Key terms What is a neighborhood?

• Neighborhood- “place with physical and • Neighborhood is the bundle of spatially based
symbolic boundaries” (Keller, 1968) attributes associated with clusters of
Lecture series residences, sometimes in conjunction with
• Gentrification- the transformation of a city
HSS F371 neighborhood from low value to high value other land uses
Neighborhood change and • A multidimensional bundle comprised of
simpler goods/services
gentrification

Neighbourhood How does neighborhood form?

• Neighborhood is the bundle of spatially based
attributes associated with clusters of residences, • Neighborh
• Block
• 20 or more • 5 or more ood
sometimes in conjunction with other land uses houses • 3 or more blocks • 4 to 6
• A multidimensional bundle comprised of simpler enclaves together superblocks
(albeit sometimes abstract) goods/services • Super
together
• Enclave
• Physical spaces bounded with physical feature like block

housing, transport and environment

• These features may alter over time- leading to
neighborhood change
• Neighborhoods are both physical as well as social
entities
 Scale of neighborhood Dynamism of neighborhoods
• Class
status
characte
ristics • Suttle (1972) identified four major scales of neighborhood • Neighborhoods are dynamic in nature
• Proximit • Structur namely
• Neighborhoods are in constant state of flux
y al
characte
ristics
characte
ristics
i. Block level- the area over which children will be
permitted to play, unsupervised
ii. Defended neighborhood level- the smallest area • Downs (1981) identified five stage
• Neighborh possessing a corporate identity as defined by mutual neighborhood continuum
• Environ ood • Demogr opposition or contrast to another area
mental aphic
characte
ristics
characte
ristics
iii. Community of limited liability- under some local
government jurisdiction in which social participation is
voluntary and selective Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
• Tax/
public • Infrastru iv. Expanded community of limited liability- entire sector Minor Clear decline Unhealthy
service ctural Stable and Heavily
package characte of the city viable decline deteriorated and non-
characte ristics viable
ristics

Down’s continuum of neighbourhood

change Causes of neighbourhood decline What kind of change?
1. Stage 1 (Stable and viable)- healthy neighbourhoods, relatively 1. Movement of people like White flight Decline Revitalization
new and thriving or old and stable without any symptoms of
decline 2. Physical deterioration like old buildings 1. Low income households • High income households
2. Stage 2 (Minor decline)-generally older areas with hint of 2. Old buildings • Good design
obsolesce or minor physical deficiencies in the housing units, 3. Social pathologies like increase in criminal 3. Inner city population loss • Distance from low income
stable property values or even a slight increase
3. Stage 3 (Clear decline)- dominance of rented houses, poor
activities 4. Distance from workplace
neighborhoods
landlord tenant relations, rise in abandoned housing, absentee and amenities • Inner city gaining
ownership
4. Declining incomes and higher taxes population
5. Lack of community
4. Stage 4 (Heavily deteriorated)- most of the housing units need 5. Rent control that affect repair and • High owner occupancy
major repairs, dominance of lower socio-economic groups, more 6. Social pathologies
houses abandoned maintenance • Close to workplaces and
7. High vehicular traffic important centres
5. Stage 5 (Unhealthy and non-viable)- wholesale abandonment of
units, expectoration of moving out overweight that of moving in • Low crime rates
 Gentrification Twin process Gentrification and suburbanization
Gentrification is a process of class succession and
displacement of classes in areas broadly characterized by
• Suburbs have been the dominant choice of
working class and unskilled households (Ruth glass, 1964) residence among the affluent classes in US and
• Econom UK
• Social
ic
process
process • Ruth Glass (1964) observed a tendency among
the middle classes to move to the inner city
3
and called it gentrification
1 2

Investment and policy

Historic condition Community impacts
decisions
• White flight • Displacement
• Affordability
• Redlining • Evictions
• New investment
• Discrimination • Rent increased
opportunities
• Feeling out of place
• redevelopment

Role of middle class Definition Features /characteristics

‘One by one, many of the working class quarters of

London have been invaded by the middle classes − • The idea of gentrification contradicts with the
upper and lower. Shabby, modest mews and cottages established inevitabilities of outward growth,
− two rooms up and two down − have been taken residential migration and inner city decline in
over, when their leases have expired, and have the western cities Concept
become elegant, expensive residences. Once this
Non-examples
process of gentrification starts in a district, it goes on • What are the factors that lead the middle class examples
rapidly until all or most of the original working class to return to the city?
occupiers are displaced and the whole social character
of the district is changed’ (Glass, 1964: xviii). • Two categories of middle class- Urban seeking
vs urban fleeing
 Economic explanations of neighborhood
change
Economic explanations cont… Economic explanations cont…
• Neil Smith (Smith 1979, 1996) explained gentrification in • Rent gap - a measure of the difference in • Ley relates gentrification to the changing economic
terms of investment and disinvestment in the built base of the cities from manufacturing to the service
environment
a site's actual value and its potential
sector
• ‘switching mechanisms’ have diverted investment from
value at 'best use.
• The service sector created a class of new middle
primary circuits of accumulation (manufacturing) to the • When the overall rent gap in an area is class with high levels of educational attainment,
built environment and infrastructure determined to be great, it is suggested and a set of values which prioritized the aesthetic
• Suburban growth generated super profits for the that the area will undergo gentrification value of older, period, housing (Jager, 1986) and
investors proximity to the cultural and entertainment
as developers identify this difference as
• Devalorisation of land in the inner city led to the facilities of the central city (Ley 1996, Butler and
emergence of a ‘rent gap’ that caught the attention and an economic opportunity on which to Robson, 2003)
interest of the investors towards the inner city capitalize (Smith 1987)

Explanations of gentrification Gated community

Consumption side explanation- Production side explanation • Emerged in the US around 1800s, primarily
1. Strong downtown business • Long commuting time to focusing on demands of the wealthier
district with growing downtown business districts communities to protect themselves from the
employment • Restrictions imposed on problems of industrial cities
2. Rising real incomes suburban development
3. Newly weds without • Suburban congestion due to
• Unique places for unique people
children increase in houses • Grew rapidly around 1980s
4. In migration of non poor • Rent not controlled • Psychological defended spaces marketed by
households over poor • Easy conversion to
households
promising exclusiveness, high amenities and
condominium
securities
 Why residents choose How are gated communities different
gated communities? from Suburbs?
Major types
• center on fear of crime • Defended by walls
• attempts to produce economic and physical • Emphasize on patterns of segregation-
security separate life within walls from life outside
• free from the problems of traffic and noise walls
• Such a lifestyle reduces opportunities for • Reduces opportunities for positive interaction
positive interactions and shared experiences and shared experiences
among people of diverse backgrounds, and it
contributes to the fragmentation of the greater
community (Vesselinov 2008).

