2.

4 Weather
Key questions
H How are weather data collected?
H How can the data be used to describe the weather?
H How do graphs and other diagrams show weather data?

kept in a Stevenson screen — see Figure 2.86), a

rain gauge, barometer, wind vane, anemometer and
sunshine recorder.
Whichever instruments are used, ideally they
should have good exposure (that is, they should
be sited away from buildings, fences, trees and
other obstacles). The flat top of a science block is a
favoured location in many schools.
» Thermometers should be placed in the shade.
Ideally, they should be in a Stevenson screen or
slatted box. If this is not available they could be
hung on a shaded wall or fence.
» Rain gauges should be away from walls, fences and
bushes as these affect the amount of rain caught
in the rain gauge.
» Wind instruments should be well clear of walls,
fences and houses as these cause eddies that spoil
the reading and make the direction difficult to
Figure 2.85 ▶ assess.
Clouds formed
by convectional It is important that readings are taken at the same
uplift time each day.
The Stevenson screen is a wooden box standing
on four legs at a height of about 120 cm. The
Measuring the weather screen is built so that the shade temperature of
the air can be measured. The sides of the box are
The weather station slatted to allow free entry of air, and the roof is
A weather station is a place where the elements of made of double boarding to prevent the Sun’s heat
weather, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, from reaching the inside of the screen. Insulation
air pressure, wind direction and velocity, sunshine is further improved by painting the outside of the
and cloud cover are measured and recorded as screen white so as to reflect much of the Sun’s
accurately as possible. The weather station is energy. The screen is usually placed on a grass-
placed on an open piece of land and it contains covered surface, thereby reducing the radiation of
the following instruments: thermometers (ideally heat from the ground.

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 2.4 Weather

Meteorologists measure shade temperature.

This is less variable than air temperature, which
is affected by cloud cover and direct insolation.
Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
A continuous temperature reading is given by a
thermograph.
» Maximum thermometer — When the
temperature rises, the mercury in the
thermometer expands and pushes the index
along the tube. When the temperature falls, the
mercury contracts but the index stays where it
was pushed to by the mercury. The maximum
temperature is obtained by reading the scale
at the point where the index is. The index is
then drawn back to the mercury by a magnet for
Figure 2.86 ▶ measuring the next reading.
A Stevenson » Minimum thermometer — When the temperature
screen
falls, the alcohol contracts and its meniscus pulls
the index along the tube. When the temperature
Instruments kept inside the Stevenson screen include rises, the alcohol expands. It is read in the same
a maximum-minimum thermometer (or Six’s way as the maximum thermometer.
thermometer) and a wet- and dry-bulb thermometer
(also called a hygrometer) — see Figures 2.87 and 2.89. A Six’s thermometer (Figure 2.87d) can be used to
Instruments kept outside the Stevenson screen measure maximum and minimum temperatures at the
include a rain gauge, a wind vane to determine wind same time.
direction, and an anemometer to assess wind speed. The daily readings of the maximum and
minimum thermometers are used to work out the
Measuring temperature average or mean temperature for one day (this
Variations in temperature represent responses to is called the mean daily temperature) and the
differences in insolation, or the amount of energy temperature range for one day (the daily or diurnal
received from the Sun at different times. temperature range).

Airspace between roof layers Rain gauge

forms a poor conductor of heat mm
Minimum Maximum
Louvres – air 100
12.8 cm Funnel
enters and 90

leaves via 80
the louvres Container °C °C
Maximum 70 30 cm
–25 Alcohol 40
60
Minimum Can –20 35
50
Dry bulb –15 Metal 30
Air 40 –10 index 25
Wet bulb 30 –5 20
Jar 0 15
20
5 10
10 10 5
a Stevenson screen Metal
0 15 0
Ground index
20 –5
freely rotating Measuring cylinder 25 –10
Position of rain gauge in 30 –15
the ground. Only the 35 Mercury –20
bottom of the cylinder is 40 –25
W N
shown. A typical cylinder is
S E graduated up to 100 mm.

b Wind vane c Rain gauge d Six’s thermometer

▲ Figure 2.87 Equipment in a weather station
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 Measuring the weather

