2.

2 Rivers
Key questions
H What are the main hydrological characteristics and processes that operate
within rivers and drainage basins?
H How do rivers erode, transport and deposit?
H What are the main erosional and depositional features associated with rivers?
H What are the advantages and disadvantages of rivers?
H How can the impacts of floods be managed?

For example, there is more erosion in the upper part,

while there is more deposition in the lower course.
This is related to the changes in a river downstream.
Figure 2.25 shows that velocity, discharge and load
increase downstream, whereas gradient and the size
of load decrease downstream.

Upstream Downstream

Discharge

Occupied channel width

Water depth
Water velocity

Load quantity

Load particle size

Channel bed roughness

Slope angle (gradient)

▲ Figure 2.25 Changes in a river downstream

▲ Figure 2.24 Waterfall, Powerscourt, Ireland

Energy in a river
Changing-channel This determines a stream’s ability to erode, transport
or deposit. There are two types of energy:
characteristics » potential energy, provided by the weight and
Downstream changes elevation of the water
» kinetic energy, produced by gravity and the flow of
Rivers have three main roles: to erode the river the water.
channel, to transport materials, and to create new
erosional and depositional landforms. Most rivers About 95 per cent of energy is used to overcome
have three main zones — a zone of erosion, a zone friction with the bed and banks. The rougher the
of transport and a zone of deposition. Erosion, channel the more energy will be lost. In a smooth
transport and deposition are found in all parts of a channel there is very little frictional loss and
river, although one process tends to be dominant. therefore there is more energy available for work.
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 2.2 RiveRs

Channel shape the channel, and river forces. Solid rock allows only slow
changes, whereas alluvium allows rapid changes. Silt
The efficiency of a stream’s shape is measured by its and clay produce steep, deep, narrow valleys (the fine
hydraulic radius — that is, the cross-sectional area material being cohesive and stable) whereas sand and
divided by wetted perimeter (Figure 2.26). The higher gravel promote wide, shallow channels.
the ratio the more efficient the stream and the smaller
the frictional loss. The ideal form is semi-circular. Channel roughness
There is a close relationship between velocity, Channel roughness causes friction, which slows down the
discharge and the characteristics of the channel in which velocity of the water. Friction is caused by irregularities in
the water is flowing. These include depth, width, channel the riverbed, boulders, trees and vegetation, and contact
roughness and hydraulic geometry. The width/depth ratio between the water and the bed and bank.
(w/d) is a good measure of comparison. The shape of Discharge is the volume of water passing a given
the channel is also determined by the material forming point over a set time (Figure 2.27). Normally it
is expressed in m3/sec (cumecs). It is found by
Channel efficiency is measured by the hydraulic radius i.e. cross-
sectional area divided by wetted perimeter. It is affected by river multiplying the cross-sectional area and the mean
level and channel shape. velocity. Steeper slopes should lead to higher
River
Flood − high friction velocities because of the influence of gravity.
Bankfull − maximum Discharge (Q) normally increases downstream, as does
efficiency (low friction)
Below bankfull −
width, depth and velocity. By contrast, channel roughness
high friction decreases. The increase in channel width downstream is
normally greater than that in channel depth. Large rivers,
Shape
Stream A Cross-sectional area Discharge = velocity × cross-sectional area
Wetted perimeter distance (m)
Cross-section Cross-sectional area Velocity = = m/sec
5m 5m at bankfull stage time (sec)
area = 40 m2

8m
Very efficient (low relative friction)

Stream B
2m Cross-section area = 40 m2 2m Flow
20 m
Bankfull width
Inefficient (high friction)

m
0
.1
Wetted perimeters Hydraulic radius

g
e.
Stream A: 5 + 5 + 8 = 18 m Stream A: 40/18 = 2.22 m Depth th
ng
Stream B: 2 + 2 + 20 = 24 m Stream B: 40/24 = 1.66 m
Le

Wetted perimeter

▲ Figure 2.26 Wetted perimeter and cross-sectional area ▲ Figure 2.27 Discharge

Activities
Table 2.8
Site 1 2 3 4 5
Gradient 1:8 1:14 1:26 1:45 1:85
Width (m) 1.3 1.6 2.4 4.1 8.3
Depth (m) 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.6
Velocity (cm/sec) 13 16 21 28 34
Discharge ... ... ... ... ...
Bedload size (cm) 25 21 12 7 2
Shape Angular Angular Sub-angular Rounded Rounded
Cross-sectional area (m2) ... ... ... ... ...

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 Drainage basins

Study the data in Table 2.8. velocity of the river, (ii) the load and (iii) the work of
the river?
1 a Describe how the ratio of width/depth varies with
2 Study Figure 2.25.
distance from the source of the river.
a Describe how the amount and size of load varies
b Work out (i) the cross-sectional area and (ii) the
downstream.
discharge of the stream for each site. How and why
b Suggest reasons for the changes you have identified.
do these change downstream?
c State a reason why the channel bed roughness
c Describe the changes in bedload size and shape as
decreases downstream.
you proceed downstream. What processes cause
d How might the nature of the load affect the type
these changes to take place?
and amount of erosion carried out by the river? Give
d If the channel between sites 4 and 5 were
reasons for your answer.
straightened, what effect would it have on (i) the

with a higher w/d ratio, are more efficient than smaller In studying rivers, reference is made to the basin’s
rivers with a lower w/d ratio, because less energy is hydrological cycle. In this the drainage basin is
spent in overcoming friction. Thus, the carrying capacity taken as the unit of study rather than the global
increases and a lower gradient is required to transport the system. The basin cycle is an open system: the main
load. Although river gradients decrease downstream the input is precipitation, which is regulated by various
load carried is smaller, and therefore easier to transport. means of storage.
The hydrological cycle refers to the movement
Drainage basins of water between atmosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. At a global scale, it can be thought of as
A drainage basin is an area within which water supplied a closed system with no losses from the system. In
by precipitation is transferred to the ocean, a lake or contrast, at a local scale the cycle has a single input,
larger stream. It includes all the area that is drained by precipitation (PPT), and two major losses (outputs),
a river and its tributaries (smaller rivers that join the evapotranspiration (EVT) and runoff (Figure 2.29).
larger river) and is the main unit for the study of rivers.
The confluence is the point where a smaller river joins a
P
larger river. Drainage basins are divided by watersheds — P T
P CP P
Soil

imaginary lines separating adjacent basins (Figure 2.28). E

I Rock
Aeration
Zone
Mediterranean Sea er table
OF TF Wat
River
Zone of
Saturation
GWF

Saturated rock and soil I Infiltration OF Overland flow (very fast)

P Precipitation T Transpiration TF Throughflow (quick)
Water movement E Direct evaporation of GWF Groundwater flow
intercepted precipitation (baseflow) (slow)
Niger CP Channel precipitation
Nile

▲ Figure 2.29 Basin hydrological cycle

Congo-Zaïre
Indian
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean
Water can be stored at a number of places within the
cycle. These stores include vegetation, surface, soil
moisture, groundwater and water channels. The global
Zambezi
hydrological cycle also includes stores in the oceans
and the atmosphere.
Inland drainage Human modifications are made at every scale. Good
Watersheds
Orange examples include large-scale changes of channel flow,
irrigation and drainage, and abstraction of groundwater
and surface water for domestic and industrial use.
▲ Figure 2.28 Drainage basins in Africa