Major types Common factors C for community

1. Lifestyle communities- recreational facilities + 1. Sense of community • a loss of community in modern life, or “the
amenities+ shared services 2. Exclusion great emptiness” (McIver, 1962)
2. Prestige communities- symbols of wealth and 3. Privatization • instead of interacting with different kinds of
status 4. Stability people, who nevertheless are still a part of
one’s community, living today in segregated
3. Security communities- “enclaves of fear” and isolated enclaves diminishes social life
primarily concerned with protection
• As communities turn inward, motivated by
security and other social needs, do the
residents find what they seek?
 Pros and cons Quality of living Where lies the conflict?
Major advantages Major disadvantages • Townships and gated communities are • Displacement of working class
• Security • Social exclusion generally represented as symbols of residential • Creates mixed neighborhoods, but only in the
• Well maintained facilities • Social fragmentation development in urban areas initial periods of the gentrifying process
• Urban segregation
• Residential development is portrayed as • Speculations lead to financialization of housing
• Privacy within privacy
a. One with mobility dependent on cars units
b. Safety is segregation • It remains a continuous process followed by re-
c. Spaces for cars than people gentrification and even super gentrification

Redefine/redesign urban living Key terms

• Mobility based on walkability • Migration- movement of people across boundaries
• Security through community ownership and • Ethnicity- A shared culture and way of life reflected
Lecture series in language, religion, material culture and cultural
participation products
HSS F371 • Xenophobia- Fear of foreigners
• People oriented spaces
Immigration and ethnicity • Settlers- Immigrants with intention of staying at the
destination
• Sojourners- Immigrants with intention to work for
some time and then return
 Key terms Mobility transition theory- Zelinsky (1971) Mobility transition theory- Zelinsky (1971)

• Acculturation- process through which a person or •

•
Phase 1
Pre- • Little residential migration
modern
group from one culture comes to adopt the traditio
nal
society
practices and values of another culture, while still • Phase 2
• Massive rural to urban migration
• Movement of rural folk towards colonization frontiers
retaining their own distinct culture • Early
Transiti
onal
• Increased emigration
society

• Assimilation-process by which different cultural • Phase 3

• Slackening, but still major movement from rural to urban
• Less flow towards colonial frontiers
groups become more and more alike. When full • Late
transiti
onal
• Emigration on decline

assimilation is complete, there is no distinguishable Society

• Reduced rural to urban migration

difference between the formerly different groups •
•
Phase 4
Advanc
• Increased urban to urban migration
ed • Immigration of unskilled and semi skilled workers
society

• Phase 5 • All residential migration in urban to urban

• Super
advanc
ed
society

Structural determinants of migration Migration strategies Economics of migration

6 months
1. Circular migration Origin
Rural push factors Urban pull factors Destination

• Population growth rates • Wage and employment 2. Long term migration 6 months
• Pressure on land differentials 3. Family migration
• Land quality • Future prospects 4. Return migration
Destination Origin
• Agricultural inefficiency • Bright lights
5. Reverse migration

Destination Origin
 Major policy responses to migration Class activity Push factor- low
income
Pull factor-Better
income opportunities

1. Negative- emphasis on undesirability of • Construct a flow diagram depicting the rural- urban Utility

migrants migration process in a Third world country

Hints: Decision- yes Decision-no
2. Accommodative- accept the migrants as
1. Assume yourself to be a rural resident considering
inevitable a move to the city. Flow of information Circular migration

3. Manipulative- Accepts but also seeks to 2. List the major push and pull factors Rural Urban contacts
redirect the flow to alternative destinations 3. Consider the nature of migration Probability of finding
Male migration

a job
4. Preventive- Attempt to confront the root 4. Identify the linkages between the different factors
Cost of living and
cause transportation

Cities and migration Cities and migration Industrial revolution and migration
• Migration is inevitable for cities to grow • Capitalism and colonialism triggered more • Industrial jobs in cities demanded more labour
• Capitalism played the pivotal role for cities to diversified forms of migration, all of these and this paved the way for migration to the
transform and also compelled people to move were not urban bound cities
to the cities • Europeans settled in colonies • Industrial jobs were also liberating for the rural
• Ancient cities of Europe (12th century) • Slave trade is one of the significant forms that peasants, who were oppressed by the semi
encountered migration that was triggered by brought Old world and New world closer feudal structure of the rural areas
the feudal system
• The migration in urban areas became
• People fled to cities to escape the servitude of
the feudal system in the rural areas prominent during the Industrial Revolution
 World View of Migration Immigration in the USA Three waves of migration
Total number of international migrants at 271.6 million
mid-year
(UN DESA, 2019)
• Before 1800, equal proportions of immigrants 1. 1860 – 1890- immigrants came from Northern
International migrant stock as a 3.5 % lived in cities and countryside European nations, Germany, the UK and
percentage of the total population at mid-
year • Since 1800, immigrants in cities have increased Scandinavia
(UN DESA, 2019)
Share of female migrants in the 47.9%
in number 2. 1900- 1924- the dominant sending countries
international migrant stock at mid-year
• Major attractions were cities in the were Italy, Austria- Hungary and Russia
(UN DESA, 2019)
Share of international migrants 19 13.9 % industrializing regions- New England, Mid 3. Since 1965- mostly Asian and Latin American
years and younger living in the country/
region at mid-year Atlantic and the North Central States countries namely Mexico, India, China, the
(UN DESA, 2019) Philippines and Russia
Share of international migrants 65 years 11.8
and older at mid-year
(UN DESA, 2019)
Source: [Link]