To find the mean daily temperature, the maximum

and minimum temperatures for one day are added
together and then halved. For example: (maximum
temperature, 35°C + minimum temperature, 25°C)/2
= mean daily temperature, 30°C. The sum of the
daily mean temperatures for one month divided by
the number of days for that month gives the mean
monthly temperature. The sum of the mean monthly
temperatures divided by 12 gives the mean annual
temperature.
The daily or diurnal temperature range is found
by subtracting the minimum temperature from
the maximum temperature for any one day. For
example: maximum temperature, 35°C − minimum
temperature 25°C = daily or diurnal temperature
range, 10°C.
The highest mean monthly temperature minus
the lowest mean monthly temperature gives the
mean annual temperature range. For example,
Lagos has a mean maximum temperature of 27.5°C
(March), and a mean minimum temperature of
24.5°C (August). Its mean annual temperature
▲ Figure 2.88 Rain gauge
range is therefore 3°C.
Rain falling over the funnel collects in the jar. This is
Interesting note emptied, usually every 24 hours, and measured in a
tapered glass measure, graduated in millimetres. The
The highest temperature recorded was at Furnace tapered end of the jar enables very small amounts of
Creek, California, USA in 1913 when it reached rain to be measured accurately.
56.7°C. In contrast, the lowest temperature The rainfall recorded for a place, either for a day,
recorded was −89.2°C in Antarctica in 1983. week, month or year, can be shown on a map. This is
done using lines called isohyets. An isohyet is a line
on a map that joins places of equal rainfall.
Measuring rainfall It is important to check the rain gauge every day,
A rain gauge is used to measure rainfall. It consists preferably at the same time, even if there has not
of a cylinder in which there is a collecting can been any rainfall. This is because small amounts of
containing a glass or plastic jar, and a funnel that fits dew may accumulate in the gauge, leading to false
in the top of the container. The gauge is placed in an readings when it does rain.
open space so that only raindrops enter the funnel
of the gauge, and no runoff from trees, buildings or
other objects can get into the funnel. The gauge is Interesting note
sunk into the ground so that the top of the funnel The highest rainfall over a 24-hour period was in
is about 30 cm above ground level (Figures 2.87c Foc-Foc, Réunion, when 1.825 m of rain fell. The
and 2.88). This is to prevent the Sun’s heat from largest 1-minute burst of rainfall was 31.2 mm in
evaporating any water collected and to ensure no rain
Unionville, Maryland, USA in 1956.
splashes up from the ground into the funnel.

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 2.4 Weather

Measuring relative humidity The spring contracts and expands with changes in
atmospheric pressure. These changes are magnified by
Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are used to
a series of levers and the movements are conveyed to
measure relative humidity. The dry-bulb is a glass
a pointer, which moves across a calibrated scale.
thermometer that records the actual air temperature.
A barograph is a tracing from an aneroid barometer,
The wet-bulb is a similar thermometer, but with the
bulb enclosed in a muslin bag which is dipped into
a bottle of water (Figure 2.89). This thermometer
measures the wet-bulb temperature, which, unless
the relative humidity is close to 100 per cent, is
generally lower than the dry-bulb temperature.
Wet Dry
°C °C
43 43
38 38
32 32
27 27
21 21
16 16
10 10
4 4
–1 –1
–7 –7
–12 –12
–18 –18

Muslin
Figure 2.89 Wet- ▲ Figure 2.90 A simple barometer
Container
and dry-bulb
Water which records continuously for one week. Changes in
thermometer
pressure are recorded by a flexible arm, which traces
an ink line on a rotating paper-covered drum. The
Measuring air pressure, wind paper is divided by vertical lines at 2-hour intervals.
speed and direction The atmospheric pressure is recorded at numerous
Because air has weight it exerts a pressure on the weather stations for a region and these are plotted
Earth’s surface. At sea level the pressure is about on a map of the region. First, though, the pressures
1.03 kg/cm2. Pressure varies with temperature are ‘reduced’ to sea level — that is, they are adjusted
and altitude, and is usually measured in millibars. to what they would be if the stations were at sea
The instrument that measures pressure is called a level. The pressures are plotted on a map. Lines are
barometer (Figure 2.90) then drawn through points where pressure is the
A mercury barometer is a hollow tube from which same. These lines are called isobars.
the air is extracted before the open end is placed in The wind vane is used to indicate wind direction.
a bath of mercury. Mercury is forced up the tube by It consists of a horizontal rotating arm pivoted on
the pressure of the atmosphere on the mercury in a vertical shaft. The rotating arm has a tail at one
the bath. When the pressure of the mercury in the end and a pointer at the other. When the wind blows,
tube balances the pressure of the air on the exposed the arm swings until the pointer faces the wind. The
mercury, the mercury in the tube stops rising. The directions north, east, south and west are marked on
height of the column of mercury changes as air the arms, which are rigidly fixed to the shaft.
pressure changes: it rises when air pressure increases The speed of the wind is measured by an
and falls when air pressure decreases. anemometer (Figure 2.91), which consists of three or
An aneroid barometer is a vacuum chamber in four metal cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely
the form of a small metal cylinder. Inside, a strong on a vertical shaft. When there is a wind, the cups
metal spring prevents the chamber from collapsing. rotate. The stronger the wind, the faster the rotation.

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 Measuring the weather

The number of rotations is recorded on a meter to N

NNW NNE
give the speed of the wind in km/hr.
The wind vane and anemometer are placed well NW NE
away from any buildings or trees that may interfere
with the free movement of air. Buildings may channel
air through narrow passages between two buildings, WNW ENE

or decrease the flow of air by blocking its path. Trees

have a similar effect.
W E

WSW ESE

Wind speed SW SE
(m/s)
0.1–9 SSW SSE
S
10–19
20–29
30+

Calm conditions shown in

centre of wind rose
▲ Figure 2.92 A wind rose

Measuring sunshine hours

The number of hours and minutes of sunshine received
at a place can be measured and recorded by a sunshine
recorder. This is a glass sphere partly surrounded by a
metal frame (Figure 2.93). A strip of special card, divided
up into hours and minutes, is placed below the sphere.
When the sun shines, the sphere focuses the Sun’s rays
on the card. As the Sun moves, the rays burn a trace on
the card. At the end of the day, the card is removed and
replaced. The length of the trace represents the amount
▲ Figure 2.91 An anemometer of sunshine that the location received.

