B4 ENZYMES

● What is a Catalyst?
○ Imagine a shortcut for a chemical reaction. A catalyst is a

substance that speeds up or changes the rate of a chemical

reaction, but it isn't used up or permanently changed itself during
the process. It's like a tool that helps a job get done faster without
being consumed

● What is an Enzyme?
○ An enzyme is a special kind of catalyst – it's a biological

catalyst. This means it's made by living organisms and helps

speed up crucial chemical reactions inside our bodies and other
living things. These reactions, called metabolic reactions, would
happen incredibly slowly, or not at all, without enzymes.

Key Characteristics of Enzymes

● Specificity: Each enzyme is highly specific, meaning it typically only

acts on one type of substrate, or a very limited number of substrates.

● Efficiency (Turnover): Enzymes are incredibly fast! A single enzyme

molecule can catalyze millions of reactions every second. (Remember
catalase, breaking down 44 million H₂O₂ molecules per second!)

● Dual-Substrate Reactions: Some enzymes can even bind two

different substrate molecules at their active site and join them
together to form a single, larger product.

How Enzymes Get Their Names

● The "-ase" Rule: Most enzyme names end with "-ase".

● What's a Substrate?
○ The substrate is the specific molecule that an enzyme acts upon,

or "works on." Think of it as the enzyme's specific target.

● Naming by Substrate or Reaction Type:

○ Often, the enzyme's name tells you its substrate or the type of

reaction it performs:
Enzyme Class Example Substrate Product (What
Enzyme (What it acts it turns into)
on)
Carbohydrates Amylase Starch Maltose
(breaks down Maltase Maltose Glucose
carbs)
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose +
Fructose
Protease Protease Proteins Amino acids
(breaks down
proteins)
Lipase Lipase Lipids (fats) Fatty acids +
glycerol
(breaks down
lipids)
Property What it means How it's affected
Optimum The temperature Activity increases up
Temperature where the enzyme to optimum; above
works fastest. optimum leads
to denaturation.
Optimum pH The pH level where Deviations (too high or
the enzyme works too low pH) cause
fastest. altered shape
and denaturation.
Turnover Number How many substrate Not affected by
molecules an enzyme moderate changes;
can process per collapses after
second (very high!). denaturation.
Substrate Specificity Each enzyme works on If the substrate
only one or a few doesn't match the
specific substrates. active site, there is no
reaction.
HOW ENZYMES WORK: THE "LOCK AND KEY" MODEL

Enzymes are very specific in how they work, almost like a lock and key!

○ Every enzyme molecule has a unique 3-D shape, and a special

"dent" or groove on its surface called the active site. This is
where the substrate binds.

○ The substrate molecule must have a shape that is a "perfect fit"

for the enzyme's active site, just like a specific key fits into a
specific lock. If the shapes don't match, the enzyme can't work on
that substrate.

● The Process:
. Binding: The substrate molecule fits into the active site of the
enzyme and binds to it.
. Enzyme-Substrate Complex: When the substrate is bound, it
forms an enzyme-substrate complex.
. Conversion: While in the active site, the enzyme helps convert the
substrate into new molecules called products.
 . Release: After the reaction, the product(s) detach and move away
from the enzyme.
. Re-use: The enzyme is then free and unchanged, ready to bind
with another substrate molecule and repeat the process.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES

● Specificity: Each enzyme is highly specific, meaning it typically only

acts on one type of substrate, or a very limited number of substrates.

● Efficiency (Turnover): Enzymes are incredibly fast! A single enzyme

molecule can catalyze millions of reactions every second. (Remember
catalase, breaking down 44 million H₂O₂ molecules per second!)

● Dual-Substrate Reactions: Some enzymes can even bind two

different substrate molecules at their active site and join them
together to form a single, larger product.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

Enzymes are very sensitive to their environment, especially temperature and
pH. There's a "sweet spot" where they work best!

● Optimum Temperature: The temperature at which an enzyme works

at its fastest (maximal activity).
● Optimum pH: The pH level at which an enzyme works at its fastest
(maximal activity).

1. Temperature

Temperature has a major impact on how well an enzyme functions:

● At Low Temperatures (e.g., around 0 °C):

○ Molecules (both enzyme and substrate) have very little kinetic

energy (energy of movement).

○ They move slowly, so there are very few "effective collisions"

where the substrate hits the active site correctly.

