1.

3 Population structure
Key questions
H How does population structure vary between countries at different levels of
economic development?
H What are the implications of different types of population structure?

▲ Figure 1.44 Elderly people are making up an increasing proportion of the population in many countries

Variations in population Population pyramids

Age and sex structure can be illustrated by the
structure use of population pyramids (Figure 1.45).
The structure of a population is the result of the Pyramids can be used to show either absolute or
processes of fertility, mortality and migration. The relative data. Absolute data show the figures in
most studied aspects of population structure are thousands or millions, while relative data show
age (Figure 1.44) and sex (gender). Other aspects of the numbers involved in percentages. Each bar
population structure that can also be studied include represents a 5-year age group. The male population
race, language, religion and social/occupational is represented to the left of the vertical axis, with
group. females to the right.
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 1.3 PoPulation structure

Niger Bangladesh
Age Age
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
Males 90–94 Females Males 90–94 Females
85–89 85–89
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
2 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Population (millions) Population (millions)

UK Japan
Age Age
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
Males 90–94 Females Males 90–94 Females
85–89 85–89
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
3 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Population (millions) Population (millions)
▲ Figure 1.45 Four population pyramids for Niger, Bangladesh, the UK and Japan

Demographic transition and » The base of the pyramid for Bangladesh is

narrower than that of Niger, reflecting a
changing population structure considerable fall in fertility after decades of
Population pyramids change significantly in shape as government-promoted birth control programmes.
a country progresses through demographic transition The fact that the 0–4 and 5–9 bars are narrower
and economic development: than the bar immediately above is evidence of
» The wide base of Niger’s pyramid reflects extremely recent falls in fertility. The birth rate is currently
high fertility. The birth rate in Niger is 49/1000, 20/1000. Falling mortality and lengthening life
the highest in the world. The marked decrease in expectancy is reflected in the relatively wide
width of each successive bar indicates relatively bars in the teenage and young adult age groups.
high mortality and limited life expectancy. The The death rate at 5/1000 is almost half that
death rate at 9/1000 is relatively high, particularly of Niger. The infant mortality rate is 38/1000.
considering how young the population is. The Life expectancy in Bangladesh is 72 years; 33
infant mortality rate is 56/1000. Life expectancy per cent of the population are under 15, while
in Niger is 61 years; 50 per cent of the population 6 per cent are aged 65 or over. Bangladesh is an
is under 15, with only 3 per cent aged 65 or over. example of a country in stage 3 of demographic
Niger is in stage 2 of demographic transition. transition.

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 Variations in population structure

» In the pyramid for the UK, much lower fertility of the different costs of living in the four countries.
still is illustrated by narrowing of the base. The The difference in GNI per capita between Niger and
birth rate in the UK is only 12/1000. The relatively Bangladesh is consistent with the general difference
uniform width of the bars for the working-age between countries in stages 2 and 3 of demographic
population indicates a significantly higher life transition, although many countries in stage 3 have
expectancy than for Bangladesh. The death rate in much higher GNI per capita figures than Bangladesh.
the UK is 9/1000, with an infant mortality rate of The much higher GNI figures for the UK and Japan are
3.9/1000. Life expectancy is 81 years; 18 per cent also to be expected. There is no significant difference
of the population are under 15, while 17 per cent in GNI per capita between countries in stages 4 and 5
are 65 or over. The UK is in stage 4 of demographic of demographic transition.
transition.
Table 1.9 Population and economic data for the four countries,
» The final pyramid, for Japan, has a distinctly 2016
inverted base reflecting the lowest fertility of all
four countries. The birth rate is 8/1000. The width Country Birth rate Death rate Rate of GNI PPP
of the rest of the pyramid is a consequence of (per 1000) (per 1000) natural per capita
increase (%) ($)
the highest life expectancy of all four countries.
Niger 49 9 4.0 950
The death rate is 10/1000, with infant mortality
Bangladesh 20 5 1.5 3,550
at 1.9/1000. Life expectancy is almost 84 years.
Japan has only 13 per cent of its population UK 12 9 0.3 40,550
under 15, with 27 per cent aged 65 or over. With Japan 8 10 −0.2 38,870
the birth rate lower than the death rate, Japan is
experiencing natural decrease and thus the country Figure 1.46 provides some useful tips for understanding
is in stage 5 of demographic transition. population pyramids. A good starting point is to divide
the pyramid into three sections:
Table 1.9 compares the basic demographic rates
for the four countries with Gross National Income » the young dependent population
(GNI) per capita (per person). The data are given at » the economically active population
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), which takes account » the elderly dependent population.

85+
The higher the pyramid,
A broad shape at the top the longer people live.
shows a high proportion Elderly
of people living longer. dependants Differences between
males and females
65
can be picked out.
Bulges show either a Indents show higher death
period of immigration rates than normal because
or a baby boom years Adults of a war, famine or disease
before. (epidemic) or through people
leaving the area (emigrating).