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 2.2 RiveRs

Precipitation Evaporation
The main characteristics that affect local hydrology Evaporation is the process by which a liquid or a
are the amount of precipitation, seasonality, solid is changed into a gas. Its most important source
intensity, type (snow, rain etc.), geographical is from oceans and seas. Evaporation increases under
distribution and variability. For rain to occur, three warm, dry, windy conditions.
factors must be in place: Factors affecting evaporation include temperature,
humidity, and windspeed. Of these, temperature is
» Air is saturated — that is, it has a relative
the most important factor. Other factors include water
humidity of 100 per cent. quality, depth of water, size of water body, vegetation
» It contains particles of soot, dust, ash, ice etc.
cover and colour of the surface (albedo or reflectivity
» Its temperature is below dew point — that is, the
of the surface — see Table 2.9).
temperature is at the level where the relative humidity is
100 per cent, saturation is complete and clouds form. Table 2.9 Albedo values

Clouds are tiny droplets suspended in air, while rain Surface Albedo (%)
droplets are much larger. Therefore cloud droplets Water (sun’s angle over 40°) 2–4
must get much larger, although not necessarily by
Water (sun’s angle less than 40°) 6–80
normal condensation processes. There are a number of
theories to suggest how raindrops are formed. Fresh snow 75–90
There are three main types of rainfall: Old snow 40–70
Dry sand 35–45
» cyclonic — uplift of air within a low-pressure area
(warm air rises over cold air); it normally brings low to Dark, wet soil 5–15
moderate intensity rain and may last for a few days Dry concrete 17–27
» orographic — a deep layer of moist air is forced to Black road surface 5–10
rise over a range of hills or mountains Grass 20–30
» convectional — heating causes pockets of air to
Deciduous forest 10–20
rise and cool.
Coniferous forest 5–15

Interception Crops 15–25

Tundra 15–20
Interception refers to water stored by vegetation.
There are three main components:
Evapotranspiration
» interception loss — water that is retained by plant
Transpiration is the process by which water vapour
surfaces and later evaporated away or absorbed by
is transferred from vegetation to the atmosphere. The
the plant
combined effects of evaporation and transpiration are
» throughfall — water that either falls through gaps in
normally referred to as evapotranspiration (EVT). EVT
the vegetation, or drops from leaves, twigs or stems
represents the most important aspect of water loss,
» stemflow — water that trickles along twigs and
accounting for the removal of nearly 100 per cent of
branches and finally down the trunk.
the annual precipitation in arid areas and 75 per cent
Interception loss varies with vegetation. For in humid areas. Only over ice and snow fields, bare
example, in German beech forests in summer it is up rock slopes, desert areas, water surfaces and bare soil
to 40 per cent of rainfall, whereas in winter it is only will purely evaporative losses occur.
about 20 per cent. Interception is less from grasses The distinction between actual EVT and potential
than from deciduous woodland. Interception losses evapotranspiration ([Link]) lies in the concept of
are greater from coniferous forests because: moisture availability. Potential evapotranspiration
is the water loss that would occur if there was
» pine needles allow individual accumulation
an unlimited supply of water in the soil for use
» freer air circulation allows more evapotranspiration.
by the vegetation. Rates of potential and actual
From agricultural crops, and from cereals in particular, evapotranspiration for South Africa are shown in
interception loss increases with crop density. Figure 2.30.
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 Drainage basins

a Potential b Actual
20° 25°

20°
Pretoria 25° 25°
Johannesburg Pretoria
Johannesburg

Port Nolloth
Bloemfontein Durban
Port Nolloth Bloemfontein Durban
30° 30°
mm
< 1400 mm
1400
< 1400
30° 1600
East London 1400
1800
2000 East London 1600
2200 1800
2400 2000
Port Elizabeth 2600 Cape Town
2800 Port Elizabeth 2200
10° 20° > 3000 35° 15° 25° >2400

▲ Figure 2.30 Rates of potential and actual evapotranspiration for South Africa

Infiltration Infiltration is affected by the same factors that

influence overland runoff, but in a different way.
Infiltration is the process by which water soaks into For example, duration (length) of rainfall decreases
the ground. The infiltration capacity is the maximum infiltration, as does existing moisture in the soil,
rate at which rain can enter the soil/ground. raindrop size, steep slope and a lack of vegetation
Infiltration capacity decreases with time through a cover.
period of rainfall until a more or less constant value
is reached (Figure 2.31). Infiltration rates of 0–4 mm/
hour are common on clays, whereas rates of 3–12 mm/
Overland flow
hour are common on sands. Vegetation also increases Overland flow refers to water moving over the
infiltration. On bare soils, infiltration rates may reach surface. It is also called surface runoff. Overland
10 mm/hour. On similar soils covered by vegetation, rates flow occurs in two main ways: when precipitation
of between 50 and 100 mm/hour have been recorded. exceeds the infiltration rate, and when the
Infiltrated water is chemically rich as it picks up minerals soil is saturated. Overland flow and infiltration
and organic acids from vegetation and soil. are inversely related, as shown in Figure 2.32.
Overland flow generally has a high suspended
3.0 load.
Pasture

2.5
Corn Throughflow
Throughflow refers to water flowing through the soil
Infiltration rate (cm h–1)

2.0
in natural pipes and between soil horizons.

Soil moisture
1.5
Soil moisture is the subsurface water in soil and
subsurface layers above the water table. From here
1.0 water may be:
» absorbed
0.5
» held
» transmitted downwards towards the water table
0 » transmitted upwards towards the soil surface and
00 6 120 180 200 300
Minutes
the atmosphere.
▲ Figure 2.31 Infiltration and time
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 2.2 RiveRs

Duration of rainfall Antecedent soil moisture Soil porosity

Precipitation (P)

Surface Infiltration

P (mm /h)

P (mm /h)
(mm / h)

runoff

Infiltration Surface
(dry soil) runoff
Infiltration Infiltration
Duration of rainfall Time (wet soil) Porosity

Vegetation cover Raindrop size Surface Slope angle

Surface runoff Surface
(bare earth) runoff
P (mm / h)

P (mm / h)

P (mm / h)
runoff
Surface runoff (forest)
Infiltration Infiltration
(forest) Infiltration
Infiltration
(bare earth)
Time Raindrop size Slope angle
▲ Figure 2.32 Factors affecting infiltration

In coarser-textured soils much of the water is held streams rapidly. In addition, aquifers maintain stream
in fairly large pores at fairly low suctions, while very flow during long dry periods. Rocks that do not hold
little is held in small pores. In the finer-textured clay water are impermeable rocks (e.g. clay), and prevent
soils the range of pore sizes is much greater and, in large-scale storage and transmission of water.
particular, there is a higher proportion of small pores
in which water is held at very high suctions. a In humid regions
Aquifer
» Field capacity refers to the amount of water held recharge
Intermittent
in the soil after excess water drains away — that Major
perennial discharge area Unsaturated
is, saturation or near saturation. Artesian discharge area zone
» Wilting point refers to the range of moisture content discharge area
Minor
area
in which permanent wilting of plants occurs. perennial
discharge
s area
Groundwater month

ye a r s
years
Groundwater refers to subsurface water. The upper decades
layer of the permanently saturated zone is known as es
Aquitards
mille centuri
nnia
the water table. The water table varies seasonally —
in Britain it is higher in winter following increased
levels of precipitation. Most groundwater is found
within a few hundred metres of the surface, but has
been found at depths of up to 4 km beneath the
surface (Figure 2.33). b In semi-arid regions
Groundwater accounts for 96.5 per cent of all Aquifer recharge area
freshwater on Earth. However, while some soil water
Minor perennial
may be recycled within a matter of days or weeks, discharge area
groundwater may not be recycled for as long as
20,000 years. Hence, in some places, groundwater is
cent uri

considered a non-renewable resource.