Rural to urban migration in developing What is ethnicity? How is it different

countries from race?
Ethnic identification
• driven by differences in labor market • Race is socially defined • Ethnicity is a socially • Ethnic identification is the extent to which an
outcomes between destination and origin category based on real defined category based individual identifies himself or herself as a
areas or perceived biological on social and cultural member of a certain group
differences differences
• driven by differences in amenities between • Initial immigrants were expected to blend into
• Race is based on • Ethnicity is based on the local culture, acculturation, and forget
destination and origin areas physical appearances language, religion, their original cultural traits, assimilation
• rise in involuntary migration due to climate like hair color and nationality, history and
change, wars and conflicts texture and skin color other cultural factors • Contemporary immigrants demand their own
cultural identity and create their unique social
institutions that serve their group
 Ethnic solidarity Ethnic neighborhoods and enclaves Nature of work for the immigrants
• It is the extent to which a group thinks of itself • Immigrants choose to live within their own • Immigrants have broad range of skill and educational
community, in the form of neighborhoods or background when they enter the cities
as a whole, organizes itself and acts in a unified • A large proportion of immigrants prefer to be self employed,
enclaves
way owner of small businesses, because
• These neighborhood have their own specializations, 1. They can provide market for culturally specific goods and
• Maintenance of close ties with the home in terms of business and organizations services that are unavailable within wider communities
country by various means is the how the • These enclaves are have economic significance, 2. It protects then from discrimination in general labour market
where only their members are engaged 3. They can earn more by working more in their own specific
solidarity is maintained ways, so more freedom
• These economic enclaves provide better economic
opportunities for the immigrants, especially the 4. They often employ people from their own communities,
more reliable over others
new comers

Where lies the conflict? Right to city

1. Do they capture the jobs meant for the Which right? Which city
natives? • Of space • The existing city or the
Lecture series • Of services right to a future city
• Immigrants take the jobs left by other immigrants. • A city or a holistic urban
• These are low paid jobs
HSS F371 • Of time
society
• Of visibility
• Sometimes, ethnic community itself provides job • Of participation and • A city without evictions
Right to the city and urban poor and displacement of the
opportunities appropriation
marginalized
2. Rise in ethnic segregation in the cities • A moral claim based on
fundamental principle of
3. Rise in ethnic violence in cities justice, ethics, morality,
values
 Right to city World Charter on the Right to the City in 2005 ARTICLE I. THE RIGHT TO THE CITY cont..

• First conceptualized by French philosopher Henri ARTICLE I. THE RIGHT TO THE CITY 2. The Right to the City is defined as the equable enjoyment of the
Lefebvre in 1967 in the book Le Droit à la ville (The cities while respecting the principles of sustainability, democracy and
social justice, and is a collective right of all city inhabitants especially
Right to the City) 1. Everyone has a right to the city without discrimination of the vulnerable and disfavoured on whom is further conferred legality
• “the right to the city is like a cry and a demand… a gender, age, race, ethnicity, political and religious orientation for such actions and organization as their culture and custom suggests
transformed and renewed right to urban life.” as a means of achieving the complete enjoyment of the right to an
and preserving cultural memory and identity, in accordance adequate standard of living. The Right to the City is interdependent to
• A common framework for articulating alternative with the principles and norms established herein. all recognised international human rights; and its conception is based
visions of the city on an integral view, which includes civil, political, economic, social,
cultural and environmental rights enshrined in the international Human
• New Urban Agenda adopted in the UN Conference Rights Treaties. It includes also the right to liberty of association and
on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development organisation; the respect for minorities and racial, ethnic, sexual and
(Habitat III) held in Quito, Ecuador in 2016 cultural plurality; respect for immigrants; and the guarantee of
preservation of historical and cultural heritages.

ARTICLE I. THE RIGHT TO THE CITY cont.. ARTICLE I. THE RIGHT TO THE CITY cont.. Related questions
3. The city is a rich and diversified cultural space that 3. For the purpose of this Charter, the denomination • What do you think of the word POVERTY?
belongs to all the inhabitants. of City is given to any town, village, city, capital,
4. The cities in co-responsibility with the National States, locality, suburb, settlement or similar which is • What does poverty look like, in cities?
commit themselves to adopt measures to maximum institutionally organised as a local unit of • Who lives in poverty?
extent possible with the resources available, and take Municipal or Metropolitan Government, and
all appropriate steps, in particularly by legislative includes the urban, rural and semi-rural portions
• Where do we see poverty?
measures, to progressively make more fully effective of its territory. • How do people end up living in poverty?
the enjoyment of universal economic, social, cultural
4. For the purpose of the Charter, citizens are all
and environmental rights, without in any way altering
the essential minimum content of these rights.
persons who live in the city either permanently or
in transit.
 Nature of deprivation What is poverty? Theories of deprivations
Low pay Dereliction Theory Explanation Location
• Absolute poverty vs. relative poverty
Homelessness Poverty Delinquency Culture of Poverty Problems arising from Internal dynamics of deviant
• Absolute Poverty is used to describe a condition internal pathologies of behavior
Poor
segregation
where an individual does not have the financial deviant group
Schooling Transmitted deprivation Problems arising from Relationships between
means to obtain commodities to sustain life. individual psychological families, individuals and
Vandalism Multiple
• Relative Poverty refers to the standard of living
Unemployment
handicaps and inadequacies groups
deprivation
transmitted from one
Stigmatization
Poor compared to economic standards of living within generation to the next
services
One
the same surroundings. Institutional malfunction Problems arising from Relationship between
Powerlessnes failures of planning, disadvantaged and
s
Crime parent
management and bureaucracy
families
administration
Structural class conflict Problems arising due to class Relationship between
Poor
Ill health divide working class and political
housing
and economic structure