A wide base shows a

15
Young large number of children
dependants (high birth rate).
(children)
A narrow base shows a
small number of children
(low birth rate).
▲ Figure 1.46 An annotated population pyramid

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 1.3 PoPulation structure

between the working or economically active

Interesting note
population and the non-working population. The
At 50 per cent, Niger has the highest percentage formula for calculating the dependency ratio is as
of population under 15 in the world. Japan has follows:
27 per cent of its population aged 65 and over, % population % population
again the highest in the world. dependency aged 0–14 + aged 65 and over
ratio = × 100
% population aged 15–64

Activities A dependency ratio of 60 means that for every 100

1 Define the term ‘population structure’. people in the economically active population there
2 What is a population pyramid?
are 60 people dependent on them. The dependency
3 Look at Figure 1.45 and compare the population
structures of Niger and the UK. ratio in developed countries is usually between 50
and 75. In contrast, developing countries typically
have higher ratios, which may reach over 100.
In developing countries, children form the great
Population structure: differences majority of the dependent population. In contrast, in
within countries developed countries there is much more of a balance
In countries where there is strong rural-to-urban between young and old dependants.
migration, the population structures of the areas The dependency ratio is important because the
affected can be markedly different. These differences economically active population will in general
show up clearly on population pyramids. Out-migration contribute more to the economy in terms of income
from rural areas is age-selective, with single young tax, sales taxes and the taxes on the profits made by
adults and young adults with children dominating this businesses. In contrast, the dependent population
process. Thus the bars for these age groups in rural tend to be bigger recipients of government funding,
areas affected by out-migration will indicate fewer particularly for education, healthcare and public
people than expected in these age groups. pensions. An increase in the dependency ratio can
In contrast, the population pyramids for urban cause significant financial problems for governments
areas attracting migrants will show age-selective if it does not have the financial reserves to cope with
in-migration, with substantially more people in these such a change.
age groups than expected. Such migrations may The dependency ratio is an internationally agreed
also be sex-selective. If this is the case it should be measure. Partly because of this it is a very crude
apparent on the population pyramids. indicator. For example:

The implications of different types » In developed countries, few people leave

education before the age of 18 and a significant
of population structure number will go on to university and not get a
The fact that Niger and Bangladesh have large job before the age of 21. In addition, while some
numbers of young people in their populations has people will retire before the age of 65, others
implications for both countries. For example, these will go on working beyond this age. Also, a
young people have to be housed, fed, educated and significant number of people in the economically
looked after in terms of health. All this costs money, active age group, such as parents staying at
and governments have to allocate resources to cater home to look after children, do not work for
for these needs. Conversely, countries such as the various reasons. The number of people in this
UK and Japan have large numbers of older people in situation can vary considerably from one country
their populations. Older people have different needs, to another.
which governments have to provide for. » In developing countries a significant proportion of
children are working full or part time before the
The dependency ratio age of 15. In some developing countries there is
Dependants are people who are too young or too old very high unemployment and underemployment
to work. The dependency ratio is the relationship within the economically active age group.
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 Variations in population structure

Despite its limitations the dependency ratio does

allow reasonable comparisons to be made between Activities
countries. It is also useful to see how individual 1 Who are dependants?
countries change over time. Once an analysis using 2 Define the term ‘dependency ratio’.
the dependency ratio has been made, more detailed 3 Identify one limitation of the dependency ratio.
4 Calculate the dependency ratios for Niger,
research can look into any apparent anomalies. Bangladesh, the UK and Japan from the information
given earlier in this topic.

Case study: The Gambia — a country with a high dependent population

as young dependants and only 2 per cent as elderly
dependants, the dependency ratio is 92. This means that
for every 100 people in the economically active population
in The Gambia there are 92 people dependent on them.
The World Health Organization has stressed the link
between rapid population growth and poverty for The
Gambia and other countries. Many parents in The Gambia
struggle to provide basic housing for their families. There
is huge overcrowding and a lack of sanitation, with many
children sharing the same bed. Rates of unemployment
and underemployment are high, and wages are low, with
parents struggling to provide even the basics for large
families.
The government has insufficient financial resources
for education and health. Because there are not enough
▲ Figure 1.47 A school in the Gambia schools, many of them operate a two-shift system,
The Gambia, in West Africa, is a small country with a young with one group of pupils attending in the morning
population (Figure 1.47), which has placed big demands on the and a different group attending in the afternoon. The
resources of the country. The rate of natural increase in 2016 shortage of teachers means that some are working
was 3.2 per cent. Figure 1.48 shows the high rate of growth 12 hours a day. General facilities are poor and sanitation
since the 1950s. The population of 2.1 million is forecast facilities are inadequate. School books are in very
to grow to 5.1 million by 2050. 95 per cent of the country’s short supply.
population are Muslim and, until recently, religious leaders Another sign of population pressure is the large
were against the use of contraception. In addition, cultural number of trees being chopped down for firewood. As a
tradition meant that women had little influence on family size. result, desertification is increasing at a rapid rate. ‘Forest
Children were viewed as an economic asset because of their educators’ are working in rural areas in particular in an
help with crop production and tending animals. One in three attempt to improve this situation.
children aged 10–14 is working. The country suffered from In recent years the government has introduced a
high infant and maternal mortality. In 2016 the infant mortality family planning campaign, which has been accepted
rate was 45/1000. With 46 per cent of the population classed by religious leaders. It has been working with a non-
6.0
governmental organisation (NGO) called Futures to deliver
contraceptives and family planning advice to rural areas.
The scheme has been subsidised by the World Health
Growth rate (%)

4.5 Organization. To some extent there has also been a

change in male attitudes to family size and contraception.
3.0 This has been very important to the success of the
campaign.
1.5 Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of The Gambia.
0.0 2 What is the dependency ratio in The Gambia, and why is
1952
1955
1958
1961
1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
2015
2018

it so high?
3 What are the problems of such a high rate of
Year
dependency in The Gambia?
▲ Figure 1.48 Population growth in The Gambia, 1952–2017

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