Aquifers (rocks that contain significant quantities
es

d e ca d e s
of water) provide a great reservoir of water.
Aquifers are permeable rocks such as sandstones Aquitard (low permeability)
millennia
and limestones. This water moves very slowly and
Near aquiclude (impermeable layer)
acts as a natural regulator in the hydrological cycle
by absorbing rainfall, which otherwise would reach ▲ Figure 2.33 Groundwater

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 River processes

The groundwater balance is shown by the formula: » hydraulic action — the force of air and water on
ΔS = Qr − Qd the sides of rivers and in cracks
» solution (or corrosion) — the removal of chemical
where ΔS is the change in storage (+ or −), Qr is
ions, especially calcium, which causes rocks to
recharge to groundwater and Qd is discharge from
dissolve.
groundwater.
Groundwater recharge occurs as a result of: There are many factors affecting erosion. These
include:
» infiltration of part of the total precipitation at the
ground surface » load — the heavier and sharper the load the
» seepage through the banks and bed of surface greater the potential for erosion
water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans » velocity and discharge — the greater the velocity
» groundwater leakage and inflow from adjacent and discharge the greater the potential for erosion
aquifers » gradient — increased gradient increases the rate
» artificial recharge from irrigation, reservoirs etc. of erosion
» geology — soft, unconsolidated rocks, such as
Losses of groundwater result from:
sand and gravel, are easily eroded
» evapotranspiration, particularly in low-lying areas » pH — rates of solution are increased when the
where the water table is close to the ground water is more acidic
surface » human impact — deforestation, dams and bridges
» natural discharge by means of spring flow and interfere with the natural flow of a river and
seepage into surface water bodies frequently end up increasing the rate of erosion.
» groundwater leakage and outflow into adjacent
aquifers Transport
» artificial abstraction, for example in the Thames
The main types of transport in a river (Figure 2.34)
basin in the UK.
include:
» suspension — small particles are held up by
River processes turbulent flow in the river
» saltation — heavier particles are bounced or
Erosion bumped along the bed of the river
» solution — the chemical load is dissolved in the
The main types of erosion include:
water
» abrasion (or corrasion) — the wearing away of » traction — the heaviest material is dragged or
the bed and bank by the load carried by a river rolled along the bed of the river
» attrition — the wearing away of the load carried » flotation — leaves and twigs are carried on the
by a river, which creates smaller, rounder particles surface of the river.

1 Mostly clay and silt

Wind-blown 2 Mostly sand Slope Bank
material failure calving
3 Mostly gravel and cobbles

Suspension
Suspended
load Suspended and
Suspension
Dissolved load dissolved load
1 plume
Settling
Deposition
3
Saltation
Rolling 2
Sliding
3 Bedload

▲ Figure 2.34 Types of transport in a river

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 2.2 RiveRs

Deposition » variations in the load, for example a tributary with

Deposition occurs as a river slows down and it loses its a coarse load might lead to a steepening of the
energy. Typically, this occurs as a river floods across gradient of the main valley
a floodplain or enters the sea, or behind a dam. It is » sea level changes — a relative fall in sea level
also more likely during low flow conditions (such as in will lead to renewed downcutting, which enables
a drought) than during high flow (flood) conditions — the river to erode former floodplains and form new
as long as the river is carrying sediment. The larger, terraces and knick-points.
heavier particles are deposited first, the smaller, lighter Rivers tend to achieve a condition of equilibrium, or
ones later. Features of deposition include deltas, grade, and erode the irregularities. There is a balance
levées, slip-off slopes (point bars), oxbow lakes, between erosion and deposition in which a river
braided channels and floodplains. adjusts to its capacity and the amount of work being
done. The main adjustments are in channel gradient,
Activities leading to a smooth, concave profile.
1 a Briefly describe the four main ways in which rivers
erode.
b Suggest how they will vary with (i) velocity of Cross-profiles
water, (ii) rock type and (iii) pH of water.
2 a What are the main types of transport? The cross-profile of the upper part of a river is
b How might the type and quantity of the river’s often described as V-shaped (Figure 2.35). Rivers
load vary between flood conditions and low flow in their upper course typically have a steep
conditions? gradient and a narrow valley. The rivers are shallow
and fast flowing. There is normally much friction
The long profile with large boulders, and much energy is used to
A number of processes, such as weathering and mass overcome friction. The processes likely to occur are
movement, interact to create variations in cross- and vertical erosion, weathering on the slopes, mass
long profiles (Figure 2.35). Irregularities, or knick- movement and transport. Features likely to be found
points, may be due to: include waterfalls, rapids, potholes, gorges and
interlocking spurs.
» geological structure, for example hard rocks In the middle course of the river, the valley is still
erode slowly, which can result in the formation of V-shaped but is less steep. Slopes are more gentle.
waterfalls and rapids A floodplain is beginning to form and meanders
Cross-section are visible. Processes in the middle course include
Upper Middle Lower erosion (both vertical and lateral), meandering,
valley valley valley transport and some deposition on the inner bends of
for cross-section

500
Altitude (m)

400 the meanders.

300 In contrast, in the lower course the cross-profile is
200 much flatter. Processes include erosion (on the outer
100
0 banks), transport and deposition (especially on the
inner bends and on the floodplain). Characteristic
Long
profile
features include levées, oxbow lakes, floodplains,
deltas and terraces.
Source
Upper
course

Knick-point
Features of erosion
Localised erosion by hydraulic action and abrasion,
Height

Middle
course
especially by large pieces of debris, may lead to
Lower
the formation of potholes (Figure 2.36). These are
Resistant rock course typically seen in the upper course of a river when the
load is larger and more rugged. Waterfalls frequently
Mouth occur on horizontally bedded rocks (Figure 2.37).
▲ Figure 2.35 Long and cross-profiles The soft rock is undercut by hydraulic action and
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 River processes

Resistant rock layer

Potholes formed by abrasion View from
above River

River bed Gorge

River flow

Abrasion Course Waterfall

of river
Former
position
Resistant of waterfall
rock

▲ Figure 2.36 Formation of potholes

Section
▲ Figure 2.38 Formation of a gorge of recession
Dolomite

creating a gorge-like landscape. Gorges may also be

Shale
formed as a result of:
Limestone
Shale » antecedent drainage pattern, for example the
Sandstone
River surface Rhine gorge
» collapse of underground caverns in Carboniferous
Sandstone limestone areas, for example the River Axe at
and shale
Wookey Hole, UK
» retreat of waterfalls, for example Niagara Falls
Sandstone
(Figure 2.39).
Plunge
Shale pool Plunge flow occurs where the river spills over a
sudden change in gradient, undercutting rocks by
▲ Figure 2.37 Formation of waterfalls hydraulic impact and abrasion, thereby creating a
waterfall. There are many reasons for this sudden
change in gradient along the river:
abrasion. The weight of the water and the lack of
support cause the waterfall to collapse and retreat. » a band of resistant strata, such as the resistant
Over thousands of years the waterfall may retreat limestones at Niagara Falls
enough to form a gorge of recession (Figure 2.38). » a plateau edge, such as Livingstone Falls on the
Where there are small outcrops of hard and soft rock, Congo river in D.R. Congo
rapids may develop rather than a waterfall. » a hanging valley, such as at Glencoyne,
Cumbria (UK)
» coastal cliffs, such as at Kimmeridge Bay,
Gorges and waterfalls
Dorset (UK).
Gorge development is common, for example where
the local rocks are very resistant to weathering The undercutting at the base of the waterfall
but susceptible to the more powerful river erosion. creates a precarious overhang, which will ultimately
Similarly, in arid areas where the water necessary for collapse. Thus a waterfall may appear to migrate
weathering is scarce, gorges are formed by episodes upstream, leaving a gorge of recession downstream.
of fluvial erosion. A rapid acceleration in downcutting The Niagara gorge is 11 km long due to the retreat
is also associated when a river is rejuvenated, again of Niagara Falls (Figures 2.38 and 2.39).