Dimensions of multiple deprivation Poverty among urban ethic communities Does urbanization cause poverty?
Juvenile delinquency
• Cri Historical reasons for Discrimination in the • The process of proleterianization- the extent to
m Gangs
e
migration
Hazardous
health care system which an individual’s subsistence depends upon a
Petty crimes employment
Poor health
cash wage
Discrimination in labour
Feminization
market Stress • Transition from a situation where an individual’s
of poverty • Multipl
• He
Housing Unemployment subsistence depends upon household consumption
e Low pay
Women lead
• Gen
alt Health Low income Poor housing and production of agriculture and food to one
der • depriva
households
tion
h services Discrimination in where subsistence depends upon wage labour with
Status of Basic education system which to purchase food.
single women infrastructures Low
Migrants • Et Low take up
for benefits
community • Urban problems, such as crime, unemployment and
hni participation poor housing are really problems created by
Discrimination c Discrimination in social
Low pressure
Discrimination in the capitalism’s failure to address basic needs.
sta security system housing system
Exclusion for change
tus
 Urban poverty in the West Urban poverty Urban poverty in the third world
• The urban poor face challenges of low skills, low wages,
unemployment and under-employment, a lack of social insurance
Inner city decay- components Inner city decay- Outer city problems and unsatisfactory working conditions

1. Economic decline and unemployment 1. The physical dereliction • Outcome of redevelopment • The heavy reliance on the cash economy means that the urban poor
and absence of amenities- programmes and are particularly vulnerable to shocks
associated with industrial decline and older neighborhoods suburbanization • The majority of the urban poor work in the informal sector
tertiarization- the rise of the underclass 2. Social disadvantages to the characterized by relatively poor working conditions, lack of social
• Overcrowding insurance, operating outside the legal system, and is more vulnerable
economically derived as
• Myrdal coined the term the underclass to well as socio-culturally • Unemployment to economic fluctuations
define “ those poor (Americans) who were deprived sections of the • Large scale Unemployment and underemployment in urban areas
inner city • Feminization of labour in urban areas
forced to the margins or out of the labour 3. Concentration of ethnic • Child labour in urban areas
market by the post industrial society minorities in the inner city
leading to discrimination

Why poverty in urban areas needs

Living condition- slums Issues related to Slums attention?
• The poor tend to spend a higher proportion of total 1. insecure public or private land 1. The Importance of Position within and Access (both
consumption on housing than the rural poor, a Social and Physical) to Labour Markets
result of the higher land values in cites 2. constant risk of eviction
2. The Ability of the Informal Sector to Absorb the
• Informal settlements – slums 3. hampers them from building up assets and Unemployed is Limited
• Definition- ‘a group of individuals living under the accessing credit 3. A Greater Vulnerability to Changes in Market Conditions
same roof in an urban area with at least one of the 4. A Tendency for the Urban Poor to pay more for Services
following four basic shelter deprivations: lack of 4. inhibits using one’s home for income
access to improved water supply; lack of access to generating activities 5. Fewer “Coping Strategies”
improved sanitation; overcrowding (three or more 6. The Individualized and Private Nature which affect
persons per room); and dwellings made of 5. does not allow for investments in service Individuals rather than Communities
nondurable material provision 7. A Greater Exposure to Environmental Risks
 How to Select Public Actions to Address
Urban Poverty
Brainstroming
1. Reducing social inequality • Are we underestimating urban poverty?
2. Supporting local economic development-
employment creation, physical infrastructure Lecture series HSSF371
and shelter improvements.
3. Mitigating the impacts of disasters Cities and environment
4. Providing adequate public support in terms of
health, education, housing and infrastructure

Urbanization and ecosystem Urban ecology Urban ecosystems

• Urbanization also represents a human • Study of human dominated ecosystem, i.e. • Can cities and towns be considered as
ecological transformation cities ecosystems?
• Urbanization marks a shift in the human spatial • It deals with the environment of people living • Urban ecosystems apply the ecosystem
and material relationship with nature in towns and cities, and the associated approach to urban areas
• Cities also play ecological roles as nodes of 'environmental problems' such as water, air
and soil pollution • Dynamic ecosystems that have similar
material and energy consumption interactions and behaviors as natural
• Economy is a subsystem of the ecosystem • It is concerned with the distribution and ecosystems
abundance of plants and animals in towns and
• Humans have biological metabolism as well as
industrial metabolism cities
 Are cities part of or different from
Urban ecosystem nature?
• Urban ecosystems are a hybrid of natural and
man-made elements whose interactions are
Built
affected not only by the natural environment, environment
but also culture, personal behavior, politics, Socio-
Natural
economics and social organization environment
economic
environment

Urban
ecosystem

Urban ecosystem Urban metabolism

• The sum total of the technical and socio-
economic processes that occur in cities,
resulting in growth, production of energy and
elimination of waste (Kennedy et al, 2007)
• It views cities as living organisms that consume
energy resources and produce waste as end
products (emissions)
• It also views cities as ecosystems with inputs,
throughputs and outputs.
 Conceptual framework City as an organism Linear metabolism- unsustainable
• cities are likened to a human body

Energy, water, materials, people and information wastes

Circular metabolism sustainable Ecological footprint

Household
use • Carrying capacity is usually defined as the
Socio-political and
socio-ecological dynamics maximum population of a given species that can
Commercial be supported indefinitely in a defined habitat
Waste