Winds are shown by arrows on a weather map.

The shaft of the arrow shows wind direction and
the feathers on the shaft indicate wind velocity.
The tip of the arrow, at the opposite end from the
feathers, points to the direction in which the wind
is blowing.
Wind direction for a specific place can be
shown on a wind rose (Figure 2.92). It is made
up of a circle from which rectangles radiate. The
directions of the rectangles represent the points
of the compass. The lengths of the rectangles are
determined by the number of days/times the wind
blows from that direction. The number of days/times
(hours) when there is no wind is recorded in the
centre of the rose. ▲ Figure 2.93 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder

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 2.4 Weather

crystals, and have a base between 2000 m and

Activities 7000 m. These are decribed as:
1 Describe and explain the main characteristics of a
Stevenson screen.
» altocumulus — layered, rippled elements, generally
2 What information does a Six’s thermometer show? white with some shading
3 Why are weather readings taken at the same time » altostratus — a thin, grey layer that allows
each day? sunshine to appear as if through ground glass.
4 Where is the best place to locate a rain gauge? Briefly
explain why. Low clouds are usually composed of water
5 How are wind speed and wind direction measured? droplets, although cumulonimbus clouds include
ice crystals, and have a base below 2000 m. These
are decribed as:
Recording the weather » stratocumulus — layered in a series of rounded
rolls; generally white with some shading
Clouds » stratus — layered, uniform base, grey
The ten main types of cloud can be separated into » nimbostratus — a thick, dark layer with a low
three broad categories according to the height of base; rain or snow may fall from it
their base above the ground: high clouds, medium » cumulus — individual cells; vertical rolls or towers
clouds and low clouds (Figure 2.94). with a flat base
High clouds are usually composed solely of ice » cumulonimbus — large, cauliflower-shaped
crystals and have a base between 5500 and 14,000 m. towers, often with ‘anvil tops’; sometimes giving
These are described as: thunderstorms or showers of rain or snow.
» cirrus — white filaments Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). This is
» cirrocumulus — small, rippled elements made by a visual assessment of how much of the
» cirrostratus — a transparent sheet, often with a halo. sky is covered by cloud. For example, in Figure 2.85
on page 149 the sky has approximately 4/8 cloud
Medium clouds are usually composed of water cover.
droplets or a mixture of water droplets and ice

High clouds

Cirrus
12000
Halo
Cirrocumulus
Veil Cirrostratus
Anvil head
6000
Medium clouds
Height in metres

Altostratus Altocumulus
3000
Clouds with vertical development Low clouds

Cumulonimbus Cumulus
Cumulus of
1500
fair weather
Stratus
Nimbostratus
Ground Stratocumulus
0

▲ Figure 2.94 Cloud types

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 Recording the weather

Activities
Table 2.18 Daily weather observations at Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 1–7 August 2007
Date Day Temperature Rainfall Wind Wind speed Air pressure
Max. (°C) Min. (°C) (mm) direction (km/hr) (mb)
1 August W 14.2 9.7 4.0 N 22 1006
2 Th 13.4 11.5 0 N 37 1004
3 F 9.9 8.1 0 WNW 33 1011
4 S 11.5 7.2 0 WNW 31 1016
5 S 11.6 8.2 0 W 28 1019
6 M 12.7 9.5 20.2 W 20 1023
7 T 14.5 9.2 0 N 30 1019

Table 2.19 Daily weather observations at Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 1–7 February 2008
Date Day Temperature Rainfall Wind Wind speed Air pressure
Max. (°C) Min. (°C) (mm) direction (km/hr) (mb)
1 February F 25.6 11.7 6.8 SSE 15 1020
2 S 25.7 16.9 0 NNW 9 1016
3 S 27.6 17.9 0 SE 9 1016
4 M 29.1 19.9 0 ENE 11 1013
5 T 23.2 19.7 0 SW 13 1012
6 W 23.1 19.2 0 SW 19 1004
7 Th 17.9 15.7 8.4 SW 19 1005

Daily weather Wind direction and frequency

30 N
28 Key NNW NNE
26 Max temp
NW NE
24 Min temp
22 Rainfall
20 WNW ENE
Rainfall (mm)

18
16
°C
14 W 1 2 3 4E
12
10
8 20
WSW ESE
6 15
4 10
2 5 SW SE
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SSW SSE
N
Figure 2.95 Daily weather, wind direction and frequency at Frankston, August 2007

The results recorded by a school in Victoria are shown in 2 State the maximum and minimum temperatures of
Tables 2.18 and 2.19. The data for the first week (August) the 7-day period in February.
are plotted in Figure 2.95. 3 Work out the mean minimum temperature and the
mean maximum temperature for the 7 days.
1 Plot the data for February using the same methods as
4 How much rain fell during the 7 days?
in Figure 2.95.
5 Compare the weather in February with that in August.

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