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 2.2 RiveRs

Case study: Niagara Falls

Most of the world’s great waterfalls are the result of the
undercutting of resistant cap rocks, and the retreat or
recession that follows.
The Niagara river flows for about 50 km between
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. In that distance it falls just
108 m, giving an average gradient of 1:500. However,
most of the descent occurs in the 1.5 km above Niagara
Falls (13 m) and at the Falls themselves (55 m). The
Niagara river flows in a 2 km wide channel just 1 km
above the Falls, and then into a narrow 400 m wide
gorge, 75 m deep and 11 km long. Within the gorge the
river falls a further 30 m.
▲ Figure 2.39 Niagara Falls on the US/Canadian border

72

71

70

57 58 59 60

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 River processes

The course of the Niagara river was established about of water flowing over the Falls is controlled (due to the
12,000 years ago when water from Lake Erie began to spill construction of hydroelectric power stations), rates of
northwards into Lake Ontario. In doing so, it passed over recession have been reduced. In addition, engineering
the highly resistant dolomitic (limestone) escarpment. works in the 1960s reinforced parts of the dolomite that
Over the last 12,000 years the Falls have retreated were believed to be at risk of collapse. The Falls remain
11 km, giving an average rate of retreat of about 1 m/ an important tourist attraction, and local residents and
year. Water velocity accelerates over the Falls, and business personnel did not want to lose their prized asset.
decreases at the base of the Falls. Hydraulic action and
abrasion have caused the development of a large plunge
Case study analysis
pool at the base of the Falls, while the fine spray and Study Figure 2.40.
eddies in the river help to remove some of the softer 1 Which two countries share a border at Niagara Falls?
rock underneath the resistant dolomite. As the softer 2 In which direction is the Niagara river flowing?
rocks are removed, the dolomite is left unsupported 3 What is the map evidence that there is a gorge below
and the weight of the water causes the dolomite to Niagara Falls?
collapse. Hence the waterfall retreats, forming a gorge 4 Using map evidence, suggest how the Niagara Falls
of recession. and river have been used for human activities.
In the nineteenth century rates of recession were 5 Approximately how wide is Niagara Falls in squares
recorded at 1.2 m/year. However, now that the amount 5870–5871, and in 5772?

Case study: Victoria Falls

over the Falls its channel narrows from over 1.7 km to
just a few metres. This creates an increase in the river’s
velocity and causes much erosion and scouring.
The evolution of the Falls is complex. About 150 million
years ago molten rock formed fine-grained resistant
basalt, about 300 m thick, in the Victoria Falls area. As
the lava cooled it shrank, causing cracks or fissures to
appear in the rock. These fissures were later widened
by weathering, and were infilled by deposits of soft clay
and lime. Over time these deposits solidified to form
limestone. Continued tectonic processes caused large
east–west fissures to widen, allowing the limestone in the
fissures to be eroded.
The river’s course changed over time. Uplift caused
the ancient course of the river to be blocked, diverting
the river east into its present course. The river was
able to erode the soft sandy deposits on the surface,
but was unable to erode the harder basalt below. At the
time the edge of the basalt plain was some 100 km from
the present Victoria Falls. As the waterfall retreated
it occupied an east–west fissure filled with relatively
soft limestone. This it was able to erode easily and cut
▲ Figure 2.41 Victoria Falls on the Zambezi river back to within 8 km of the present waterfall. Then it
occupied a north–south fissure, until it cut back as far
Victoria Falls, on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe, is as the next east–west fissure. The present Victoria Falls
one of the world’s most spectacular waterfalls (Figure are believed to be similar to the previous falls, each
2.41). Like Niagara it has a resistant cap rock but, unlike of which has occupied a different fissure within the
Niagara, one of the dominant forces in the creation and resistant basalt.
development of Victoria Falls is plate tectonics. The
Case study analysis
Falls are nearly 2 km wide, up to 108 m deep, and during
1 Which two countries border Victoria Falls?
the rainy season over 5 million m3 of water passes over 2 Identify one similarity and one difference between
them per minute. During the dry season the volume is Victoria Falls and Niagara Falls.
much less, but the annual average is still an impressive 3 How much water, on average, flows over Victoria Falls?
550,000 m3 per minute. When the Zambezi river passes 4 Why has Victoria Falls altered its course over time?

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 2.2 RiveRs

Meanders E = Erosion D = Deposition

Rivers typically meander. This means that the water
does not follow a straight line but takes a curving
route (Figure 2.42). As a result of this there are D Meander D
variations in the speed across a river. Velocity is E
E
fastest on the outside bank and slowest on the inside E
D
E
bank, so there is erosion on the outer bank and D E D E
D
deposition on the inner bank. This produces a steep E
E
river cliff on the outer bank of a meander and a D
D
gentle slip-off slope on its inner bank.
1 2 3
Erosion A 1 Erosion and deposition around a meander.
F E
2 Increased erosion during flood conditions. The meanders
become exaggerated.
E
3 The river breaks through during a flood. Further deposition
causes the old meander to become an oxbow lake.
Deposition
B Dep
osit C ▲ Figure 2.43 Development of an oxbow lake
B A ion
F
a
D C
Erosion
D

▲ Figure 2.42 Cross-section through a meander

Oxbow lakes
Oxbow lakes are the result of erosion and deposition
(Figure 2.43). Lateral erosion, caused by fast flow in
the meanders, is concentrated on the outer, deeper
bank. During times of flooding, erosion increases.
The river breaks through and creates a new, steeper
channel. In time, the old meander is closed off by
deposition to form an oxbow lake.
Oxbow Line of bluffs Levées Terrace
lake
Floodplains b
Floodplain

The area covered by water when a river floods is

known as its floodplain (Figure 2.44a). When a river’s
discharge exceeds the capacity of the channel, water
rises over the river banks and floods the surrounding
low-lying area. Sometimes a floodplain will itself be
eroded following a fall in sea level. When this happens,
the remnants of the old floodplain are left behind
as river terraces (Figure 2.44b). These are useful for Sand and gravel Silt and sand Bedrock

settlement as they are above the new level of the ▲ Figure 2.44 a Flood plain, Port Meadow, Oxford, UK
floodplain and are free from flooding. b Formation of a floodplain and terraces

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 River processes

Levées Braided channels

When a river floods its speed is reduced, slowed down Braiding occurs when a river transports a very
by friction caused by contact with the floodplain. As heavy load in relation to its velocity. If a river’s
its velocity is reduced the river has to deposit some of discharge falls its competence and capacity are
its load. It drops the coarser, heavier material first to reduced. This forces the river to deposit large
form raised banks, or levées, at the edge of the river amounts of its load and multi-channels, or braided
(Figure 2.45a). This means that, over centuries, the channels, are formed. Braiding is common in rivers
levées are built up of coarse material, such as sand and that experience seasonal variations in discharge.
gravel, while the floodplain consists of fine silt and For example, in proglacial and periglacial areas
clay (Figure 2.45b). such as southern Iceland, most of the discharge
occurs in late spring and early summer, when snow
a and ice melt. This enables rivers to carry very large
loads, which are quickly deposited as discharge
decreases.