Water Water
use
water without permanently impairing the productivity of
treatment
source
purificatio
n plant
Industrial
plant that habitat
wastes
use
• Ecological footprint is the impact of human
Energy, water, materials, people and information
activities measured in terms of the area of
Agricultural
use biologically productive land and water required to
Reuse and recycle produce the goods consumed and to assimilate the
Green
space
wastes generated
 Demand vs. Supply Ecological footprint of cities Urban heat islands
Demand side Supply side • Wealthy cities and communities prosper by • Climate system in cities is warming faster than the
appropriating the carrying capacity of an area rural areas
• Ecological footprint • Bio-capacity- the
productivity of ecological vastly larger than the spaces they physically • An urban heat island, or UHI, is a metropolitan
assets of any region area that's a lot warmer than the rural areas
occupy surrounding it.
• Depends on the site and situation of the cities • Heat is created by energy from all the people, cars,
Both are measured in global hectares as well as the hinterland buses, and trains in big cities like New York, Paris,
and London.
• Initially hinterlands supported cities, now cities
If a population’s Ecological Footprint exceeds the region’s bio-capacity,
can draw resources from outside the • Urban heat islands are created in areas like these:
that region runs an ecological deficit
places that have lots of activity and lots of people
hinterland (trade and commerce)
If a region’s biocapacity exceeds its Ecological Footprint, it has an ecological reserve.
Source: [Link]

Urban heat island profile Urban heat island Cities and climate change
• The centres of megacities may be typically • Urban areas are both greatly affected by the
7-10 o C warmer than rural areas, while the impacts of climate change
centres of medium-sized cities are typically 4-6 • Cities are the major contributors to the
o C warmer than rural areas and the centres of emission of greenhouse gases
small cities typically 1-3 o C warmer than rural
• Urban areas are responsible for up to 70% of
areas global anthropogenic greenhouse gas
• It is closely associated with increased energy emissions- burning of fossil fuels
consumption in cities and lack of vegetation
Source: Frumkin, 2002
 Cities and climate change How cities can adapt to climate change? Climate resilience and equity
• According to UN Habitat, cities consume 78 per cent of • Climate change mitigation and adaptation • Urban residents have differential vulnerabilities driven by
the world’s energy and produce more than 60 per cent of 1. differing levels of physical exposure;
greenhouse gas emissions. strategies must be a significant element in 2. urban development processes that have created a range of
• However, they account for less than 2 per cent of the urban planning and design taking into account built-in risks, such access to critical infrastructure and urban
services;
Earth’s surface local conditions 3. social characteristics that influence the allocation of
• According to the IPCC report, limiting global warming to
1.5 degrees Celsius would “require rapid and far-reaching • Modification the form and layout of buildings resources for adaptation; and
4. access to power, institutions, and governance
transitions in uses of energy, land, urban and and urban districts
infrastructure (including transport and buildings), and
industrial systems.” • Increasing the vegetative cover in a city Climate change amplifies vulnerability and hampers adaptive
capacity, especially for the poor, women, the elderly, children,
• The effects of climate change are worse among poor and and ethnic minorities.
low-income communities

Possible solution towards climate justice Sea level rise and coastal cities Coastal cities across globe
1. participation by impacted communities and • Sea levels have risen globally by around 15cm during • About four out of every five people impacted by
the 20th century sea-level rise by 2050 will live in East or South East
the involvement of civil society;
• Presently it is rising more than twice as fast – 3.6mm Asia
2. non-traditional sources of finance, including per year • More than 90 US coastal cities are already
partnerships with the private sector; and • Extreme sea level events that are historically rare will experiencing chronic flooding – a number that is
become common by 2100 expected to double by 2030
3. adherence to the principle of transparency in • Coastal cities are vulnerable to sea level rise • About three-quarters of all European cities will be
spending, monitoring, and evaluation. • 13 percent of the world’s total urban land mass is affected by rising sea levels
located in low-elevation coastal zones 1 • Delta cities- Dhaka, Guangzhou, Ho Chi Minh City,
• By 2050 at least 570 cities and some 800 million people Hong Kong, Manila, Melbourne, Miami, New
will be exposed to rising seas and storm surges2 Orleans, New York, Rotterdam, Tokyo and Venice
Source: 1 [Link]
2 [Link]
 Extreme climate events in cities Possible solutions Urban governance and climate change

• Extreme storms- increased frequency from • Preparing for a new normal • There is lack of comprehensive national climate
once every century to once every year change policy in most countries.
• Early warning system in cities • Various governmental and non-governmental actors
• Extreme rainfall events- as evident from the • Policies for disaster management- both pre are taking action to address climate change
recent happenings in Indian cities like Mumbai, and post • Governance challenges often contribute to gaps
Bengaluru and Chennai between the climate commitments that cities make
• Green buildings and increased urban greenery and the effectiveness of their actions
• Other events like wild fire and droughts to reduce the impact of urban heat islands • Governance capacity to respond to climate change
varies widely within and between low- and high-
• Use technological support to minimize income cities
damage, risk and vulnerability

Key terms Gendered urban spaces

• Gender refers to the roles, behaviours, activities, • Gender is present in the processes, practices,
attributes and opportunities that any society images and ideologies and distribution of power in
Lecture series considers appropriate for girls and boys, and the various sectors of social life (Acker, 1992)
women and men (WHO) • Major question
HSS F371 • Gender interacts with, but is different from, the 1. Do women and men experience the city
binary categories of biological sex (WHO) differently? If yes, how?
Women and elderly in the cities • Gender is socially constructed role of individual (sex 2. How do their spatial locations, activities and
is biologically determined aspect of individual) preferences differ?
• Gendered spaces- how differences in gender status 3. Do the cities cater to the differential needs of men
result in organization of space and women equally?
 Women and urban spaces Gendered cities Gendered cities
• Cities are androcentric (not gender neutral) • Women use and experience cities differently 2. They use basic services differently
• Inequality is visible in- than men
1. Access of public services 1. Unique travel behavior
2. Access to workspace and public spaces
3. Access to public transportation

Source: [Link]
how-women-move-in-urban-transport-planning

Gendered cities Some more questions

3. Sexual violence and harassment 1. Do women from different groups experience
the city differently? If yes, how?
2. How can the cities serve the women better-
design, planning, structure and social?