○ Result: Very low or no enzyme activity.
 ● As Temperature Increases (up to the Optimum):
○ Molecules gain more kinetic energy and move faster.
○ This leads to more frequent and more energetic

collisions between enzyme and substrate.

○ Result: Enzyme activity increases as more substrate molecules

are converted to product each second.

● Beyond the Optimum Temperature:

○ If the temperature gets too high (above the optimum), the

excessive kinetic energy starts to disrupt the enzyme's delicate

3-D structure.
○ The active site begins to lose its specific shape. This process is

called denaturation.
○ If the active site's shape is changed, the substrate can no longer

fit properly.
○ Result: Enzyme activity drops sharply because the enzyme can

no longer function effectively.

● Typical Optimum Temperatures:

○ Human enzymes generally work best around 37 °C (our body

temperature).
○ Plant enzymes often have lower optimum temperatures.
○ Enzymes from certain bacteria living in hot springs (thermophilic

bacteria) can have optimum temperatures as high as 80 °C.

○ Most enzymes are generally denatured and stop working

completely above 60 °C.

2. pH Level
The acidity or alkalinity of the environment also affects enzyme activity:

● The pH "Sweet Spot": Each enzyme has a specific pH range where it

works best, and a precise optimum pH.
● Most Enzymes:
○ Work best at a neutral pH, typically around pH 7.

● Specialized Enzymes:
○ Some enzymes are adapted to extreme pH conditions. For

example, pepsin, an enzyme found in your stomach, works best in

very acidic conditions, around pH 2.

● Deviations from Optimum pH:

○ If the pH is too far above or below the optimum, it causes changes

in the electrical charges of the enzyme's amino acids.

 ○ This disrupts the enzyme's 3-D shape, especially the active site,
leading to denaturation.
○ Result: Loss of enzyme activity.

VISUALISING ENZYME ACTIVITY

● Temperature Graph: Shows a bell-shaped curve. Activity starts low,
rises to a peak (optimum), and then sharply drops off as denaturation
occurs.
● pH Graph: Also shows a bell-shaped curve, but the peak varies
depending on the enzyme (e.g., pepsin's peak is at pH 2, while most
others are closer to pH 7-8). These graphs clearly show how moving
away from optimal conditions reduces enzyme activity.

Denaturation: When Enzymes Stop Working

● What is Denaturation?
○ Denaturation is the irreversible loss of an enzyme’s natural 3-D

shape. Once denatured, an enzyme usually cannot get its correct

shape back, making it unable to function as a catalyst.

● Causes:
○ The primary causes of denaturation are high

temperature and extreme pH levels (either too acidic or to

alkaline).

● Consequence:
○ When an enzyme is denatured, it’s active site loses its specific

shape. This means the substrate can no longer bind properly (the
"lock and key" no longer fits), and the enzyme cannot catalyse
the reaction anymore.
○ Example: If you heat a protein-digesting enzyme above 60 °C, it

will completely stop digesting proteins.

Property What it means How it's affected

Optimum The temperature Activity increases up
Temperature where the enzyme to optimum; above
works fastest. optimum leads
to denaturation.
Optimum pH The pH level where Deviations (too high or
the enzyme works too low pH) cause
fastest. altered shape
and denaturation.
Turnover Number How many substrate Not affected by
 Temperature where the enzyme to optimum; above
works fastest. optimum leads
to denaturation.
Optimum pH The pH level where Deviations (too high or
the enzyme works too low pH) cause
fastest. altered shape
and denaturation.
Turnover Number How many substrate Not affected by
molecules an enzyme moderate changes;
can process per collapses after
second (very high!). denaturation.
Substrate Specificity Each enzyme works on If the substrate
only one or a few doesn't match the
specific substrates. active site, there is no
reaction.

Catalyst – a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without

being consumed or permanently changed.
● Enzyme – a biological catalyst that speeds up metabolic reactions
in living organisms.

○ Metabolic reactions would proceed very slowly or not at all

without enzymes.

○ Digestion:
◆ Amylase breaks down starch → maltose.
◆ Protease hydrolyses proteins → amino acids.
◆ These enzymes are also present in germinating seeds, where

they mobilise stored starch for the seedling.

○ Catalase decomposes the toxic by-product hydrogen peroxide:

Catalase is the fastest known enzyme (≈ 44 million H₂O₂

molecules · s⁻¹ per molecule).

○ Enzymes are not limited to breakdown reactions; they also

assemble large molecules .