Deltas
A delta is a flat, low-lying deposit of sediment that
is found at a river’s mouth (Figure 2.46). For deltas
to be formed a river needs to:
» carry a large volume of sediment — for example,
rivers in semi-arid regions and in areas of intense
human activity
» enter a still body of water, which causes velocity to
fall; the water loses its capacity and competence,
b 1 hence deposition occurs, with the heaviest particles
deposited first and the lightest last.
Deposition is increased if the water is salty,
River level in flood Deposition
2 as this causes salt particles to group together,
become heavier, and be deposited. Vegetation also
increases the rate of deposition by slowing down
3 the water.

Sea or lake

Levée
Raised river bed
5

Fore-set beds
1 When the river floods, it bursts its banks. It deposits its
coarsest load (gravel and sand) closest to the bank and the
finer load (silt and clay) further away.
2, 3, 4 This continues over a long time, perhaps for centuries.
5 The river has built up raised banks called levées, consisting Top-set beds Bottom-set beds Turbidity
of coarse material, and a floodplain of fine material. current
▲ Figure 2.46 Formation of a delta
▲ Figure 2.45 a Levée in Devon, U.K. b Formation of
levées

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Case study: The Rhône delta

Park boundary Nature reserve

Regional boundary Park or garden

Park visitor centre Ruins

Museum Castle 0 20
km

Place of interest

▲ Figure 2.47 Map extract of the Rhône delta

The Rhône river (Figure 2.47) divides into two main The Rhône delta is believed to be less than 1 million
distributaries 4 km north of Arles. The east branch, the years old. Deposition by the river is estimated to be about
Grande Rhône, is the larger of the two, and carries 17 million m3 each year, or about 50 tonnes every minute.
85 per cent of the Rhône’s water into the As the Mediterranean Sea has a very small tidal range,
Mediterranean. At Arles the river is just 2 m above sea there are no currents to carry away these deposits.
level and takes almost 50 km to reach the sea. The delta In addition, the Mediterranean is very saline. In the
is criss-crossed by numerous small islands, abandoned presence of salt water, clay and mud particles coagulate
channels and active levées. Most settlements and to form larger particles that cannot be held aloft by the
transport routes are located close to the river, where flow of the river. Hence there is rapid deposition at the
the land is slightly higher. Further away from the river, mouth of the delta.
the land is lower, swampy and frequently covered with There are a number of stages in the formation of a
water. The same pattern exists along the west branch, delta. The first is the development of sandbanks in the
the Petite Rhône. original mouth of the river. This causes the river to
Between these two limbs of the Rhône is a flat region divide, and then there is a period of repeated subdivision
characterised by many marshes and lakes (étangs), until there are a large number of distributaries flowing
known as the Camargue. The largest lake is the Étang de towards the sea. Each of the channels develops its
Vaccarès, which is less than 1 m deep. The étangs receive own set of levées, which has an impact on the human
most of their water from rainwater that becomes trapped environment (settlement and transport) as well as the
between the slightly higher riverine locations, and the physical environment (affecting the development of
sand bars and dunes at the coast. étangs between the main branches of the river). The

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 River hazards and opportunities

étangs may slowly accumulate sediment to form

marshes, or they may be drained and reclaimed to
form farmland or used by people in other ways.
Case study analysis 2 How wide is the Rhône delta when it meets the sea?
1 What is the length of: 3 What is the map evidence that:
a the Petit Rhône a conservation
b the Grande Rhône b tourism
between Arles and the sea? are important in the Rhône delta?

depressions (low-pressure systems) in autumn and

Interesting note
winter, which are both long in duration and wide in
There are 76 rivers that are over 1600 km long. areal coverage. By contrast, in India, up to 70 per
Four of them flow through Russia at some point cent of the annual rainfall occurs in 100 days in the
and four also flow through China at some point. summer southwest monsoon. Elsewhere, melting snow
may be responsible for widespread flooding.

River hazards and Physical causes

Rain

opportunities
Climatological Ice melt
Snow melt
Estuarine interactions between
Floods are a natural feature of all rivers. For most of Causes of
Part- stream flow and tidal conditions
the time a river is contained in its channel but at flood
climatological
Coastal storm surges
other times it may burst its bank and a flood occurs. Earthquake
Floods bring advantages such as water and fertile Other Landslide
alluvium (river deposits or silt), which allow farmers Dam failure
to grow crops. But the problem is that they may bring Human causes More rapid discharge in urban area
too much water and too much silt. The results can be due to impermeable surface and
increased number of drainage channels
devastating, as the experience of China shows, with
Urbanisation and urban growth
many disastrous floods over the centuries. (increase in impermeable surfaces)
River bank erosion can cause population Floodplain developments (increasing
displacement and socio-economic impacts. For Human-related causes risk of damage)
of flood/intensifying
example, the Meghna River in Bangladesh caused major Bridges, dams, obstructions
disruptions during the 1990s and 2000s. It eroded Changes in vegetation cover,
over 6 km of land between Meghna Roads and Highway e.g. agriculture
River engineering works, e.g. levées
Bridge, Meghna Ghat, destroying productive land and
causing residents to lose all their possessions. Among Human-induced climate change

the worst-affected areas were the villages of Shikarpur, ▲ Figure 2.48 Natural and human causes of floods
Kandargoan and Bhanipur. Many displaced farmers
become day labourers or rickshaw operators. They Flood intensifying conditions cover a range of factors
receive little assistance from the government, although that alter the response of a drainage basin to a given
most get some assistance from friends and relatives. As storm. These factors include topography, vegetation,
over 80 per cent of people are employed in farming, the soil type, rock type and specific characteristics of the
loss of land leads to widespread unemployment. drainage basin.
The causes of floods are natural. However, human The potential for damage by flood waters increases
interference intensifies many floods (Figure 2.48). A exponentially with velocity and speeds above 3 m
flood is a high flow of water that overtops the bank per second, and can undermine the foundations of
of a river. The primary causes of floods are mainly buildings. The physical stresses on buildings are
the result of external climatic forces. Secondary flood increased even more, probably by hundreds of times,
causes tend to be drainage basin specific. Most floods when rough, rapidly flowing water contains debris
in Britain, for example, are associated with deep such as rock, sediment and trees.
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 2.2 RiveRs