Source: [Link]
 Cities for all genders Elderly and the cities Elderly and the cities
• Vienna- Fair shared city • Two major shifts happening at global level • Cities need to pay more attention to local
City of short distances Sustainable transport 1. Demographic shift- more people are shifting in the circumstances to understand ageing, and its
elderly cohort impact
2. Urban shift- more people are shifting to the urban
areas • ‘Designing policies that address ageing issues
Equity in access for women In OECD countries, the population share of those 65 years and over requires a deep understanding of local
increased from 7.7% in 1950 to 17.8% in 2010, and is expected to reach circumstances, including communities’
Realized measures- street crossings, pedestrian 25% in 2050
economic assets, history and culture’
friendly street lights, enlarged pavements, lighting,
barrier free pavements, more seating arrangements Nearly half of the world's population now living in cities, this is set to
increase to around two thirds by 2030

Elderly population use and experience cities in a

different way than the younger population
Elderly and the cities Elderly and the cities
1. The elderly tend to be relatively less mobile • The elderly are more likely to stay within the • Need special services and requirements
than younger people local areas
 Age friendly cities and communities Major factors
Transport
Outdoor space Public space • To develop supportive urban communities for 1. the global impact of demographic change,
the elderly with a range of housing and community
Semi public space
• Initiated by World health Organization in 2007 needs emerging among the elderly
Semi private space
• in 2010 the WHO launched the ‘Global 2. the policy goal of supporting people in their
Network of Age-friendly Cities’ in an attempt own homes for as long as possible — the idea
Accessible/walkable
Housing
Private space
to encourage implementation of policy of ‘ageing in place’
recommendations from the 2007 project 3. awareness of the impact of urban change on
the lives of older people

Define age friendliness Where lies the conflict? Who are affected and how?
• ‘Cities are, for the most part, spaces that are Who? How?
imagined and structured with a younger, working • Elderly population in • Social exclusion
age demographic in mind general • Loneliness
• Older people are not, typically, incorporated into • Elderly population who are • Inactivity
the mainstream of thinking and planning around economically deprived
urban environments’ • Elderly population in lesser
• Withdrawal of the welfare state has directly led to neighborhoods
reduction in services of direct benefit to the elderly- • Elderly population in
like closing down of public libraries and lowering of gentrified neighborhoods
funding in elderly provisions
 Major challenges and recommendation Time to think
Challenges Recommendations How to make a city ideal for children?
1. Impacts of financial cut on 1. Developing a more coherent
social programmes link between research and

2. Pressures of urban
policies on urban ageing Lecture series HSSF371
2. Reorganization of the
development complexity of the urban
environment
3. Privatization of public
space
3. Close engagement of older Cities and environment
people and those
approaching old age in urban
regeneration
4. A seniors' lens is applied in
planning decisions and
policies

Source: Buffel and Phillipson, 2016

Urbanization and ecosystem Urban ecology Urban ecosystems

• Urbanization also represents a human • Study of human dominated ecosystem, i.e. • Can cities and towns be considered as
ecological transformation cities ecosystems?
• Urbanization marks a shift in the human spatial • It deals with the environment of people living • Urban ecosystems apply the ecosystem
and material relationship with nature in towns and cities, and the associated approach to urban areas
• Cities also play ecological roles as nodes of 'environmental problems' such as water, air
and soil pollution • Dynamic ecosystems that have similar
material and energy consumption interactions and behaviors as natural
• Economy is a subsystem of the ecosystem • It is concerned with the distribution and ecosystems
abundance of plants and animals in towns and
• Humans have biological metabolism as well as
industrial metabolism cities
 Are cities part of or different from
Urban ecosystem nature?
• Urban ecosystems are a hybrid of natural and
man-made elements whose interactions are
Built
affected not only by the natural environment, environment
but also culture, personal behavior, politics, Socio-
Natural
economics and social organization environment
economic
environment

Urban
ecosystem

Urban ecosystem Urban metabolism

• The sum total of the technical and socio-
economic processes that occur in cities,
resulting in growth, production of energy and
elimination of waste (Kennedy et al, 2007)
• It views cities as living organisms that consume
energy resources and produce waste as end
products (emissions)
• It also views cities as ecosystems with inputs,
throughputs and outputs.
 Conceptual framework City as an organism Linear metabolism- unsustainable
• cities are likened to a human body

Energy, water, materials, people and information wastes

Circular metabolism sustainable Ecological footprint

Household
use • Carrying capacity is usually defined as the
Socio-political and
socio-ecological dynamics maximum population of a given species that can
Commercial be supported indefinitely in a defined habitat
Waste

Water Water
use
water without permanently impairing the productivity of
treatment
source
purificatio
n plant
Industrial
plant that habitat
wastes
use
• Ecological footprint is the impact of human
Energy, water, materials, people and information
activities measured in terms of the area of
Agricultural
use biologically productive land and water required to
Reuse and recycle produce the goods consumed and to assimilate the
Green
space
wastes generated
 Demand vs. Supply Ecological footprint of cities Urban heat islands
Demand side Supply side • Wealthy cities and communities prosper by • Climate system in cities is warming faster than the
appropriating the carrying capacity of an area rural areas
• Ecological footprint • Bio-capacity- the
productivity of ecological vastly larger than the spaces they physically • An urban heat island, or UHI, is a metropolitan
assets of any region area that's a lot warmer than the rural areas
occupy surrounding it.
• Depends on the site and situation of the cities • Heat is created by energy from all the people, cars,
Both are measured in global hectares as well as the hinterland buses, and trains in big cities like New York, Paris,
and London.
• Initially hinterlands supported cities, now cities
If a population’s Ecological Footprint exceeds the region’s bio-capacity,
can draw resources from outside the • Urban heat islands are created in areas like these:
that region runs an ecological deficit
places that have lots of activity and lots of people
hinterland (trade and commerce)
If a region’s biocapacity exceeds its Ecological Footprint, it has an ecological reserve.
Source: [Link]

