CHAPTER 3

WATER QUALITY

1
INTRODUCTION
 Water quality refers to the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of water that determine its
suitability for a particular use, such as drinking,
irrigation, recreation, or aquatic life.

 Health and aesthetics values are the principal

motivations for water treatment.

 The extent of treatment required to be given to the

particular water depends upon its quality
characteristics, and also upon the quality
requirements for the intended use.
2
INTRODUCTION
 Absolute treatment of water is not required but
purification.

 Certain dissolved salts are good for health and assist

in food assimilation and make water tasteful.

 Purification of water means removal of impurities

which are not good for health and other uses.

 Therefore, potable or wholesome water is water that

does not contain harmful impurities & contains other
salts and impurities either good for health or un-
harmful to health. 3
INTRODUCTION
Characterstic of Water
 Physical Characteristic - those characteristics of
water that respond to the senses of sight, touch,
taste or smell
 Suspended solids Taste and Odour
 Turbidity Temperature
 Colour
 Chemical parameters includes:
 pH Sulphates
 Acidity Iron
 Alkalinity Nitrates
 Hardness Metals
 Chlorides
 Biological Parameters includes:
4
 coliform bacteria
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
 Suspended solids
 Source
 Inorganic or organic particles
 Inorganic solids - clay, silt, and other soil constituents
 Organic material - plant fibres and biological solids (algal
cells, bacteria, etc.)

 Impacts
 Aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption
sites for chemical and biological agents.

 Measurement
 Gravimetric tests - by evaporating a sample to
dryness and weighing the residue. 5
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
 Turbidity
 Is a measure of the extent to which suspended matter
in water either absorbs or scatters radiant light energy
impinging upon the suspension.

 The turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration

of particles present in water.

 Source
 The erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock
fragments, and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibres
and microorganisms
 Impact
 Aesthetically displeasing due to opaqueness or milky
coloration adsorption sites for chemicals and biological 6
organisms
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
 Turbidity
 Measurement
 Photometrical measurement by determining the
percentage of light of a given intensity that is either
absorbed or scattered.

 Measurement apparatus: by a turbidity meters:

 Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) - measuring the depth of
column of liquid required to cause the image of a candle
flame at the bottom to diffuse into a uniform glow.
 Nephelometry turbidity unit (NTU) - measure level of light
scattered by the particles at right angles to the incident
light beam.

 The IS value for drinking water is 10 to 25 NTU 7

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
 Colour
 Source:
 Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some
inorganic materials

 Impact:
 not aesthetically acceptable to the general public.
 Highly coloured water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing,
papermaking, beverage manufacturing, diary production and
other food processing, and textile and plastic production.

 Measurement
 The standard unit of colour is that which is produced by one
milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one litre of distilled
water. 8

 The IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
 Odour and Taste
 Odour depends on the contact of a stimulating substance with
the appropriate human receptor cell.
 Source:
 Most organic and some inorganic chemicals, originating from
municipal or industrial wastes.
 Phenolic compounds, common constituents of vegetative
decay products, produce very objectionable taste and odor
compounds

 Impact:
 character and intensity of taste and odour discloses the
nature of pollution or the presence of microorganisms.

 Measurement:
 Taste and odour can be expressed in terms of odour intensity
or threshold values.
9
 A new method to estimate taste of water sample has been
developed based on flavour known as 'Flavour Profile
Analysis' (FPA).
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
 Temperature
 Temperature to a great extent determines
 the trends and tendencies of changes in water quality.
 The entire mechanism of water treatment depends on
temperature.
 Sometimes increased temperature may increase the odour
of water because of the increased volatility of odour
producing compounds.
 The increase in temperature decreases palatability,
because at elevated temperatures carbon dioxide and some
other volatile gases are expelled.

 The ideal temperature of water for drinking purposes

is 5 to 12 °C - above 25 °C, water is not recommended
for drinking 10
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

 pH
 pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition of
water.

 It is expressed on a scale ranging from 0 to 14, which

is the common logarithm of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen ion concentration.

 Without proper adjustment of pH raw water may be

corrosive and adversely affect treatment processes.

 The recommended pH range for treated drinking

waters is 6.5 to 8.5. 11
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

12
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Acidity
 Acidity is nothing but representation of carbon-dioxide
or carbonic acids.

 Acidity of water may be caused by the presence of un-

combined carbon-dioxide and weak bases.

 The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to

neutralize bases.

 It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.

 Carbon dioxide causes corrosion in public water supply

13
systems
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Alkalinity
 The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize acids.

 It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.