Other conditions that intensify floods include changes » failure of flood protection systems
in land use. Urbanisation, for example, increases the » changes in environmental conditions, for example
magnitude and frequency of floods in at least four clearance of trees and other vegetation and infilling
ways: of wetlands, which reduces flood retention capacities.
» The creation of highly impermeable surfaces, such Some environments are more at risk than others. The
as roads, roofs and pavements, increases runoff. most vulnerable include the following:
» Smooth surfaces served with a dense network of
» Low-lying parts of active floodplains and river
drains, gutters and underground sewers increase
drainage density. estuaries, for example in Bangladesh, where
» Natural river channels are often constricted by
110 million people live relatively unprotected on the
bridge supports or riverside facilities, reducing floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna
their carrying capacity. rivers. Floods caused by the monsoon regularly cover
» Due to increased storm runoff, many sewerage
20–30 per cent of the flat delta. In very serious
systems cannot cope with the resulting peak flow. floods up to half of the country may be flooded.
» Small basins subject to flash floods. These are
Deforestation is also a cause of increased flood especially common in arid and semi-arid areas.
runoff and a decrease in channel capacity. This occurs In tropical areas some 90 per cent of lives lost
due to an increase in deposition within the channel. through drowning are the result of intense rainfall
However, there is little evidence to support any direct on steep slopes.
relationship between deforestation in the Himalayas » Areas below unsafe or inadequate dams. In the
and changes in flooding and increased deposition USA there are about 30,000 sizable dams and 2000
of silt in parts of the lower Ganges–Brahmaputra communities are at risk from dams.
river basin. It is more likely due to the combination
of heavy monsoon rains in the Himalayas, steep In most developed countries the number of deaths
slopes, and the seismically unstable terrain, which from floods is declining, although the number of
ensure that runoff is rapid and sedimentation is high deaths from flash floods is changing very little. By
irrespective of the vegetation cover. contrast, the average national flood damage has been
The decision to live in a floodplain, for a variety increasing. The death rate in developing countries
of perceived benefits, is one that is fraught with is much greater, partly because warning systems and
difficulties. The increase in flood damage is related evacuation plans are inadequate. It is likely that the
to the increasing number of people living in hazard in developing countries will increase rather
floodplain regions. than decrease over time as more people migrate and
Floods are one of the most common of all settle in low-lying areas and river basins. Often newer
environmental hazards. This is because so many migrants are forced into the more hazardous zones.
people live in fertile river valleys and in low-lying
coastal areas. However, the nature and scale of
flooding vary greatly. For example, 10 per cent of the
Managing the impacts of
US population live within a 1:100 year flood zone. floods
In Asia, floods damage about 4 million hectares of Traditionally, floods have been managed by methods
land each year and affect the lives of over 17 million of ‘hard engineering’. The main hard engineering
people. Worst of all is China, where over 5 million structures include dams and reservoirs, levées,
people have been killed in floods since 1860. channel straightening and deepening (dredging),
Floods account for about one-third of all natural and creating flood relief channels (Figure 2.49). This
catastrophes, cause more than half the fatalities and are largely means dams, levées and straight channels
responsible for one-third of the economic losses. There that are wider and deeper than the ones they replace.
are a number of reasons for the increase in the number of Although hard engineering may reduce floods in
catastrophes and in the amount of damage they cause: some locations, they can cause unexpected effects
» a rising global population, including in vulnerable elsewhere in the drainage basin. Soft engineering
regions schemes include afforestation, land use zoning and
» construction in flood-prone areas river restoration.

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 Managing the impacts of floods

a b

▲ Figure 2.49 Hard engineering structures: (a) river defences, River Thames (London); (b) levées in Zermatt, Switzerland

Case study: Hard engineering — the Three Gorges Dam

The Three Gorges Dam is over 2 km wide and 100 m • The port at the head of the lake may become silted
high and the lake behind it is over 600 km long. It is an up as a result of increased deposition and the
important project for China. The Yangtze basin provides development of a delta at that point.
66 per cent of China’s rice and contains 400 million • Much of the land available for resettlement is over
people, while the river drains 1.8 million km2 and 800 m above sea level, and is cold, with thin, infertile
discharges 24,000 m3/sec of water annually. soils on relatively steep slopes.
• Dozens of towns were evacuated, for example Wanxian
Advantages of the Three Gorges Dam (population 140,000) and Fuling (80,000), and then were
drowned by the rising waters.
• It generates up to 22,500 megawatts, 50 per cent more
• Up to 530 million tonnes of silt are carried through
than the world’s previous largest HEP dam.
the gorge annually: the first dam on the river lost its
• It enables China to reduce its dependency on coal.
capacity within 7 years, and one on the Hwang He filled
• It supplies energy to Shanghai (population over 17 million)
with silt within 4 years.
and Chongqing (3 million), an area earmarked for
• To reduce the silt load, afforestation is needed, but
economic development.
resettlement of people will cause greater pressure on
• It protects 10 million people from flooding.
the slopes above the dam.
• It allows shipping above the Three Gorges: the dams
• The dam interferes with aquatic life — the Siberian crane
raised water levels by 90 m, and turned the rapids in
and the white flag dolphin are threatened with extinction.
the gorge into a lake.
• Archaeological treasures have been drowned, including
the Zhang Fei temple.
Disadvantages of the Three Gorges Dam
• Over 1.25 million people were removed to make way for
Case study analysis
the dam and the lake. 1 How many people live in the Yangtze basin?
• It cost $25 billion to build. 2 What is the energy potential of the Three Gorges Dam?
• Most floods in recent years have come from rivers that 3 How many people could it supply with energy?
join the Yangtze below the Three Gorges Dam. 4 How much did it cost?
• The region is seismically active and landslides are 5 How many people had to be resettled as a result of the
frequent. building of the Three Gorges Dam?

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 2.2 RiveRs

Case study: Soft engineering — the Kissimmee River Restoration Project

Between 1962 and 1971 the 165 km meandering and wildlife species, including the endangered bald
Kissimmee river (Florida, USA) and its adjoining floodplain eagle, wood stork and snail kite. It will create over
were channelised and thereby transformed into a 90 km, 11,000 hectares of wetlands.
10 m deep drainage canal (Figure 2.50). The river was Restoration of the river and its associated natural
channelised to provide an outlet canal for draining resources requires dechannelisation. This entails
floodwaters from the developing upper Kissimmee lakes backfilling approximately half of the flood control channel
basin, and to provide flood protection for land adjacent to and re-establishing the flow of water through the natural
the river. river channel. In residential areas the flood control
channel will remain in place.
Impacts of channelisation
The channelisation of the Kissimee river had several The costs of restoration
unintended impacts:
• It is estimated the project will cost $980 million
• the loss of 12,000–14,000 hectares of wetlands (initial channelisation cost $20 million), with the bill
• a reduction in wading bird and waterfowl usage being shared by the state of Florida and the federal
• a continuing long-term decline in game fish government.
populations. • Restoration, which began in 1999, will not be completed
until 2015.
Concerns about the sustainability of existing ecosystems
• Restoration of the river’s floodplain could result in
led to a restoration study, supported by the state and
higher losses of water due to evaporation during wet
national authorities. The result was a massive restoration
periods. Navigation may be impeded in some sections
project, on a scale unmatched elsewhere.
of the restored river in extremely dry spells. However,
The project navigable depths should be maintained for at least
90 per cent of the time.
The aim is to restore over 100 km2 of river and associated
floodplain wetlands. The project will benefit over 320 fish

Lakes in the upper Kissimmee

Lake Kissimmee
Basin controlled to reduce flow south. USA
N Florida

Pre-canal average Flat, low-lying drainage basin.

flow 0.42 m/sec; Before the canal the Kissimmee
spilled onto the floodplain. Gulf of
now 0.05 m/sec.
Mexico
Canal reduced length of river
During a flood the from 160 km to 90 km. Now a
water now stays in series of lakes controlled by
the drainage basin locks. The canal is designed to
for just one day hold all floodwater.
(previously for 11
days). Two-thirds of floodplain wetlands
Loss of wetland drained by building of the canal. Channelised river
habitats. Now Nutrients no longer absorbed by Water control lock
92% fewer the wetlands.
wading birds Drainage basin boundary
Loss of animal and fish species
and waterfowl as river became more stagnant. Other water bodies
in winter.