Urban heat island profile Urban heat island Cities and climate change
• The centres of megacities may be typically • Urban areas are both greatly affected by the
7-10 o C warmer than rural areas, while the impacts of climate change
centres of medium-sized cities are typically 4-6 • Cities are the major contributors to the
o C warmer than rural areas and the centres of emission of greenhouse gases
small cities typically 1-3 o C warmer than rural
• Urban areas are responsible for up to 70% of
areas global anthropogenic greenhouse gas
• It is closely associated with increased energy emissions- burning of fossil fuels
consumption in cities and lack of vegetation
Source: Frumkin, 2002
 Cities and climate change How cities can adapt to climate change? Climate resilience and equity
• According to UN Habitat, cities consume 78 per cent of • Climate change mitigation and adaptation • Urban residents have differential vulnerabilities driven by
the world’s energy and produce more than 60 per cent of 1. differing levels of physical exposure;
greenhouse gas emissions. strategies must be a significant element in 2. urban development processes that have created a range of
• However, they account for less than 2 per cent of the urban planning and design taking into account built-in risks, such access to critical infrastructure and urban
services;
Earth’s surface local conditions 3. social characteristics that influence the allocation of
• According to the IPCC report, limiting global warming to
1.5 degrees Celsius would “require rapid and far-reaching • Modification the form and layout of buildings resources for adaptation; and
4. access to power, institutions, and governance
transitions in uses of energy, land, urban and and urban districts
infrastructure (including transport and buildings), and
industrial systems.” • Increasing the vegetative cover in a city Climate change amplifies vulnerability and hampers adaptive
capacity, especially for the poor, women, the elderly, children,
• The effects of climate change are worse among poor and and ethnic minorities.
low-income communities

Possible solution towards climate justice Sea level rise and coastal cities Coastal cities across globe
1. participation by impacted communities and • Sea levels have risen globally by around 15cm during • About four out of every five people impacted by
the 20th century sea-level rise by 2050 will live in East or South East
the involvement of civil society;
• Presently it is rising more than twice as fast – 3.6mm Asia
2. non-traditional sources of finance, including per year • More than 90 US coastal cities are already
partnerships with the private sector; and • Extreme sea level events that are historically rare will experiencing chronic flooding – a number that is
become common by 2100 expected to double by 2030
3. adherence to the principle of transparency in • Coastal cities are vulnerable to sea level rise • About three-quarters of all European cities will be
spending, monitoring, and evaluation. • 13 percent of the world’s total urban land mass is affected by rising sea levels
located in low-elevation coastal zones 1 • Delta cities- Dhaka, Guangzhou, Ho Chi Minh City,
• By 2050 at least 570 cities and some 800 million people Hong Kong, Manila, Melbourne, Miami, New
will be exposed to rising seas and storm surges2 Orleans, New York, Rotterdam, Tokyo and Venice
Source: 1 [Link]
2 [Link]
 Extreme climate events in cities Possible solutions Urban governance and climate change

• Extreme storms- increased frequency from • Preparing for a new normal • There is lack of comprehensive national climate
once every century to once every year change policy in most countries.
• Early warning system in cities • Various governmental and non-governmental actors
• Extreme rainfall events- as evident from the • Policies for disaster management- both pre are taking action to address climate change
recent happenings in Indian cities like Mumbai, and post • Governance challenges often contribute to gaps
Bengaluru and Chennai between the climate commitments that cities make
• Green buildings and increased urban greenery and the effectiveness of their actions
• Other events like wild fire and droughts to reduce the impact of urban heat islands • Governance capacity to respond to climate change
varies widely within and between low- and high-
• Use technological support to minimize income cities
damage, risk and vulnerability

Key terms
• Globalization- the development of an increasingly The seeming concreteness of cities is an illusion
integrated global economy marked especially by free
Lecture series trade, free flow of capital, and the tapping of cheaper
foreign labor markets (Merriam Webster) Cities are products of activities and social
HSSF371 • New International division of labor-refers to social and processes
spatial changes in the demand for and organization of
Globalization and cities labor that began during the late 1960s, when patterns
of investment and production shifted from being The rise and fall of greater cities involve their
organized primarily at the national scale to being
organized primarily at the global scale. relationships and interaction with their
hinterland and beyond
 Nature of the cities Wallenstein's world system theory (1974) World system expands
• The great cities of the world are cosmopolitan 1. Social changes are related to the functioning of the • Initial world system was confined within
places world system, that internal systems of the cities Europe ( nearly 500 years ago)
2. This world system is a capitalist world system,
• Cities have command over greater areas- their based on competition among capitalist firms and • Presently it has become more global
hinterland nations states • It has become more institutionalized
• The cities are linked to network of cities, that 3. They compete in market and geopolitically for • This arrangement leads to global disparity
are regional, national or global in reach dominance (so there are winners and losers)
4. This leads to a geographical hierarchy- core,
• The system of cities are hierarchical in nature periphery and semi periphery

The measure of world cityness

World cities World cities
• Hall and Geddes defined world cities as ‘certain great • Friedmann’s and Sassen’s relate world cities to 1. Presence of any financial institutions
cities in which a quite disproportionate part of the
world’s most important business is conducted’ (1966: 1) contemporary world economy 2. Headquarter of TNCs
• Major features: • They view such cities as nodes in regional and 3. Headquarter of international institution
1. Major centre of political power worldwide urban hierarchies corresponding to
2. National centre of trade or site of major port,
4. Growth of business sector
the ‘new international division of labor’
international airports, or banking and finance centre 5. Presence of manufacturing sector]
3. Hub of all professional expertise • Cities are the places in which corporate power
resides and is exercised 6. Presence of transportation node
4. Centre of knowledge, research and education
5. Home of the global affluents 7. Size of population
 World cities 1986 classification General agreements on world cities
1. Global cities serve as the organizing nodes of the
global economic system
2. Areas of subsistence economies do not fall in the
system
3. These are characterized by large population, and
frequent and dense socio-economic interaction
1995 classification 4. These are hierarchically and systematically
arranged and rearranged owing to the competitive
nature of global capitalism
5. These cities represent the transnational capitalist
class

