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It is continuous in nature.

Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion

During decapsulation, error checking is performed at each layer to ensure data integrity. The process continues
until the original message reaches the application layer, where it can be used by the application program.