 The various forms of alkalinity are useful mainly in

water softening.
A. hydroxide alkalinity,
B. carbonate alkalinity,
C. hydroxide plus carbonate alkalinity,
D. carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, and
E. bicarbonate alkalinity,

 Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating 14

the optimum coagulant dosage.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Hardness
 Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations.
 The principal hardness causing cations are calcium,
magnesium, strontium, ferrous and manganese ions.
 The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of
calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed
as calcium carbonate, in mg/L.
 Hard water is one that requires considerable amounts
of soap to produce foam or lath
 Hardness are of two types, temporary or carbonate
hardness and permanent or non carbonate hardness.
 Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and
carbonate ion can be precipitated by prolonged boiling.
 Non-carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or removed by
boiling, hence the term permanent hardness. 15

 IS value for drinking water is 300mg/L as CaCO3.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

16
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Chlorides
 Chloride ion may present in combination with one or
more of the cations of calcium, magnesium, iron and
sodium.

 Chlorides of these minerals present in water because of

their high solubility in water.

 Each human being consumes about six to eight grams

of sodium chloride per day, a part of which is
discharged through urine and night soil.

 Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water indicates

sewage pollution.
17

 IS value for drinking water is 250 to 1000 mg/L.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Sulphates
 Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate
mineral and oxidation of sulphides.

 Sulphates are associated generally with calcium,

magnesium and sodium ions.

 Sulphate in drinking water causes a laxative effect and

leads to scale formation in boilers.

 It also causes odour and corrosion problems under

aerobic conditions.

 Sulphate should be less than 50 mg/L, for some

industries.

 Desirable limit for drinking water is150 mg/L. May be

18
extended upto 400 mg/L.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Iron
 Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide.

 When it comes in contact with water, it dissolves to

form ferrous bicarbonate under favourable conditions.

 This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidized into ferric

hydroxide, which is a precipitate.

 Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced to

soluble ferrous ion. Iron can impart bad taste to the
water, causes discoloration in clothes and incrustations
in water mains.
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 IS value for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Nitrates
 Nitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching of
fertilizers from soil during surface run-off and also
nitrification of organic matter.

 Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an

indication of pollution.

 Concentration of nitrates above 45mg/L cause a

disease called methemoglobinemia.

 IS value is 45 mg/L.
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CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Fluorides
 Excessive In Ethiopia Rift Valley areas
 Groundwater usually contains higher concentrations
than surface waters
 Excessive fluoride in drinking water causes Fluorosis
 The presence of Calcium in water limits fluoride
toxicity
 Fluorosis is less sever when drinking water is hard
 The removal of fluoride from drinking water is not
simple, it requires advanced water treatment, which is
very expensive
 The WHO guideline for fluoride is 1.5mg/lit., while the 21
Ethiopian Drinking water quality guideline
recommended 3mg/lit.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Metals
 All metals are soluble to some extent in water

 Source: dissolution from natural deposits and

discharges of domestic, industrial, or agricultural
wastewaters.

 Nontoxic Metals: toxic only at high concentration

 sodium, iron, magnesium, aluminum, copper and zinc.

 Toxic metals: toxic at very low concentration

 arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury, and silver

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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Presence or absence of living organisms in water
- most useful indicators of its quality.

 Pathogens: organisms capable of infecting, or of

transmitting diseases to humans.

 not native to aquatic systems and usually require

an animal host for growth and reproduction.

 Includes: bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and

helminthes (parasitic worms). 23
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Pathogen Indicators:
 Bacterial examination of water is very important, since
it indicates the degree of pollution.

 Water polluted by sewage contain one or more species of

disease producing pathogenic bacteria.

 Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and

many non pathogenic bacteria such as [Link], a member
of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of
human beings.
 Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more
resistance to adverse condition than any other group.

 So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms,

the harmful species will be very less.
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 So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination
of water with sewage and presence of pathogens.
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Reason for selecting coliforms:
 normally inhabit the intestinal tracts of humans and
other mammals - there presence indicates fecal
contamination of the water.
 the number of coliform organisms excreted in the feces
outnumbers the disease-producing organism by several
orders of magnitude - easier to culture than disease-
producing organisms.
 survive in natural waters for relatively long periods of
time without reproduction - their presence assures
fecal contamination/ there absence means the water is
safe.
 coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to
culture without expensive equipment.
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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Reason for selecting coliforms:
 normally inhabit the intestinal tracts of humans and
other mammals - there presence indicates fecal
contamination of the water.

 the number of coliform organisms excreted in the feces

outnumbers the disease - producing organism by
several orders of magnitude - easier to culture than
disease-producing organisms.

 survive in natural waters for relatively long periods of

time without reproduction - their presence assures fecal
contamination/ there absence means the water is safe.

 coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to culture

without expensive equipment.
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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 The methods used to estimate the bacterial
quality of water are:
 Standard Plate Count Test
 Membrane Filter Technique

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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Standard Plate Count Test
 In this test, the bacteria are made to grow as colonies,
by inoculating a known volume of sample into a
solidifiable nutrient medium (Nutrient Agar), which
is poured in a petridish.