New enigma Global cities Global cities

TNCs have dispersed many economic activities • Contemporary world economy is largely influenced by • Put forward by Saskia Sassen
information technologies and the mobility and liquidity • According to her, global cities are:
that were once geographically concentrated; yet of capital
economic control continues to be concentrated 1. Key locations of finance and specialized service firms,
• Initial cross border economic processes were largely which have replaced manufacturing as the leading
spatially and organizationally. nation state oriented
economic services;
• These processes have undergone transformation owing
Why? to processes like privatization, liberalization and 2. Site of production, including the production of
Why haven’t the cities faded away with globalization innovation, in leading industries
• Nation states are slowly losing their place to other 3. Highly concentrated command points in the
widespread decentralization, post spatial units, like cities and regions, cross border regions organization of the world economy
industrialization and globalization? and supra- national entities like global trade blocks 4. Markets for the products and innovation produced

Source, Sassen, 2005

 The global city model: Organizing The global city model: Organizing The global city model: Organizing
hypothesis hypothesis hypothesis
1. The geographic dispersal of economic 2. These central functions become so complex 3. Those specialized service firms engaged in the
activities that marks globalization, along with that increasingly the headquarters of large most complex and globalized markets are
the simultaneous integration of such global firms outsource them: they buy a share of subject to agglomeration economies
geographically dispersed activities, is a key their central functions from highly specialized
factor feeding the growth and importance of service firms—accounting, legal, public relations, • Mix of firms, expertise and talent forms a
central corporate functions. programming, telecommunications, and other vibrant urban environment- an information
such services loop
• Central corporate functions- works of
managing, coordinating, servicing, financing • Specialized firms are hired/ contracted to
etc. produce these central functions

The global city model: Organizing The global city model: Organizing The global city model: Organizing
hypothesis hypothesis hypothesis
4. The more headquarters outsource their most 5. These specialized service firms need to 6. The growing numbers of high level
complex, unstandardized functions, particularly provide a global service which has meant a professionals and high-profit making specialized
those subject to uncertain and changing markets, global network of affiliates or some other service firms has the effect of raising the degree
the freer they are to opt for any location, form of partnership, and as a result we have of spatial and socio-economic inequality evident
because less work actually done in the seen a strengthening of cross border city-to- in these cities
headquarters is subject to agglomeration city transactions and networks
economies. • Formation of transnational urban system
• Global cities get disconnected from their
national economies
 The global city model: Organizing
hypothesis
What is there in the global cities? What is there in the global cities?
7. The growing informalization of a range of • Sassen emphasizes on the practices, place and • Whole infrastructure of activities, firms, and
economic activities that find their effective work process of the capabilities of new jobs which are necessary to run the advanced
demand in these cities yet have profit rates technologies and transnational corporation, besides corporate economy
production
that do not allow them to compete for • Emphasizing place, infrastructure, and non-
various resources with the high-profit making • Sole focus on hypermobility of capital and power of
TNCs make the discussion incomplete
expert jobs matters precisely because so much
firms at the top of the system of the focus has been on the neutralization of
• There are other resources that are place oriented
and are articulated by global cities, city regions and
geography and place made possible by the
other new technologies (Sassen, 2005)

Changing meaning of centrality Sustainable city Other definitions

1. No longer a simple straight forward relation • In 1991, the United Nations Centre for Human • Sustainable cities should meet their “inhabitants’
between centrality and such geographic entities as Settlements (UNCHS) Sustainable Cities development needs without imposing
the downtown unsustainable demands on local or global natural
2. The center can extend into a metropolitan area in Programme attempted to define a sustainable resources and systems” (Satterthwaite, 1992)
the form of a grid of nodes of intense business city as one
• The Habitat Agenda (United Nations, 1997),
activity
• “where achievements in social, economic and adopted by the United Nations Conference on
3. The formation of a trans-territorial “center” Human Settlements (Habitat II) discussed urban
constituted via telematics and intense economic physical development are made to last”
(United Nations Human Settlements sustainability as requiring a harmonious integration
transactions- New York, London, Tokyo, Paris,
Frankfurt, Zurich, Amsterdam, Los Angeles, of economic, social and environmental issues
Programme (UN-Habitat), 2002, p. 6)
Sydney, Hong Kong, among others (8)
Sustainable Development Goals Urban sustainability
• SDG 11 – sustainable cities and urban developments
• Focus areas-
1. access to housing and basic services,
2. sustainable transport system,
3. sustainable urbanization,
4. access to public spaces,
5. sustainable buildings,
6. per capita environmental impact of cities,
7. policies towards climate change, resource efficiency and
disaster risk reduction

Inclusive city What is a SMART city?

• A smart city is an ultra-modern urban area that addresses the
needs of businesses, institutions, and especially citizens
• UN Habitat defines an inclusive city as a city that • “Places where information technology is combined with
promotes growth with equity infrastructure, architecture, everyday objects, and our bodies to
• “It is a place where everyone, regardless of their address social, economic, and environmental problems”
economic means, gender, race, ethnicity or religion, is (Townshend, 2014)
enabled and empowered to fully participate in the • “A smart city is a city seeking to address public issues via
social, economic and political opportunities that cities information and communication technology (ICT)-based
have to offer.” (UN Habitat 2004) solutions on the basis of a multi-stakeholder, municipality based
• The Asian Development Bank has adopted the motto partnership” (European Parliament)
that “Livable Cities are Inclusive Cities”- inclusive cities • Innovative solutions, ICT based, are imperative to address cities’
must be economically, environmentally, and socially social, economic, and environmental effects
sustainable in all urban operations (Steinberg and
Lindfield 2011)
Source: World Source: based on World
Inclusive Cities Approach Paper (2015) Inclusive Cities Approach Paper (2015)
SMART city model