Less recharge of aquifers.

Groundwater becoming more saline.
Lake affected by changing
Istokpoga Florida Everglades
water inputs
0 10

km
eutrophication because of
Impacts downstream: Lake Okeechobee
extra nutrients in the river

▲ Figure 2.50 Kissimmee River Restoration Project — impacts of channelisation

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 Managing the impacts of floods

Benefits of restoration Potential revenue associated with increased recreational

use (such as hunting and fishing) and ecotourism on
• Higher water levels should ultimately support a natural the restored river could significantly enhance local and
river ecosystem again. regional economies.
• Re-establishment of floodplain wetlands and the
associated nutrient filtration function is expected Case study analysis
to result in decreased nutrient loads to Lake 1 Where is the Kissimmee river?
Okeechobee. 2 Describe the changes to the Kissimmee river between
• It is possible that restoration of the floodplain could 1962 and 1971.
benefit populations of key avian species, such as 3 Outline the benefits of river restoration.
wading birds and waterfowl, by providing increased 4 How much did the Kissimmee river restoration cost?
feeding and breeding habitats. 5 When was it completed?

Event modification
1 Flood embankments with sluice gates. The 4 Intercepting channels. These are in use
main problem with this is that it may raise during times of flood, diverting part of the
flood levels up and down. flow away, allowing flow for town and
Event modification includes attempts to reduce floods Sluice or
agricultural use, e.g. the Great Ouse
Protection Scheme in the Fenlands
and to divert them away from settlements. Reducing pumping
station Intercepting Old river
floods involves decreasing the amount of runoff, channel channel

thereby reducing the flood peak in a drainage basin. Embankments

This can be achieved by weather modification and/ Embankments New enlarged river

or watershed treatment, for example to reduce flood 2 Channel enlargement to accommodate

larger discharges. One problem
5 Flood storage reservoirs. This solution is
peak over a drainage basin. There are a number of with such schemes is that as the enlarged
widely used, especially as many reservoirs
created for water-supply purposes may have
channel is only rarely used it becomes
strategies, including: clogged with weed.
a secondary flood control, e.g. the
intercepting channels along the
Enlarged channel Loughton Brook. Dam
» reforestation Dam
» reseeding of sparsely vegetated areas to reduce Enlarged
channel
evaporative losses Old channel

» mechanical land treatment of slopes, such as 3 Flood relief channels. This is appropriate 6 The removal of settlements. This is rarely
used because of cost, although many
where it is impossible to modify the
contour ploughing or terracing to reduce runoff original channel due to cost, e.g. the communities were forced to leave as a
result of the 1993 Mississippi floods.
» comprehensive protection of vegetation from
flood relief channels around Oxford.
Sluice Washlands
By-pass channel Old development
wildfires, overgrazing, clear-cutting of forests, free from flooding
restored

or any other practices likely to increase flood Sluice

Flood-relief channel Redeveloped
discharge and sediment load area
» clearance of sediment and other debris from Tributary
Floodplain
headwater streams
» construction of small water- and sediment-holding Main river
Urban area
areas
» preservation of natural water detention zones. ▲ Figure 2.51 Flood relief channels
Flood diversion measures, by contrast, include
the construction of levées, reservoirs, and the Loss sharing and insurance
modification of river channels (Figure 2.51). Levées
are the most common form of river engineering. Loss sharing adjustments include disaster aid and
They can also be used to divert and restrict water insurance. Disaster aid refers to any aid — such as
to low-value land on the floodplain. Over 4500 km money, equipment, staff and technical assistance —
of the Mississippi river has levées. Channel that is given to a community following a disaster.
improvements include enlargement, to increase the However, there are many taxpayers who argue that
carrying capacity of the river. Reservoirs store excess taxpayers cannot be expected to fund losses that
rainwater in the upper drainage basin. Large dams are should have been insured.
expensive and may well be causing earthquakes and In developed countries insurance is an important
siltation. It has been estimated that some 66 billion loss-sharing strategy. However, not all flood-prone
m3 of storage will be needed to make any significant households have insurance and many of those that
impact on major floods in Bangladesh. are insured may be under-insured. In the floods of
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 2.2 RiveRs

northern England in 2015 (following Storm Desmond),

many of the affected households had very limited
flood insurance, because the cost was so high.

Hazard-resistant design
Flood proofing includes any adjustments to buildings
and their contents that help reduce losses. Some
are temporary, such as blocking up of entrances,
use of shields to seal doors and windows, removal
of damageable goods to higher levels, and the use
of sandbags (Figure 2.52). By contrast, long-term
measures include moving the living spaces above the
likely level of the floodplain. This normally means
building above the flood level, but could also include
building homes on stilts (Figure 2.53). ▲ Figure 2.53 Hazard-resistant design

flood warnings and forecasts may reduce economic

losses by as much as 40 per cent. In most developing
countries there is much less effective flood forecasting.
An exception is Bangladesh. Most floods in Bangladesh
develop from events in the Himalayas, so authorities
can give people in Bangladesh about 72 hours’ warning.

Land use planning

Land use zoning involves allowing compatible land
uses on land that might flood. For example, land
that floods regularly (once a year) could be used
for pastoral agriculture, as animals can be moved
▲ Figure 2.52 Using sandbags as flood defence
to higher ground. Alternatively it could be used
for recreational purposes. It should not be used
Forecasting and warning for industrial, commercial or residential land use,
During the 1970s and 1980s, flood forecasting and as valuable equipment and possessions would be
warning became more accurate and these are now damaged or destroyed. However, as population
among the most widely used measures to reduce the growth continues, people and industry may be forced
problems caused by flooding. In developed countries to extend into floodplains.

Case study: Opportunities and constraints of living on the Nile delta

The Nile delta is one of the oldest intensively cultivated areas (Figure 2.54). More people on the delta cause more
in the world. It is heavily populated and has a population pollution (air, water and soil).
density of about 16,000 people per km2. Only 2.5 per cent of Excessive irrigation has led to waterlogging. Large
Egypt’s land area is suitable for intensive agriculture — up volumes of domestic and untreated industrial effluent
to 95 per cent of Egypt’s agricultural production comes from are discharged into the river and other water channels. In
the Nile valley and delta. The delta has long been a source addition, significant amounts of fertilisers and pesticides
of fresh water and fertile silt, and an excellent location for are leached into water courses along the delta. Seawater
the import and export of goods. The flat land makes building intrusion has led to the salinisation of groundwater.
easy. However, it is increasingly under stress. Salinity has traditionally been kept at bay by plentiful
The delta covers around 25,000 km2, is home to around supplies of water flushing salt out of the soil, but after the
66 per cent of the country’s rapidly growing population, construction of the High Aswan Dam, the seasonal floods
and provides over 60 per cent of the nation’s food supply. ended. Irrigation canals continue to bring water to some
Most of the delta is very low-lying and an increase in of the delta, ensuring that salinity levels remained low,
sea level of just 1 m would flood 20 per cent of the delta

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 Managing the impacts of floods