 After incubating (at 35°C) for a specified period (24

hours), the colonies of bacteria (as spots) are counted.

 The bacterial density is expressed as number of

colonies per 100 ml of sample

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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Membrane Filter Technique
 It is a direct method of counting coliform bacteria.

 In this test a known volume of water sample is filtered

through a membrane with opening less than 0.5 microns.

 The bacteria present in the sample will be retained upon the

filter paper. The filter paper is put in contact of a suitable
nutrient medium and kept in an incubator for 24 hours at
35°C.
 The bacteria will grow upon the nutrient medium and visible
colonies are counted.
 Each colony representing one coliform (one bacterium of the
original sample) is counted.
 The bacterial count is expressed as number of colonies per 29
100 ml of sample.
WATER SAMPLING
 A water sample for characteristic test has to be
properly collected, preserved, transported,
identified and analysed.
 Sampling methods: Grab sampling and composite
sampling.
 Grab sampling:
 a single sample collected over a very short period of time.
 only represent the conditions of the water at the particular
time and location.
 Not suitable for parameters that change instantly

 Composite Sampling:
 grab samples taken at regular intervals over the sampling
period.
 more appropriate to determine overall or average conditions
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over a certain period of time.
 Selection of Sampling Points: sampling points
include:
 Source
 Treatment plant
 Reservoirs
 Distribution systems

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TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF SAMPLES
 Both chemical and bacteriological samples should be
transported in an insulated boxes (preferable in ice box)

 Kept at temperature between 4°C and 10°C. This can

be done by packing with bags containing a freezing
mixture.

 If samples cannot be cooled, they must be examined

with in 2 hrs. of sampling, if neither condition can be
met, the sample should not be analyzed. (for bact.)

 It is preferable that the examination of bacteriological

samples be begun within 24 hours of the collection
 In the case of chemical analysis, parameters which are
subject to change, such as alkalinity or nitrate analysis 32
should be conducted within 24 hours of collection
TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF SAMPLES
 The box used to carry samples should be cleaned
& disinfected.

 The bottles & the sampler’s hands should be

disinfected after each use to avoid the
contamination.

 Generally the amount of time a sample can be

stored depends on the constituent’s stability

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SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION
 All samples should be identified immediately and
clearly
 Identification of samples shall be made by
labeling and should include clear information
which can be understood by others like:
 Location of sampling point
 Date
 Time
 Description of sample
 Comments relating to special conditions which might
affect results
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SAMPLE FREQUENCY:
 Sampling frequencies for raw water sources
depend on;
 Their overall quality
 Their size
 The likelihood of contamination
 The season of the year

 Sampling frequencies for treated water depend on:

 The quality of water sources
 The type of treatment

 Frequency of sampling increased at a time of:

35
Epidemics, Flooding, Emergency operations,
Following interruptions of supply, Repair work.
SAMPLING TREATED WATER
 When samples of disinfected water are taken, the
concentration of residual chlorine & pH should be
determined at the time of collection.

 Samples must be taken from different parts of

the distribution systems to ensure that all parts
of the system are tested.

 Before the sample is taken, taps & sampling pots

should be disinfected & a quantity of water run
first to flush out the standing water in the pipe.
36
SAMPLING TREATED WATER
 Sample preservation techniques:
 Chemical addition/Acidification/ - addition of acid to
the sample to preserve dissolved metals (HNO3,
H2SO4, etc)
 Freezing
 Refrigeration – at 4°C is a common preservation
technique, which is widely used in the fieldwork.

 Sample analysis
 Water quality analysis categorized in two major
groups:
 Bacteriological examinations
 Physio-Chemical analysis 37
COMMON WATER QUALITY EQUIPMENT
 Spector-photometer - for physio-chemical analysis
 Incubator & Accessories - for microbiological analysis
 Conductive meter - for measurement of EC & TDS
 Turbidity meter - for measurement of turbidity
 PH meter - for measurement of PH
 Flock Tester /Jar Test/- for determination of quantity
chemicals
 Chlorine Comparator - for measurement of residual
chlorine
 Different Chemicals & Reagents

38
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS IN WATER
SAMPLING:
 The sample must be truly representative of the
existing conditions.

 The time between collection and analysis should be as

short as possible for most reliable results.

 Appropriate preservation techniques should be

applied to slow down the biological or chemical
changes that may occur in the time between sample
collection and sample analysis. This usually involves
refrigeration to cool the sample or chemical fixing.

 Accurate and thorough sampling records must be

kept to avoid confusion as the “what, when, and
where” of the sample. 39
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
 Purpose: limits on the amount of impurities in water
for the intended use

 They can be legally enforced or recommended

 include rules and regulations for sampling, testing and

reporting procedures.

 Criteria: The scientific data evaluated to derive

recommendations for characteristics of water for specific
uses. It represents the first step in ultimate development of
standards.

 Standards: A plan that is established by a government

40
agency as a program for water pollution treatment and
prevention.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
 Three types of standards : stream standards,
effluent standards, and drinking water standards.

41
DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
AND CRITERIA

 To ensure access to safe drinking water, the

Compulsory Ethiopian Standard for Drinking
Water Specification (CES-58) outlines the
physical, chemical, and bacteriological
requirements of water for drinking and domestic
purposes.
 1. Physical Characteristics of Drinking Water

42
DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND CRITERIA
2. Chemical characteristics Requirments
 The Chemical characteristics that affect the palatability of
water must conform to the levels specified in Table below

43
DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
AND CRITERIA

3. Bacteriological Requirements
 When tested the bacteriological requirements of
treated drinking water must not exceed the levels
shown in the Table below

44
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
 Water Quality standards are mainly classified
into two:
 Primary
 Protect public health - maximum contaminant levels
is set.
 Enforced

 Secondary
 Esthetical qualities - colour, odour, taste
 recommended but not enforced

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WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
 Primary MCLs: inorganic chemicals

46
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
 Primary MCLs: organic chemicals

47
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
 Secondary MCLs

48
WATER TREATMENT

 Basic objectives of water treatment

 To remove dissolved mineral matters, settleable

suspended matter and non-settleable colloidal
impurities

 To improve the aesthetic quality – colour, taste and

odour

 To kill/destroy troublesome micro-organisms and their

remains,

 Softening of water for use in domestic washing

laundries and boilers

 Above all, to make water safe for drinking and fit for 49
domestic, commercial and industrial use.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
 The layout of conventional water treatment plant is as
follows:

 Depending upon the magnitude of treatment required,

proper unit operations are selected and arranged in the
50
proper sequential order for the purpose of modifying
the quality of raw water to meet the desired standards.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
 Direct and In-line filtration water treatment
process:

51
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
 The typical functions of common unit operations
are:
Unit treatment Function (removal)
Aeration, chemicals use Colour, Odour, Taste
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal
matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter,
bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter 52
and Reducing substances
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
 Removal of big and longer visible objects such as tree
branches, sticks, vegetation; fish animal life, etc …
screening

 Coarse suspended materials can then be removed by

letting the water settle in sedimentation basins…
plain sedimentation

 Effectiveness of sedimentation may however be

increased by mixing certain chemicals with the water
to form flocculated precipitate … chemical
coagulation.

 Finer particles in suspension, which may avoid
settling in sedimentation basins may then be removed 53
by filtering…filtration
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
 Filtered water which may still contain pathogenic bacteria is
then made bacteria proof by using certain chemicals such as
chlorine, etc … disinfection

 Resulting water though now becomes safe, yet it may not be

attractive to the tongue of the consumers…Unpleasant
tastes and odours …adding certain chemical compounds
such as carbon …

 Resulting water may sometimes be much harder than

permissible and, may therefore, have to be softened by a
process … softening

 This water may be given further treatment such as removal

of excess fluorine … fluoridation
54

 removal of excess salt if at all present… desalination

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
a dispersion of solid particles in a liquid.

very small particles(1 to 200x10-9m) and so

form stable suspensions (i.e. the particles do not
settle)
a collection of colloidal particles held together.
- the process of making conditions
favourable for colloidal particles to join together to
make flocks.
- the growth of coagulated colloidal
particles to join together to form flocks that are large
enough to settle under gravity.

55
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHOICE OF
TREATMENT SCHEME ARE
 Source of raw water

 Limitation of capital,

 Availability of skilled and unskilled labour,

 Availability of equipment, construction material, and

water treatment chemicals,

 Local codes, drinking water standards and material

specifications,

 Local traditions, customs and cultural standards,

56
 National sanitation and pollution policies, etc.
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT PROCESSES
 Screening - remove large debris such as sticks,
leaves, trash and other large particles.

 Pre-conditioning – remove hardness

 Pre-chlorination - minimize growth of fouling

organisms on the pipe-work and tanks

 pH adjustment

57