2015 Sea level rise of 1 metre However, there is much annual variation in flow. In the
years of high discharge, floods have inflicted major
damage on agriculture, industry and housing, whereas
Alexandria Port Said Alexandria Port Said in the drier years, much farmland has subject to major
droughts. To manage and control the river a number
of hard engineering structures have been used. These
0 100 km
include:
Cairo Cairo
• the construction of levées along the banks of the river
▲ Figure 2.54 The effects of a 1 m rise in sea level on the Nile delta — there are some 900 km of levées between Aswan
but very little water now reaches the northern end of the and Cairo, and a further 200 km between Cairo and the
delta. The flood water once brought fertile silt, which was coast
spread over the land during the flood season. Now that • building of barrages across the river to raise water
the sediment is trapped behind the High Aswan Dam, levels, such as the Zifta and Delta Barrages
some farmers spend up to 80 per cent of their profits on • built storage projects, such as the High Aswan Dam.
fertilisers in order to grow their crops. The first major storage project was the old Aswan Dam,
Over the last 7000 years, deltas all over the world although this was too small to have much impact. The
have been increasing in size. However, over the last 150 High Aswan Dam was completed in 1968 and guaranteed
years, many deltas have been decreasing in size. In the the supply of 84 km3 of water needed for Egypt’s arable
case of the Nile (particularly since 1970) the building of agriculture. It has protected Egypt from river flooding
the High Aswan Dam has cut off the supply of sediment, since then, and provided a supply of water during the
while rising sea levels and increased coastal erosion are drought years of 1979–88. The capacity of the dam
reducing the size of the delta. Some parts of the delta are is 162 km3, with 90 km3 for live storage (HEP, flood
eroding at up to 100 m/year. protection, downstream release and navigation), 31 km3
Predictions suggest a 70 per cent drop in the amount of for sediment deposition and 41 km3 for flood protection.
Nile water reaching the delta in the next 50 years, due to a The New Valley Project or Toshka Project is a series of
combination of increased evaporation and heavier demand canals to take water from Lake Nasser and irrigate part of
upstream. Wheat and maize yields may fall by 40 per cent the western desert. It also increases the capacity for flood
and 50 per cent respectively over the next 30 years. Many storage.
experts believe that environmental problems in the delta The building of the High Aswan Dam has had many
will intensify, and that Egypt needs to develop parts of the impacts:
western desert with irrigation water. The more water that
is diverted to these areas, the less there is for the delta. • Flooding downstream has been controlled.
• Water is stored in Lake Nasser and can be made
Managing flooding in the Nile valley available during drought years.
Flooding of the Nile has been one of the defining • There has been a build-up of sediment behind the dam,
characteristics of Egypt. It has provided Egyptians with and less silt deposited in the valley downstream (see
water, fertile silt and nutrients, and created new land. Table 2.10).
However, it has brought death, destruction and erosion. • Discharges in the river downstream of the dam have
For many centuries, Egypt’s rulers have tried to manage been reduced.
the Nile — to maximise its benefits and reduce the • There are large evaporation losses from Lake Nasser.
devastation that it was capable of. Although flooding in the lower Nile has largely been
The Nile is fed by three main tributary rivers — the controlled, it remains a problem in some upper parts. For
White Nile, the Blue Nile and the Atbara. The White Nile example, in 2016 the worst floods in over a century killed
has its source in Lake Victoria and has a relatively even 98 people in Sudan, destroyed more than 13,000 homes
flow throughout the year. In contrast, the Blue Nile and and damaged a further 18,000. Over 100,000 people were
the Atbara have a marked seasonal flow, with a peak flow affected by the floods. Thirteen of Sudan’s 18 provinces
in summer and a very low flow in winter. were affected.

Table 2.10 Silt concentrations in the Nile before and after the construction of the High Aswan Dam

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Before 64 50 45 42 43 85 674 270 242 925 124 77

After 44 47 45 50 51 49 48 45 41 43 48 47

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 2.2 RiveRs

The frequent occurrence of catastrophic floods is a major Med. Sea IRAN

N IRAQ
challenge for Ethiopia and Sudan. In Sudan, major floods
occur along the Blue Nile and the Atbara rivers. The causes of Cairo
floods can be attributed to prolonged and/or torrential rainfall. Ni
le
Scientists suggest that the risk of flooding is increasing
LIBYA EGYPT
due to global climate change. There has been a link SAUDI
between La Niña events in the Pacific Ocean and higher Aswan Dam ARABIA

Re
than average rainfall in the Nile valley, and a link between

dS
El Niño events and drought in Ethiopia and Sudan. Some

ea
scientists have suggested that the average annual flow

At
of the Nile could increase by 10–15 per cent, while others SUDAN

ba
CHAD

rah
have suggested that flows will become more variable. Khartoum ERITREA YEMEN

B lu
The construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

eN
Sennar Dam
(GERD — Figure 2.55) on the Blue Nile, some 15 km from

il e
Rosieres Dam
the Sudan border, will have an impact on Sudan and Egypt.
Finished in 2017, the dam will take between 5 years and 15 Addis Ababa
Grand

White
years to fill. Ethiopia claims that it will increase flows to Egypt SOUTH Renaissance Dam
by reducing evaporation from Lake Nasser. However, the C.A.R.
SUDAN IA
ETHIOPIA AL

Nile
exact impacts of the dam on Egypt and Sudan are unknown. OM
There will be a temporary (up to fifteen years) reduction of S
UGANDA 0 500 km
water availability as the reservoir fills. The dam will retain silt, D.R. CONGO KENYA
and so the lifetime of the Sennar Dam and Rosieres Dam in
Sudan would be prolonged. It could reduce flooding in Sudan ▲ Figure 2.55 The location of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
by the increased storage of water behind the GERD.
Sudan and Ethiopia are poor countries (Sudan’s average
Some scientists are calling for an early warning system
GNI is $4500 and Ethiopia’s is $1900) and do not have all
to predict floods on the Nile. The Nile is over 6000 km in
the necessary resources to deal with increasing numbers
length and it can take weeks for flood peaks to pass down
of people at risk of becoming flood victims.
the full length of the river, thus allowing sufficient time, in
theory, to provide flood warnings. However, international Case study analysis
and national communications have not always been 1 Briefly explain how river floods in Egypt have been
as good as they could be. The 1998 and 2016 floods in prevented.
Sudan showed that it takes up to 1 month to evacuate 2 Explain why Sudan experiences frequent flooding. You
vulnerable communities. Khartoum, Sudan’s capital, with should include data from Table 2.11.
a population of over 5 million people, and located on the 3 Suggest why flooding and drought may become more
Blue Nile, needs a long warning time to evacuate. The frequent and/or intense in the future.
links with El Niño/La Niña cycles in the Pacific may help 4 Outline how developments on the River Nile upstream
to predict the likely occurrence of a flood or a famine, but have affected those living downstream on the Nile delta.
Table 2.11 Climate data for Khartoum and Addis Ababa
J F M A M J J A S O N D Year
Khartoum
Av. monthly temperature (°C) 24 25 28 32 34 34 32 30 32 32 28 25 30
Rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 1 7 5 56 80 28 2 0 0 179
Addis Ababa
Av. monthly temperature (°C) 14 15 17 17 17 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 15
Rainfall (mm) 13 35 67 91 81 117 247 255 167 29 8 5 1115
(See also the climate data for Cairo on page 157.)

Activities
1 Suggest how changes to: 3 Explain the meaning of the term ‘international river’,
a water quality and suggest why human activities on international
b the quantity of water rivers may lead to conflict between countries.
can have a negative impact on communities.
2 Using examples, outline the potential advantages and
disadvantages of living on a delta.

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